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INDUSTRIAL TRAINING
TABLE OF CONTENT
Sec.
No.
Page
No.
SUBJECT
INTRODUCTION
DEVELOPMENT OF PETROLEUM
PETROLEUM RESERVOIR
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WELLHEAD
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THE WELL
38
WELL COMPLETION
43
49
WORKOVER
54
WELL TESTING
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10
FLUID TREATMENT
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 LIBYA CRUDE OIL PRODUCTION HISTORY:
The search for oil in Libya may be considered the shortest and most successful
in oil exploration history. The first concessions were granted in November
1955, first commercial discovery followed in May 1959 and production
commenced in October 1961.
Initial efforts were concentrated in the Fezzan encourage by Algerian successes
in the polignac basin near the Libyan border. Only minor quantities of oil were
found and after the commercial discovery at Dahra in May 1959 followed by
Zelten in June 1959, emphasis quickly changed to the SIRTE basin area.
In 1971 oil was found offshore in the Gulf of Gabes near the Tunisian border
but no commercial fields have been proved at that time.
1.2 SOC FIELD PRODUCTION OPERATING AREAS
1. ZELTEN PRODUCTION AREA:
This consists of the South Field production wells, and Ralah, Waha,
Wadi and Jebel field production. These fields produce crude oil with
associated gas which is piped to the main Zelten GOSPs for separation of the
oil, gas and water.
The water, after separation is dumped to the Zelten lakes. The oil is metered
and pumped to Brega via a 36" transmission line. The separated gas at various
pressure levels is compressed and separated from produced condensate. The
gas is dehydrated by contact with Tri-Ethylene Glycol (TEG) and enters a 36"
pipeline to Brega LNG plant.
Condensate produced in Zelten is metered and joins the gas in the 36" line to
Brega. A 30" line is also used for condensate storage when operating conditions
are abnormal.
Gas and condensate are also received in Zelten from the Waha Company.
The gas is mainly used for plant fuel and gas lift operations. The condensate is
piped to the 36" gas transmission line to Brega.
Zelten areas also include the North Field operations. These consist of Meghil,
Sorra and Lehib fields. Gas Lift and Wireline operations are also conducted in
the Zelten production fields
In the South field many natural flow and gas lifted wells are piped to field
manifolds and then to the GOSP via single flow-lines.
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2. JEBEL FIELD
This field lies about 40 Km south of Zelten and consists of crude oil &
associated gas producing wells. 24 wells are produced by Gas Lift and a further
7 wells by natural flow.
The pressure of the reservoir is maintained by injection of source water
which is taken from a nearby water table.
The source water is taken from the water table wells by down-hole pumps.
This water is then piped to three gas turbine driven pumps which then deliver it
to the injection wells at over 3000 PSI. Part of this pump discharge flow is
directed to drive the down-hole water-pump turbines. The produced fluids (gas,
oil & water) are piped to the field manifold and on to Zelten GOSP.
In addition to the above field manifolds, a number of nearby wells are piped
directly from the South field areas to the GOSP along individual flowlines.
Zelten GOSP consists of Five (5) separation plants - GOSP 1, 2, 3, 4 & 5.
(The GOSP receive the 3-phase flow from up to 227 wells). All except GOSP
4 are two-stage separation units. GOSP 4 is a medium pressure single stage
separation plant.
From the 2nd stage and GOSP 4 separators, the liquids are further separated in
two more stages - degassing boots and degassing (surge) tanks. The final stage
- the surge tanks - is a 3-phase separation process. Very low pressure surge gas,
oil and water are separated out. The gas is compressed and piped to the gas
plant. The oil is metered and pumped to Brega via the 36" Brega oil line and
the water is pumped to the Zelten lake.
3. MEGHIL FIELD
Meghil plant lies 9 Km north of Zelten and mainly produces nonassociated gas.
However, due to reservoir depletion, some oil is also now being produced from
two wells in East Meghil. This oil production is directed to Zelten GOSP.
The produced non- associated gas from 3 further wells, is fed into the 36"
Brega pipeline after being dehydrated by Glycol. The gas is also piped to Zelten
for back-up fuel supply and other utilities.
Produced condensate is piped to the 36" Brega line or into the 30" condensate
storage line.
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4. SORRA FIELD
Sorra plant lies 25 Km north of Zelten and a single well (PP 6) produces
non-associated gas. This gas is at about 1500 Psi. It is dehydrated by glycol
and mainly piped to Zelten to the gas lift gas distribution system. Some gas is
available to the 36" Brega line as required.
Produced condensate is piped to the 36" Brega line or into the 30" condensate
storage line.
5. LEHIB FIELD
Lehib is a crude oil & associated gas producing field. There are 9 wells
feeding the production to the Lehib plant. The plant consists of 1st & 2nd stage
GOSP and degassing boots and tanks for gas and liquid separation. Boot gas at
8 Psi is compressed in two stages to 45 and 180 Psi and added to the 2nd stage
GOSP gas. The 180 Psi 2nd stage gas is then compressed and added to the 1st
stage H.P. gas at about 425 Psi. The total gas flow is then passed to the
dehydration unit which uses glycol desiccant. Very low pressure gas from the
surge tanks is flared. The dry gas and produced condensate is piped to the 36"
line to Brega and the produced oil to the 36" Brega oil line.
6. HATEIBA
The Hateiba plant receives the flow of Non-associated gas from up to 12
wells.
The plant has six trains of Low Temperature Separation units (LTS).
Separation of water depends on the auto-refrigeration caused by pressure drop
across chokes which produces HYDRATES. The hydrates are liquefied using
hot water circulation which causes the water and condensate to separate. The
water is drained away while the condensate is piped to the 36"gas pipeline to
Brega. The gas is piped to a 30" pipeline to the Petrochemical complex for
ammonia and methanol production with spill-over into the 36" when required.
7. ATTAHADY FIELD
This is the most recently developed field. The field is situated in Sirte basin
about 90 km south of the Brega industrial complex.
At present there are 28 wells, though more may be added in the future.
Attahaddy plant is designed to receive raw gas from up to 45 gas wells.
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The plant consists of two identical trains; each is capable of receiving and
processing 175 MMSCF/D of raw gas from the gas wells.
The field produced the following:
270 MMSCF/D of export gas. (Approximately)
30000 barrels per day of condensate. (Approximately)
BASICALLY THE GAS CONDITIONING FACILITY CONSISTS OF THE
FOLLOWING UNITS:
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10. RAGUBA
Raguba field is a part of SOC operations, it is located 180KM to the south
of EL - BREGA .
It was established in 1959 and was given code E and concession 20 . Its
producing method is natural flow and gas lift. In 1963 the field starts producing
Oil with associated Gas in the rate of 150000 B/D Oil.
The total wells drilled in Raguba Field Area are 103 wells , these wells
consists of :
1. Natural Flow Wells
2. Gas Lift Wells
3. Gas Wells
The main producing Zones in Raguba Field are:
1. Waha &Gargaf Formation, which is Oil Zone..
2. Mabruk formation, which is Gas Zone.
The oil associated with the gas and water are produced from wells with
different pressure amounts. They are gathered in a manifold at GOSP.
The Gas, Oil and Water are separated in GOSP plant, the Water is drained away
to the lake, and the oil is metered and pumped via 20 inch transfer line into the
36-inch. oil transmission line to Brega , and the gas is compressed and
dehydrated by glycol injection and piped to the 36 inch. Brega gas line .
Gas lift facilities are also used in Raguba field .
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2. DEVELOPMENT OF PETROLEUM
2. 1. OCCURRENCE.
There are two generally accepted theories to explain the origin of oil, the
organic and inorganic theories. The inorganic theory holds that hydrogen and
carbon were brought together under great pressure and temperature deep in the
earth to form oil and gas, which then found its way through porous rocks to
collect in natural trap in the underground formation of the earth.
The organic theory, on the other hand presumes that both the hydrogen
and the carbon that make up petroleum came from plants and animals living on
land and in the sea, It is thought that this organic material probably was mostly
former sea and swamp life rather than true land life. Also, it possibly was
mostly the very small, rather than the larger forms of life.
ORGANIC THEORY OF ORIGIN
The organic theory is the explanation most accepted by scientists. The
argument for the organic theory is found in the evidence left in underground
rocks of the earth by ancient seas which through great periods of time have
covered much of the present land area.
Throughout millions of years rivers flowed down to these seas and
carried with them great volumes of mud and sand to be spread out by currents
and tides over the sea bottom near the gradually charging shorelines. Each day
through the sands of new deposits were distributed layer upon layer over the sea
floors.
Under the increasing weight of the accumulating new beds, the ocean
floors slowly sank, so that there was built up the thick series of mud and sand
layers. These sea bottom mud and sands were squeezed by the weight of
thousands of feet of overlying layers of mud and sands and eventually become
what are called sedimentary rooks (the sandstones and shale, and the lime
stones and dolomite).
The large amount of very small plants and animal life, which came into
the sea with the river silts and mud. And possibility much great volume of
similar tiny marine life remains already on the sea bottom is the principal source
material of petroleum according to the organic theory.
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These small organisms, dying, dying and settling to the bottom were later
buried by silt, sealed from the air and further protected from ordinary decay by
salty seawater.
As time went on, pressure, temperature, Bacteria and reactions caused
these remains to change into oil and natural gas.
2. 2. GENERAL COMPOSITION:
Petroleum is a mixture of naturally occurring hydrocarbons, which may
exist in the solid, liquid or gaseous states, depending upon the conditions of
pressure, and temperature to which it subjected.
Virtually all petroleum is produced from the earth in either liquid or
gaseous form and commonly, these materials are referred to as either crude oil
or natural gas, depending upon the state of the hydrocarbon mixture.
Crude oil is the material most sought after of these naturally occurring
hydrocarbons, but natural gas is commonly produced along with the crude oil.
Petroleum consists chemically of approximately 11 to 13 wt% hydrogen and 84
to 87 wt% carbon.
Traces of oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen and helium may be found as impurities
in crude petroleum, hydrogen and carbon combined in various molecular sizes
to form a family of hydrocarbons.
Each hydrocarbon is named for the number of carbon and hydrogen
atoms in its molecule. Hydrocarbons are named using conventional chemical
standards, which are based on Latin language. For example the prefix (meth) in
the name methane indicates the molecules contain one carbon atom.
Fig.1 is a simplified portrayal of a molecule of methane. Table 1 shows
the names, compositions and molecular weight of the first 12 hydrocarbon
family compounds arranged in order of increasing molecular weight.
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=
or
API =
141.5
131.5 + API
141.5
131.5
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3. PETROLEUM RESERVOIRS
3. 1. TYPES OF RESERVOIR ROCK
Petroleum is almost invariably found in sedimentary rock. As layer upon
layer of sediment and animal / vegetable deposits were buried, they were
compressed by the weight of the layers above. Pressure, heat and other factors
(chemical, bacterial and radioactive) changed the organic material into todays
natural gas and oil.
Sedimentary rocks may occurs as loose mud and sand or be hard and
compacted, depending on how much pressure has been exerted and how old the
layers are.
Two types of sedimentary rock of interest in the exploration and
development of petroleum reservoir are carbonate and clastic rocks. Carbonate
rocks were formed when the high temperature and pressure inside the earth
causing inorganic and some organic material to combine into an inorganic rock.
Limestone and dolomite are carbonate rocks in which petroleum is often
discovered.
Clastic rocks were formed when particles of older rocks (particles such as
sand and clay) were cemented together. The cementing material may be clay or
perhaps organic material that was connected to inorganic material.
Sand particles are comparatively large and irregularly shaped remnants of
older rocks which were worn by wind and wave action. When irregularly
shaped and sized sand particles were cemented together, avoid spaces were
created between them. Rock formed this way is called sandstone.
Clay particles are usually extremely small and more regularly shaped.
When these particles are commented, few void spaces exit. Rock formed by
cemented clay particles is called shale and is often almost impervious.
The principle difference between clastic and carbonate rocks is in the
chemical composition of rocks. Carbonate rocks may be dissolved easily by
most acids, while clastic rocks are inert to the action of acid.
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Fig. 2 The arrangement and size of the spheres affects the porosity.
Cubic arrangement can have a maximum porosity of 47.6%.
A rhombohedral arrangement can yield a porosity of 25.9%
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The pores in most porous rock are very small, often about the diameter of
a pencil lead or smaller. Large pores are called vugs. Remember that petroleum
is not found in large open spaces like tanks, but rather in small pores that
difficult to see with the naked eye.
Even if rock has space for liquid and gas, these fluids could never be
recovered if the individual spaces were not connected. Fig.3 indicates the path
oil and gas might take to reach a well.
Fig.3 The flow of petroleum in a reservoir proceeds from one pore to the
next unit the fluid reaches the wellbore
The connection between pores may be in the form of tiny channels,
cracks in the rock, or other pores. As the size of these connection increases, so
does the ease with which liquid and gas may pass from one pore to another. As
the connection size decreases, it becomes more difficult for liquid and gas to
move from one pore to another.
Permeability:
Is the rock characteristic that describes the ease with which liquid and gas
may move through porous rock. High permeability indicates relative ease in
moving through rock, low permeability indicate the opposite. The porosity of
rock, the pore size of connecting channels between pores are all related to
permeability, which is measured in the unit called the darcy.
However, in many rocks the permeability is so low that it is more
convenient to express it in the millidarcy (onethousandth of one darcy).
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In most reservoirs, the average permeability is less than one darcy. Liquid
and gas pass through rock volumes as a result of a difference in pressure. Oil
and gas flow from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas, and permeability is
a way of expressing the resistance (or lack of it) that rock offers to flow. The
material composing porous rock is called the rock matrix, i.e., the inorganic
material of the structure, not the pores or connecting channels.
An interesting characteristic of the rock matrix is its compressibility. The
rock matrix, compressed by millions of tons of rock above, will compress
slightly, perhaps a few inches. Later, as pressure in the reservoir is reduced, the
rock matrix may expand a few thousandths of an inch.
3. 3. RESERVOIR FORMATIONS:
A reservoir is simply a volume of porous rock. Rock that is not porous
cannot store any thing and so cannot be a reservoir. Not all reservoirs contain
petroleum. If the rock formation was not covered by an impervious or
impermeable layer such as shale, petroleum may have never formed or it may
moved to another reservoir over millions of years. Therefore, to contain
petroleum, a reservoir must be bounded on top by a layer of impermeable rock,
which traps the petroleum products.
Petroleum reservoirs are massive rock structures that may be hundreds of
feet thick and cover several square miles. Or, they may be only 10 feet thick and
cover only a few thousand square feet. Depending on porosity and reservoir
size, the amount of petroleum contained may be several thousand to several
million cubic feet.
Before the reservoir can form, four qualifications must be met:
1. A source bed must exist. This is the original layer that contained
the potentially petroleum producing organisms and was submitted
to the proper temperature and pressure.
2. The petroleum from the source rock must accumulate in a reservoir
rock the rock filled with holes and pores so the oil and gas can be
collected (porosity).
3. The reservoir rocks pores must be interconnected so the oil or gas
can move within the rock (permeability).
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Fig.4 Wetting water clings to the rocks, making them water wet
3.4.3. GAS:
Natural gas is always associated with oil in a reservoir. Given proper
conditions of pressure and temperature, the substance will stay in solution
(dissolved) in the oil. When the temperature and pressure are lowered, the gas
comes out of solution. Free gas (gas not in solution) tends to accumulate near
the top of the reservoir.
3. 5. FLUID MIGRATION IN RESERVOIR:
Oil and gas are usually not found where they were formed. Source rocks,
in which the original tissue from the living organisms was trapped, are finegrained and relatively impervious. They rarely hold oil and gas in a thing but
small quantities. Instead, the oil and gas move from the source rock upward
toward the surface.
Some escapes through faults to surface. Large quantities of the oil and
gas never reach the surface, however. They migrate upward until they reach an
impermeable barrier or cap rock and accumulate in place to form a reservoir.
This barrier and the resulting reservoir are called trap. It is possible gas and oil
may migrate from a reservoir that had no trapping structure into a reservoir that
did have such a structure. Thus, petroleum may move from its original reservoir
into a completely different reservoir. Another possibility is that free gas may
migrate out of a reservoir but the oil and solution gas remain. In such cases, it
may appear that two petroleum formations developed.
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Fig.5 Oil, gas and water tend to separate into three layers
These traps were filled by upward migration or movement of oil or gas
(or both) through the porous strata or beds to the location of the trap. Here
further movement was arrested by a combination of the form of the structure
and the seal or cap rock provided by the formation covering the structure. It is
common to find traps, which apparently are big enough to hold larger quantities
of oil or gas that have accumulated, and which remain partially filled with salt
water underneath the oil or gas.
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Fig.8 Salt domes often deform overlying rocks to form traps like the one shown
here
Fig.9 illustrates a porous serpentine plug that has formed a reservoir within
itself by intruding into non-porous surrounding formations.
Fig.9 Serpentine plugs sometimes form reservoirs similar to that shown here.
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Fig.10 Bodies of sand in a non-porous formation often form traps like this one
Fig.11 Limestone formations often have areas of high porosity that form traps
like this one.
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There are two ways water drive can be the primary drive mechanism in a
reservoir.
a. Water is only slightly compressible. Even so, if the volume of an
aquifer is hundreds or thousands of times the size of a petroleum
reservoir, the water causes a significant pressure in the petroleum
reservoir. When large aquifers lie under petroleum reservoir, the
compressed water in the aquifer will exert pressure against the
fluids in the reservoir and causes the fluid to move to the wellbore.
This type of water drive characterized by very low gas production
rates. However, the reservoir pressure dose decline. Recovery from
this type of drive mechanism is low, about 10-15%.
b. Another water drive mechanism occurs when an aquifer receives
its driving energy from an external source. This source may be
another undiscovered petroleum reservoir, a reservoir containing a
gas on an outcrop of the aquifer formation.
Fig.16 shows a discovered petroleum reservoir driven by an aquifer connected
to another reservoir.
Fig.16 Gas cap expansion in a secondary reservoir can push oil by first exerting
pressure on an aquifer
Gas expansion in the secondary reservoir pushed the water through the
aquifer. In turn, the water pushed the fluids in the petroleum reservoir upward
and into a wellbore as shown in fig.17.
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Fig.19 As water is injected into the water bank, the water bank is expands
outward and pushes petroleum ahead towards offsetting production wells.
By carefully selecting the wells used for injection of the wells (injection
rate and pressure), secondary water flood operations can be efficient recovery
techniques. The second secondary recovery technique is the gas injection. Gas
can be compressed and injected into the top of a reservoir to form or supplement
a gas cap.
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Fig.20 Gas may be injected into a gas cap to supplement the reservoir energy
If there is no gas cap in the reservoir, this technique is used to create a
secondary gas cap. As water or gas injection proceeds during a secondary
recovery operation, the gas and water saturations and the relative permeability
change. Thus, some oil and gas is left behind as the gas cap expands or as a
flood front passes. Oil and gas are still in the reservoir when so much gas or
water is being produced that it is no longer feasible to continue secondary
injection.
Recovery under secondary recovery operation is improved over that
during primary recovery operations. Whereas the ultimate recovery rate
during primary recovery operation was 15-20%. The recovery rate during
secondary recovery operations increases to 30-50%.
3.8.3. ENHANCED RECOVERY TECHNIQUES:
In the last few years other methods of production operation have been
found that even further increase recovery. These newer techniques are called
enhanced recovery techniques. They are sometimes implemented after
secondary recovery techniques have been used and, in some newly drilled wells,
even before primary recovery operation have been carried to depletion.
From research and testing of enhanced recovery techniques it has been
found that it is possible to control the relative permeability and mobility of
fluids in a reservoir.
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4.WELLHEAD
WELLHEAD: Is the equipment used to maintain surface control of the well.
It is attached to the top of the tubular material used in oil wells to support the
strings of pipe, and to provide seals between the strings of pipe, and to control
the production of wells.
The kind of wellhead configuration to be used is determined by well conditions.
The high pressure wellhead is required where formations are extremely high.
Where production and pressures are very low, the simple wellhead may be used.
The wellhead is formed of combinations of parts called :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Casing Head
Tubing Head
Christmas Tree
Stuffing Box
Pressure Gauges
4.1.WELLHEAD VALVES:
1. Surface casing valve: Located in the lower most casing head, usually 2``
size, used for checking if there is a flow of fluid or pressure between the
surface casing and oil string.
2. Casing valves: 2`` or 4`` size, located on the casing head, used to control
the flow of oil from oil string. These valves should never be loosened or
removed.
3. Master valve: 3`` or 6`` size, located on the top of the tubing head. Used
to control the flow of oil from the tubing and control the well. This valve
should never be used to close the well except in case of emergency.
4. Tubing valves: 2`` size, located on the wings of the wellhead, used to
control the flow of oil from the tubing as the master valve. These valves
can be changed under supervision without the well being killed.
5. Crown valve: 2`` size located on the top of the wellhead and some times
called swabbing valve.
It is secondary master valve used to swab through . It actually does not
control any flow except when running wire line tools, swabbing or
acidizing operations.
This valve can be changed under supervision without killing the well.
6. Choke valve: Is a device attached down stream from the tubing or casing
valves to restrict, control, or regulate the flow of oil. It ma be:
a. A positive choke
b. Adjustable choke
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4.2.SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
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5.THE WELL
THE WELL: Is a means of recovering a natural resource, Crude oil and natural
gas reservoir.
Crude oil and natural gas reservoir are found in the formation below the surface
of the earth and the well is drilled to these formations. Pipe is then run into the
hole to allow fluid to flow to the surface.
THE MAIN COMPONENTS OF THE WELL ARE:5.1. CASING:
A drilled hole must be stabilized to prevent fresh water sand
contamination, lost circulation, hole sloughing or charging shallow sands with
abnormal pressure.
To do this, successively smaller diameter casing strings are set in the well
starting with:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Conductor pipe
Surface pipe
Intermediate string
The production or oil string.
The depth that each string is set is determined by the particular conditions
at the well site.
For example, surface casing can be set at depths from 200 ft to 5000 ft and
an oil string can be set from depths of 2500 ft to 25000 ft or more.
A sketch of a well is shown as in fig. bellow.
Each time a casing string is set and brought to the surface, a Blow Out
Preventer
( BOP ) of appropriate size and pressure rating is flanged onto the casing by a
casing head to control pressure in the drilling well.
Casing must be designed to meet the physical conditions imposed on the pipe.
A well with 10000 PSI surface pressure requires much heavier casing
than a well with 20000 PSI surface pressure.
By the same reasoning, the collapse resistance of the casing must be much
higher for string that is to be set at 20000 ft than string to be set at 2000ft.
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5.2. TUBING:
Because the casing and liner must remain in the well for along time and
their repair or replacement would be costly, another string of pipe is placed in
the well through which the oil is usually produced. This string called Tubing.
The tubing is suspended from the wellhead ( surface ) and usually reaches
to within a few feet of the bottom of the well.
Tubing is also used as the flow string because casing is usually too large to
permit the well to flow efficiently, or, in some cases , to maintain continuous
flow.
Tubing packers are some times used in the tubing string to seal off the
space between the tubing and the oil string of casing.
This is done particularly in wells where there are high reservoir pressure.
By sealing off this space, the casing is not exposed to high pressure, and the
chances of casing failure are reduced.
Tubing anchors and packers also support part of the weight of the tubing
in the casing and prevent the tubing string from moving up and down.
Tubing size diameter range from 1 to 4 inches.
5.3. SAFETY VALVES:
When a well is first put on production, it usually flows because of
pressure in the reservoir. Often wells are located where an accident could cause
danger either to the environment, people or facilities.
To provide needed protection there are several types of safety valves used to
shut in the well in case of an accident or equipment failure.
One type of safety valves is a subsurface safety valve, which is set in the
tubing string and will be close off when a predetermined rate of flow is
exceeded.
An alternate type is the surface controlled subsurface safety valve, that is
actuated by an external hydraulic system.
Another commonly used type of safety valve is installed on the wellhead.
This valve is known as a fail safe device, that is ,the valve is held open
against a spring by an external means, usually gas pressure.
Loss of pressure will cause the valve to close. This could be caused by a
broken flow line, fire, failure of a production vessel to operate properly or a
remote manual bleed off of the pressure.
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6. WELL COMPELTION
6. 1. INTRODUCTION:
The primary objective of the completion process is to develop a well,
which will yield the highest possible productivity in years come. The main
factors, which influence decisions during the design of the completion program
include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Investment required.
Desirable producing rate.
Reserves in various zones.
Reservoir drive mechanism.
Stimulation needs.
Sand control requirements.
Workover aspects.
Artificial lift consideration.
Possibility of future additional recovery projects.
6. 2. TYPES OF COMPLETIONS:
6.2.1. BOTTOM HOLE COMPLETION TECHNIQUES.
The three basic bottom hole completion techniques are:
1. open hole completion techniques
2. liner completion techniques
3. perforated casing completion techniques
The three completion types are presented in figs.21, 22, 23.
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A. SINGLE COMPLETIONS:
Where only one productive interval exists or where several zones can be
coming into one wellbore, a single type completion will apply. In this type of
completion (fig.24) a tubing string is normally installed inside the casing for
production purposes.
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B. MULTIPLE COMPLETIONS:
Multiple completions are a means of segregating Production from several
zones in the wellbore. In fields where zone separation is desirable or necessary,
the use of multiple completions reduces the number of wells required, and result
in lowest investment per completion. Some of the reasons why zone segregation
may be required or perforated are as follow.
i. Higher producing rate and faster payout. This is the most common
reason for multiple completions.
ii. Separating different types of reservoirs.
iii. Proper reservoir control.
Disadvantage:
i. More costly than single completion.
ii. Increase the risk of equipment failure and fishing jobs.
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7. STIMULATION TECHNIQUES
7. 1. PURPOSE OF STIMULATION:
1. To improve porosity and permeability of reservoir.
2. To remove formation damage resulted from drilling and cementing
operation.
3. To clean up wellbore itself by removing residue of mud or cement
or residues from perforating operations.
4. To enhance fluid flow rate.
5. To remove scale from pores and channels of formations resulted
from chemical reaction of two incompatible liquids.
7. 2. STIMULATION METHODS:
There are in general three stimulation methods (Acidizing, Hydraulic fracturing
and Explosive fracturing).
7.2.1. ACIDIZING:
The purpose of any stimulation technique is to increase the porosity and/or
permeability of the reservoir. Acidizing increases these parameters by reacting
with and removing some of the rock material itself.
1. Hydrochloric acid (HCl):
Used in field is normally 15% by weight HCl. This acid will dissolve
limestone, dolomite and other carbonates. When HCl comes with contact
calcium carbonate, the following products resulted:
Calcium chloride (very soluble salts).
Carbon dioxide (very soluble gas).
2. Hydrofluoric acid ( HF ):
Used in oil gas or service wells is normally 3% HF acid plus 12% HCl. It
is employed exclusively in sandstone matrix acidizing to dissolve formation
clays.
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8. WORKOVER
WORKOVER:
Is remedial operation performed on the reservoir and is carried out where
more extensive repairs are required, or the producing formation requires
treatment to improve production from the formation.
The work-over operations are carried out by using a work over rig. And
using a specific fluid which are circulated through the well bore during the
operations for the following purposes:1. To provide hydrostatic pressure necessary to control the formation
pressure.
2. To remove the drill cutting ( or solids ) from the well bore.
3. To cool the drill bit.
The work over operations include:1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
In Raguba field most of the work-over operations are carried to separate the
water zone and to perforate the upper zones, and also to repair tubing and
cementing.
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FIG. 25
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9. WELL TESTING
Generally some kind of test must be made to determine the performance
of an oil or gas well. The procedure followed is called testing.
There are many types of well test methods, and each is conducted to obtain
certain information about the well.
Some types of test are made often, and some may be only on rare occasions.
PREPARATION FOR WELL TESTING:
Preparing oil and gas wells for testing involves stabilizing the production rate
and pressure.
The surface indication of the wells stabilization are:
1. Constant Wellhead Flowing Pressure ( WHFP ).
2. Constant Gas production rate.
3. Constant fluid production rate.
The reason for stabilizing flow rate is to insure that the data obtained are
representative of actual performance, i.e. a retest under the same conditions will
yield the same results.
9.1. OIL WELL TESTING:
TYPES OF WELL TEST :
There are several tests that are performed to determine the best way to
produce the well.
Some of these tests are routine or normal production test, potential test, Gas-Oil
Ratio ( GOR ) test, and Bottom Hole Pressure (BHP), Bottom Hole
Temperature ( BHT), Liquid level determination.
It is very important that any test be done accurately, so that the data
obtained will reflect the ability of the well to produce and presents the true case
history of it.
Some of these tests are required by the petroleum engineering, which
assigns a producing allowable, and in some instances, they run for field
information.
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The results of DST on the well will often determine if the casing string should
be run to complete the well as producer, or if the well is a dry hole.
2. ROUTINE OR NORMAL TEST :
This test is the most frequently performed, periodically conducted at some
specified interval, usually monthly.
This test required the measurement of oil, water ,and gas rate that a well will
produce in 24 hour period under certain fixed conditions.
This test is made on each newly completed well and at other times as might
be requested by the petroleum engineering group and operators to keep accurate
records of production from the well. Also the results used to analyze the well
problems and predicting future of the well performance.
These tests can be taken with various items of equipment, ranging from
simple tank measuring equipment and Gas meter, to a completely automated
test facility ( test separator, control and readout panel, etc. )
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3. POTENTIAL TEST :
The potential test is a measurement of the amount of oil and gas a well
produce during a specified period of time ( such as 24 hour ) under certain fixed
conditions.
The information obtained from these tests is used in assigning a producing
allowable which must be followed by the operator of the well.
The oil is measured by test tank, or by meters , and the gas is measured at the
same time with equipment such as an orifice meter.
A potential test normally is required on a newly completed well and often
during its production life.
The same equipment as in routine test can be used .
4. GAS-OIL RATIO TEST ( GOR ) :
Gas-Oil Ratio test is required at periodic interval for all wells. The test is made
to determine the volume of gas produced per barrel of oil so as to ascertain
whether or not a well, in making its allowable, is producing Gas in excess of the
permissible limit, and when the GOR exceeds the permissible limit.
Total amount of Gas in SCF/ D
GOR = -------------------------------------------- = SCF/B
Total amount of Oil in B/D
SCF
B
D
An example would be : An Oil well produced 350 BBLS. of Oil and 140000
SCF of Gas during the 24 hour test period.
What is the Gas-Oil Ratio?
140,000 SCF
GOR = ---------------------- = 400 SCF/BBLS.
350 BBLS
GOR behavior of wells is used in evaluating well and reservoir performance.
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The GOR sometime used as a basis for recombining Oil and Gas samples
obtained at surface for establishing the reservoir fluid composition. The
properties of the reservoir fluid can then be determined.
5. SPECIAL TESTS :
There are some other types of tests, which may be performed on an Oil well to
determine or measure Pressure and Temperature in the well, such as surface
( WHT), ( WHCIP), (WHFP),and Bottom-Hole Pressure and Temperature
( BHCIP ), ( BHFP), ( BHT ) , pressure Build-up, Drawdown, PDS.
Also Fluid Level Test is normally performed on wells which will not flow
naturally, and must be made to flow by artificial lift.
PROBLEMS IN OIL WELL TESTING:
1. Emulsions: If the fluid produced from a well consists of both oil and
water, there is a possibility that they well not separate. The resulting fluid
is commonly called an emulsion. If the volume of this emulsion is
measured as oil, the test will be in error by the amount of water in the
emulsion, so that the oil measured during the test should be tested for its
water content
2. Liquid meter accuracy: Liquid meter should be checked periodically for
accuracy. This is usually accomplished by discharging fluid from the
meter into a test tank. If the meter is found in error, it should be repaired
before it put back in service, or correction factor used in the volume
calculation.
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9.2. SEPARATORS
A separator is a vessel in which a mixture of non-miscible fluids are
separated from each other. For example, the 3-phase (gas, oil and water) fluids
produced from the wells.
In our process operations, we use horizontal separators in the GOSP to
separate the well fluids arriving from the outlying producing fields. Other
horizontal and vertical separators are used as Knock-Out drums, Gas scrubbers,
Flash tanks etc..
Generally, a vessel of this type is used to separate two or three fluid
phases.
A vessel used to separate gas and liquid is called a 'Two-Phase' separator' while
a 'Three Phase' vessel' will separate Gas, Oil and Water.
The number of phases represents the number of fluid streams leaving a
separator. A GOSP TEST separator is an example of the measurement of the
gas and liquids produced. It is used to check the production rate of gas, oil and
water from a single well.
GOSP (GAS - OIL SEPARATION PLANT)
These consist of a number of horizontal vessels containing baffles which
perform the separation process. In most cases the separation takes place in two
stages - High pressure (1st stage) and Low pressure (2nd stage). As the threephase flow enters and flows through the separators, the gas is released and
leaves the top of the vessels while the oil and water are piped from the bottom
under level control.
In the Raguba GOSP, 1st Stage separators are normally operated as High
Pressure (HP) systems at about 250 psi. However, operational requirements (lower pressure wells etc), need some 1st stage separators to be operated at a
lower pressure (about 75 to 85psi).
The oil and water from the 1st stage separation, enters the 2nd stage
where further separation takes place. This is the case for all GOSP separators
except C which is a single stage separation process used for the low pressure
and wet crude.
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SEPARATION PRINCIPLES:
Separators consist of the following main parts: 1. A primary separation section to remove the bulk of the liquid from the gas.
2. Sufficient liquid capacity to handle surges of liquid from the line.
3. Sufficient length or height to allow the small droplets to settle out by
gravity (to prevent undue entrainment).
4. A means of reducing turbulence in the main body of the separator so
that proper settling may take place.
5. A mist extractor to capture entrained droplets or those too small to settle by
gravity.
Where a vessel is simply separating total liquid from gas, it is called a ' TwoPhase Separator ' When the process requires the separation of two liquids and a
gas, the separator is called a ' Three-Phase Separator '. ' Two or Three Phase
separation ', refers to the number of streams leaving the vessel and not the inlet
fluid stream.
The main principles used to achieve physical separation of gas and liquids are: GRAVITY SETTLING and COALESCING
Any separator may employ one or more of these principles, but the fluid phases
must be ' Immiscible ' (cannot mix), and have ' Different Densities ' for
separation to occur.
GRAVITY SETTLING:
During the separation process, the gas is moving in an upward direction into
the vapor section of the separator and the liquid particles are tending to fall to
the vessel bottom under the influence of gravity. Gas will separate more quickly
from a liquid when it is flowing HORIZONTALLY.
In a ' VERTICAL ' separator, the gas is moving vertically upwards and the
liquid droplets, due to gravity, are falling vertically downwards. The contraflow of the two fluids therefore interferes with the flow paths and separation is
slower.
Generally, because of the above factors, the vapor section of a Horizontal
separator will be of a smaller volume than that of a Vertical vessel.
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COALESCING
Very small droplets such as fog or mist cannot be separated practically
by gravity.
These droplets can be coalesced to form larger droplets that will settle by
gravity. Coalescing devices in separators force gas to follow a ' twisting' path.
The momentum of the droplets causes them to collide with other droplets
or with the coalescing device, forming larger drops. These can then separate
out of the gas phase due to the influence of gravity.
Wire mesh screens, Vane elements, and filter cartridges are typical examples of
coalescing devices.
Separation vessels usually contain FOUR MAJOR SECTIONS, plus the
necessary pressure and liquid level controls :
1. Primary Separation Section :
For removing the bulk of the liquid from the inlet stream. For example,
free liquids, slugs and large droplets. This is usually accomplished by a change
in the direction of fluid flow, either by baffles or deflection plates near the inlet
nozzle or by using a tangential inlet nozzle as in ' Tangential Feed ' or ' Cyclone
' separators which operate by a centrifugal force being set up in the vessel.
2. Secondary Separation Section :
For removing the maximum amount small liquid droplets without an
elaborate design. The major separation principle in this section is by gravity
settling of the liquid droplets from the vapor stream.
3. Mist Extraction Section :
For removing maximum amount of tiny liquid droplets remaining in the
vapor stream. The mist extractor may be of the impingement type; (mesh pads)
and/or may use the centrifugal force principle; (the vane type).
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2. Gas velocity.
3. Droplet density.
5. Degree of turbulence
SEPARATION FACTOR
2. Residence time
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TYPES OF SEPARATORS
Separators can be designed to handle fluids according to the fluid
composition, and they come in different sizes and shapes as separation
requirement as follow:
1. Horizontal separators.
a) Horizontal Single - Tube separators
a.1) Two - phase separators. a.2) Three - phase separators.
b) Horizontal Two -Tube separators.
2. Vertical separators.
a) Two - phase separators. b) Three - phase separators.
3. Spherical separator.
4. Filter separations.
5. Scrubber or knockout drums.
6. Coalescer ( liquid - liquid ) separator.
7. Slug catcher.
8. Flash tank.
9. Metering separators.
1. HORIZONTAL SEPARATORS
This type of separators has a much greater gas- liquid interface area,
consisting of a large, long baffled gas separation section, that permits much
higher gas velocities.
METHOD OF OPERATION
In operation, gas flows horizontally and at the same time, falls towards
the liquid surface. The gas flows in the baffle surface and forms a liquid film
that is drained away to the liquid section of the separator. The baffle need only
be longer than the distance of liquid trajectory travel at the design gas velocity.
When well fluids strike the angle baffle, forward motion is stopped temporarily,
heavy liquids fall immediately to the bottom of the separator. Gases and oil
spray continue through the de-foaming element, or the primary mist extractor.
In the mist extractor, baffles change the direction of flow, gas will flow
easily around the baffles. But, oil drops tend to coalesce on the baffles, and flow
down the baffles to the liquid section. Gas continues through the secondary mist
extractor, where most of the remainder of liquids is removed from the gas. Oil
and water leave the separator through the liquid outlet.
SEE FIGURES ( 1 ), ( 2 ) , ( 3 ) and ( 4 ).
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Figure: 1
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Figure: 2
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Figure: 3
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Figure: 4
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2. VERTICAL SEPARATORS
This type of separators is often used on low to intermediate gas - oil ratio well
streams, and where relatively large slugs of liquid are expected.
METHOD OF SEPARATION
The stream of gas and liquid flow through and impinges against several layers
of vanes. Because it has greater {inertia}, the liquid has greater resistance to
change in direction of flow.
Gas assumes the new direction of flow more readily than the liquid. Gas flows
through the space between the vanes, while the liquid coalesce on the vane
surfaces. Coalescing package mist extractor remove liquid mist from gas
streams.
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3. SPHERICAL SEPARATORS
These separators are occasionally used for high pressure service, where compact
size is desired and liquid volumes are small.
METHOD OF OPERATION
Fluid flowing through the inlet, is deflected into two streams, breaking up the
stream allow gas to rise out of the liquid. The separator is divided into two
sections by a plate or floor. Liquid flow to the lower section through drains in
the floor. The liquid spreads into a thin layer across the plate or floor.
Because the liquid is thinly spread, it is easier for any remaining gases to escape
the liquid, and pass through the mist extractor, and out of the separator, through
the gas outlet. Liquid level in the separator is regulated by the float connected to
the dump valve.
SEE FIGURE ( 9 ) ( 10 ).
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5. FILTER SEPARATORS
A filter separator usually has two compartments. The first compartment
contains filter-coalescing elements. As the gas flows through the elements, the
liquid particles coalesce into larger droplets and when the droplets reach
sufficient size, the gas flow causes them to flow out of the filter elements into
the center core.
The particles are then carried into the second compartment of the vessel
( containing a vane type of knitted wire mesh mist extractor ) where the larger
droplets are removed.
A lower barrel or boot may be used for surge or storage of the removed liquid.
SEE FIGURE ( 12 ).
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Tightness of emulsion.
Specific gravity of the oil, gas and produced water.
Corrosiveness of the oil, gas and produced water.
Scaling tendencies of the produced water.
Quantity of fluid to be treated and percent of water in the fluid.
Desirable operating pressure for the equipment.
Paraffin forming tendencies of the crude oil.
Oil field emulsions are usually of the water-in-oil type, however, a few of the
emulsions are oil-in-water type and are called reverse emulsions.
Emulsions are complex and each should be considered individually.
In order to break a crude oil emulsion and obtain clean oil, it is necessary to
displace the demulsifies and its film. This brings about the coalescence of
droplets of water and furnishes a means and time period of undisturbed setting
of the coalesced water drops.
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Water vapour reduces the ability of gas to flow in the flow lines
and process systems.
Water vapour causes corrosion in lines and equipment.
At low temperature, water vapour forms hydrates, complicated
molecules of hydrocarbon liquid and water, causing blockage of
lines and equipment.
Water vapour must therefore be removed from the gas stream. Natural gas may
contain from 10 to 300 pounds of water vapour per million cubic feet of natural
gas produced, 10 to 3000lb. Water/mmcf, depending on the temperature and
pressure of the natural gas. The warmer the gas, the more water vapour it will
contain.
Tri-Ethylene Glycol (TEG) dehydration systems are the most common means
used for the process. When the lean TEG is brought into contact with the wet
natural gas, it absorbs the water vapour from the gas stream.
1.B. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROCESS AND EQUIPMENT:
Referring to Figure 1, the wet natural gas enters the bottom of the glycol
contactor tower and rises through the column where it is brought into contact
with the lean glycol flowing downwards across the bubble cap trays.
In the contactor, the up-flowing gas gives up water vapour to the glycol flowing
down from the top tray. At the tower top the dry gas passes through mist
extractor elements and then passes from the contactor to other processes.
The mist extractor coalesces fine particles of liquid into large droplets, which
fall back into the glycol passing down the tower. In this way, glycol carry over
with the gas stream is minimized.
The absorption of water vapour during the process gradually dilutes, weakens,
the glycol. The rich, dilute, solution collects in the bottom of the glycol
contactor tower from where it is discharged to the glycol regeneration unit, by
way of a level control system.
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At the regeneration unit, the wet glycol flows first to the glycol flash tank,
where a pressure drop takes place causing dissolved gases to leave the glycol as
it passes into the tank.
Flash tank pressure is controlled by a PCV in the gas line. The releases gas may
be piped to flare or fuel system or may be passed into the still column.
The rich glycol leaves the bottom of the flash tank under level control and
passes through a REFLUX COIL paced in the top of the still column.
After the reflux coil, the glycol is filtered and then passed through a double pipe
heat exchanger to be heated by the regenerated lean glycol leaving the unit
reboiler. This in turn cols the lean glycol. The rich glycol now enters the still
column at the top tray, below the reflux coil, and flows down across the bubble
cap trays
As the glycol flows down the tower, the absorbed water is stripped out by hot
rising vapours from the reboiler.
The glycol, as it collects in the still column bottom section, is now partially
regenerated and is referred to as SEMI-LEAN glycol. It is then passed into the
reboiler for final water removal.
Generally, the reboiler is of the fire tube type and contains a weir, which
ensures that the fire tube is completely immersed in glycol.
In systems that have separate reboiler and still column, the weir also maintains
the level in the still column bottom.
In the reboiler, the glycol flows over the weir and enters a stripping section
containing Raschig rings or other contacting devices. Extra stripping action may
be provided by injection of dry stripping gas into the reboiler stripping section.
On leaving the reboiler, the lean glycol passes through the glycol/glycol
exchanger into the glycol accumulator, or storage drum, from where the
circulation pumps take suction and discharge the glycol back to the contactor
via the glycol cooler, to complete the circuit.
In some small field units, the still column may be a packed type and is usually
an integral part of the reboiler, see Figure 2.
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The following figures represent the glycol dehydration systems in Raguba and
Sahil Gas Plants. (Glycol injection & Absorption Tower System)
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TEMPERATURE.
PRESSURE.
GLYCOL FLOW RATE.
GLYCOL CONCENTRATION.
1. TEMPERATURE:
Temperature of the incoming wet natural gas to the contactor is very important,
and is the key factor affecting the potential use of the glycol dehydrator.
This can be seen clearly by looking at the following points:
The higher the gas temperature, the more water it will contain in vapour
form.
If the temperature of the wet natural gas is around 140oF or above, the
natural gas does not want to give up the water vapour to the glycol. On
the other hand, if the natural gas temperature is 40oF or below, the glycol
becomes viscous and does not want to pick up the water vapour.
Therefore, dehydration will take place at temperatures between 50 to
130oF. The best results are obtained between 80 and 110oF.
The temperature of the lean glycol entering the top tray of the contactor
should be 10 to 15oF above the temperature of the gas to be treated. If the
glycol temperature is too much higher than the gas temperature, the
glycol will tend to foam and be carried out of the contactor tower with the
gas.
Conversely, if the glycol temperature is much lower than the gas temperature,
liquid hydrocarbons, condensate, will tend to form and fall to the bottom of the
contactor tower, causing problems in the glycol regeneration system.
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2. PRESSURE:
At constant temperature, the lower the pressure, the higher the water content of
the inlet gas. Other than affecting the water content of the inlet gas stream,
pressure has very little effect on the mechanics of glycol dehydration.
3. GLYCOL CIRCULATION FLOW RATE:
Determining the proper glycol circulation rate is not an easy task due to several
limitations and considerations involved. There are many factors that must be
considered, but, for simplicity, over a normal pressure range up to 1200 psi,
about 3 to 5 gallons of glycol must be circulated for every pound of water
removed at a 55oF dew point depression.
This quantity of glycol is based on equilibrium conditions, plant design, glycol
concentration and other factors.
4. GLYCOL CONCENTRATION:
Since the main objective of natural gas dehydration is maximum dew point
depression, relatively high glycol concentrations must be used. The usual
practice is to introduce, at the top of the glycol contacting tower, a solution of
regenerated glycol with a concentration ranging from 97 to 99%, and to remove
the solution from the base of the contactor tower at a glycol concentration of 80
to 90%.
In general, high glycol concentrations will give a larger dew point depression,
the larger the better, if the glycol circulation flow-rate is proportional to the
water content of the feed gas.
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GLYCOL LOSS
FOAMING
THERMAL DECOMPOSITION OF THE GLYCOL
DEW POINT CONTROL
GLYCOL pH CONTROL
SALT CONTAMINATION
GLYCOL OXIDATION
SLUDGE FORMATION
1. GLYCOL LOSS
The physical loss of glycol is probably the most important operating problem in
the dehydration system. Most dehydration units are designed for a loss of less
than 0.10 gallons of glycol per million cubic feet of natural gas. However, if the
system is not operated properly, the loss might be much higher than this.
The glycol contactor and the glycol regenerator are the most common places in
a dehydration system where about 90% of the glycol loss occurs. High gas
velocity through the glycol contactor will cause a carryover of glycol into the
pipeline, and a poor mist eliminator in the top of the glycol contactor will pass
some glycol even at normal gas velocities.
The glycol losses occurring in the glycol regenerator are usually caused by
excessive reboiler temperature, which causes vaporization or thermal
decomposition of glycol. Also, excessive top temperature in the still column
allows vaporized glycol to escape from the still column to atmosphere with the
water vapour.
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2. FOAMING
Foaming of glycol is another problem frequently encountered. It can increase
glycol loss and reduce the plant capacity. Entrained glycol will carry over from
the contactor with the sales gas. Also, foaming can cause poor contact between
the gas and the glycol solution; therefore, the drying efficiency is decreased.
The best cure for glycol foaming is the proper care of glycol solution. The most
important measures in the programme are effective gas cleaning ahead of the
glycol system and good filtration of the glycol solution.
De-foaming agents, such as Mono-ethanolamine (MEA), are widely used to
control the problem. However, it is very important to point out that the use of
these does not solve the basic problem, and it is only a temporary measure until
the cause of the foaming can be determined and eliminated.
SOME FACTORS THAT CAUSE FOAMING ARE:
Low glycol solution concentration to the contactor.
High differential temperature between wet gas inlet and lean glycol
inlet to contactor.
High glycol pH, Note: basic glycol solution pH > 9 tends to foam
and emulsify.
Hydrocarbon liquids, condensate.
Finely divided suspended solids.
Salt contamination.
Field corrosion inhibitors.
3. THERMAL DECOMPOSITION OF GLYCOL
It has been established that the glycol reboiler temperature is limited by the
TEG decomposition temperature, and glycol vaporization losses. Laboratory
data indicates that TEG is thermally stable up to about 400 oF. Excessive heat as
a result of one or more of the following conditions will decompose the TEG and
form corrosive compounds:
A high reboiler temperature above the glycol decomposition level.
Localized overheating caused by deposits of salt or tarry
compounds on the reboiler fire tube or by flame impingement on
the fire tube.
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