Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
2011-2012
Vocational Training Report
Submitted to
Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidhyalaya
Bhopal (M.P)
Towards Partial Fulfillment for the Award of
Bachelor of Engineering
In
Electronics & Communication Engineering
At
Doordarshan Relay Centre
Ujjain
Guided by:
Submitted by:
Pankaj Pandit
Megha Omshree
2011-2012
Certificate
Training in Electronics Department by MEGHA OMSHREE is a satisfactory
account of the bona fide work done under our guidance is recommended towards
partial fulfillment for the award of the Bachelor of Engineering (Electronics &
Communication Engineering) degree from Mahakal Institute of Technology &
Science, Ujjain.
Guide:
Date
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am highly grateful to Senior Assistant Engineer Mr. P.S Sisodiya for giving me an
opportunity to do my training at Doordarshan Relay Centre.
I would like to express my gratitude to Mr. Pankaj Pandit for his valuable guidance
and support.
I would also like to thank all staff members for maintaining a creative atmosphere
and offering timely help throughout the training.
Megha Omshree
Doordarshan
Doordarshan (literally Distant Show) is an Indian public service broadcaster, a division of
Prasar Bharati. It is one of the largest broadcasting organizations in India in terms of the
infrastructure of studios and transmitters. Recently, it has also started Digital Terrestrial
Transmitters. On September 15, 2009, Doordarshan celebrated its 50th anniversary. The DD
provides television, radio, online and mobile services throughout metropolitan and regional
India, as well as overseas through the Indian Network and Radio India.
Logo of Doordarshan
Type
Country
: India
Availability
: Nationwide
Founded
Motto
: Prasar Bharti
Beginning
Doordarshan had a modest beginning with the experimental telecast starting in Delhi on 15
September 1959 with a small transmitter and a makeshift studio. The regular daily transmission
started in 1965 as a part of All India Radio. The television service was extended to Bombay (now
Mumbai) and Amritsar in 1972. Up until 1975, only seven Indian cities had a television service
and Doordarshan remained the sole provider of television in India. Television services were
separated from radio in April 1 1976. Each office of All India Radio and Doordarshan were
placed under the management of two separate Director Generals in New Delhi. Finally, in 1982,
Doordarshan as a National Broadcaster came into existence. KRISHI DARSHAN was first
programme telecast on Doordarshan. It commenced on January 26, 1967 and is one of the
longest running programs on Indian television.
Nationwide transmission
National telecasts were introduced in 1982. In the same year, color TV was introduced in the
Indian market with the live telecast of the Independence Day speech by then prime minister
Indira Gandhi on 15 August 1982, followed by the 1982 Asian Games which were held in Delhi.
Now more than 90 percent of the Indian population can receive Doordarshan (DD National)
programmes through a network of nearly 1,400 terrestrial transmitters. There are about 46
Doordarshan studios producing TV programmes today.
LOGARITHMIC UNITS
Bel and Decibel
Bel is defined as the logarithm to the base 10 of the ratio of the change in power level for audio
measurement.
log10
P2
P1
Bel
=
Where P1 and P2 are the powers being compared.
In practice, the unit Bel was found to be high. Hence the unit decibel was defined which is equal
to one tenth of a Bel.
log10
P2
P1
Decibel
=
10
dB is used only to indicate Gain or Loss in a system like amplifier or attenuator respectively.
Reference levels
The dB may be used to indicate absolute power provided that the reference level is known.
Without a reference level power expressed in dB is meaningless.
A reference level of 1 milliwatt is widely used and accepted internationally.Using this as
reference level a power of 1 watt may be specified as :
a)
b)
c)
dBu : 0.7746 volts is taken as the reference level and the voltage can be measured across
any impedance.It need not be measured always across 600 ohms. Note the difference is
only philosophical.The dBu unit has exactly the same magnitude of voltage as in dBm if
the measurement is made across a 600 ohms circuits. Otherwise it will have different
values.In AIR and DD this unit is used in Meltron/Keltron Audio Consoles.
+8 dBu means the voltage is 1.946 volts or 8 dB above the reference level of 0.7746 volt.
-4 dBu means the measured voltage is 4 dB down with reference to 0.7746 volt or the
measured voltage is 0.4887 volt.The impedance in both the cases may be any value or
600 ohms.
The output of a monitoring amplifier is 8 watts.It can be expressed as +39 dBu. Similarly
a 10 watt output can be stated as +40 dBu.
3.
4.
5.
dBw : 1 watt of power is taken as reference power. It is used when the amount of power
involved is high.The EIRP of transmitter used in satellite communication is usually
expressed in dBw.
dBv : When the reference level is taken as 1 micro volt the unit is called as dBv.
DBv/m : when reference level is taken as 1 micro volt per meter, the unit is called dB
v/m. This unit is used in field strength measurements.
6.
dBk : When the reference level is taken as 1 kilowatt (kW) the unit is called dBk. This
unit is used in high power calculation. Any level that is above 1 kW is expressed as +(x)
dBk and any level that is below 1 kW is expressed as (x) dBk.
To convert power in watts to dBk, use the following formula.
dBk
Modulation
Modulation is a process of superimposing information on a carrier by varying one of its
parameters (amplitude, frequency or phase).
Need for Modulation
Antenna size can be reduced by modulating the signal over higher frequency.
To differentiate among transmissions (stations)
Maximum to minimum frequency ratio can be reduced to minimum by modulating the signal
on a high frequency.
Types of Modulation
In general, there are three types of modulation:
a)
c)
Amplitude Modulation
Pulse Modulation
b)
Angle Modulation
Amplitude Modulation
If the amplitude of the carrier is varied in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal
(information), it is called amplitude modulation.
Carrier freq. fc
Amplitude Ac
Vc(t)
Vm(t
)
V(t)
Amplitude Modulated
DSB Signal
Carrier amplitude corresponding to negative peak of signal is
zero for 100% modulation (Am=Ac)
Variation of AM Signals
DSB - FC
DSB - SC
VSB
Vestigial sideband. This method utilises one side band (usually USB) with
carrier and a portion of other sideband. This is used for picture (video)
transmission in television.
SSB
Single Side band : In this method only one side band (without carrier) is
utilised for transmission. There is considerable saving in power and
bandwidth. But as the carrier is not transmitted it becomes difficult to
recover the signal at the receiver end. Hence the receiver circuit is complex.
The use of this method is restricted to special purpose only, such as military
communications.
ISB
Independent side band : In this method each side band carries a different
message and hence they are independent of each other. A reduced carrier is
also inserted so as to facilitate an easy detection. This method is used in
Telephone system.
Angle Modulation
Variation of the angle of carrier signal with time results in angle modulation. It is of two types:
a)
Frequency Modulation
b)
Phase Modulation
Frequency Modulation
If the frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating
signal, it is called frequency modulation.
Maximum frequency corresponding to positve peak amplitude of modulation signal
Minimum frequency corresponding to negative peak amplitude of mod. signal
Carrier freq. fc
Amplitude Ac
Vc(t)
Vm(t
)
Freq. Modulated
signal
V(t)
Frequency Modulation
Phase Modulation
If the Phase of the carrier is varied in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal
(information), it is called phase modulation.
DIGITAL MODULATION
Criteria of Digital Transmission Systems
Digital communication system falls into 3 categories in their design.They are Bandwidth
efficient,Cost efficient and power efficient.These three criteria are applicable in different
environments.Radio spectrum is no more a luxury,And for broadcasters the digital system should
be able to deliver within the BW available.COFDM is a type of transmission to meet these
challenges.
ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying)
The simplest forms of band pass data modulation is ASK. Here the symbols are represented by
discrete amplitudes of fixed frequency. Digital data is nothing but bits of 0 and 1 .To represent 0
and 1 the carrier is turned on or off. Hence this is also called as On-Off keying (OOK).
Alternately we can use 2 amplitudes to represent 0 & 1.
1
0
Hence we can see that there are two symmetrical components in the modulated spectrum. So the
bandwidth will be twice that of occupied base band stream. This is similar to analog amplitude
modulation.
BW efficiency is defined as the ability of the modulation scheme to send number of
bits/cycle/sec. The number of bits transmitted per second is called bit rate. And the number of
symbols/sec is symbol rate. BW efficiency is the ratio of bit rate to symbol rate.
Detection
Non Coherent
Detection can be coherent or non-coherent. A simple envelope detector can achieve Non coherent
detection as shown above.
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Here the frequency is switched from one frequency to another to represent 2 symbols. The
modulator switches between two carriers of different frequencies to represent 2 symbols. This is
shown in the diagram.
Cos(1t)
Data
Switch
Cos(2t)
Alternatively a VCO (Voltage controlled oscillator) can be used as source for frequency shift
keying. If the frequency shift can be minimised to 90 degrees phase shift , the same is known as
Minimum shift keying.
Detection of FSK
A simplest way of detection of FSK is shown below. Here the modulated signal is filtered by 2
filters f1 & f2 which represents two different symbol states. Each filtered signal is detected and
fed to Comparator, which reconstructs the bit stream.
f1
Comparator
f2
Coherent FSK detection : Here the incoming modulated signal is mixed with two frequencies
equal to the symbol carrier frequencies. Further it is filtered and sent to Comparator, which
recovers the digital signal.
Advantages of FSK
-
Disadvantages of FSK
Bandwidth efficiency is poorer than PSK
Bit/symbol error rate is poorer than PSK
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Here the phase of the carrier is changed by 180 o absolutely to indicate another symbol. The
receiver watches for the changes in phase of incoming signal to recover the symbol.
0
Phase Change
0
Phase Change
Only Coherent detection is possible in PSK. The figure gives the blocks of PSK detection.
Cos (ct+)
DIGITAL SIGNALS
A digital audio signal carries information about the sound wave in the form of a series of samples
of the analogue signal taken at regular intervals.
This is known as a Pulse Code Modulation or PCM signal. It is a very simple signal, having
only two states: e.g. 0V or 5V. Because there are only two possible states, the meaning of the
signal is not altered in any way by moderate amounts of distortion or added noise as shown in
Fig. 6 & 7.
Sampling Process
The square wave consists of the fundamental frequency plus all its odd harmonics (the lowest of
these being 60 kHz in this case), it will therefore be possible to filter the signal to remove these
unwanted harmonics and leave a perfect 20 kHz sine wave as shown in Fig.8 (c). This shows
that filters play a very vital role in digital signal processing.
Maximum count
3
4
8
10
12
13
14
15
16
18
20
7
15
255
1023
4095
8191
16383
32765
65535
262143
1048575
PAL
PAL, short for Phase Alternating Line, is an analog television colour encoding system used in
broadcast television systems in many countries
Colour television has the constraint of compatibility and reverse compatibility with the
monochrome television system which makes it slightly complicated. Compatibility means that
when colour TV signal is radiated the monochrome TV sets should also display Black & White
pictures. This is achieved by sending Y as monochrome information along with the chroma
signal. Y is obtained by mixing R,G & B as per the well known equation :
Y
Reverse compatibility means that when Black & White TV signal is radiated the colour TV sets
should display the Black & White pictures.
In view of the above the colour TV system should have :
a)
Same line and field standards as that of existing monochrome.
b)
The same bandwidth as that of the existing monochrome system.
c)
The monochrome information in the Luminance signal along with colour signal.
If we transmit Y, R & B and derive G then :
Since ,Y
In such a case what happens with a colour TV set when we transmit black and white signal. R
and B are zero, but G gun gets 1.7 Y. The net result is black & white pictures on a colour TV
screen appear as Green pictures. So reverse compatibility is not achieved.
Colour Difference Signals
To achieve reverse compatibility, when we transmit Y, R-Y and B-Y instead of Y, R & B, we do
not take G-Y as this will always be much lower than R-Y and B-Y and hence will needs more
amplification and will cause more noise into the system. G-Y can be derived electronically in
the TV receiver.
G
So, G-Y
Thus,colour difference signals fulfill the compatibility and reverse compatibility. Because in this
case the colour difference signals are zero if the original signal is monochrome (i.e. R = B = G)
the peak excursion is limited to 1.33 only. This requires reduction in all the colour vectors by a
suitable weighing factor which is as per below :
87.7% of modulated R-Y, called V signal, V = 0.877 (R-Y)
49.3% of modulated B-Y, called U signal, U = 0.493 (B-Y)
C U2 V 2
Therefore weighted
PAL broadcast systems
Transmission Bands
Fields
Lines
Active Lines
Channel Bandwidth
Video Bandwidth
Sound carrier
PAL B
VHF
50
625
576
7 MHz
5 MHz
5.5 MHz
PAL G
UHF
50
625
576
8 MHz
5MHz
5.5 MHz
Skin effect
Skin effect is the tendency of an alternating electric current (AC) to become distributed within a
conductor such that the current density is largest near the surface of the conductor, and decreases
with greater depths in the conductor. The electric current flows mainly at the "skin" of the
conductor, between the outer surface and a level called the skin depth. The skin effect causes the
effective resistance of the conductor to increase at higher frequencies where the skin depth is
smaller, thus reducing the effective cross-section of the conductor. The skin effect is due to
opposing eddy currents induced by the changing magnetic field resulting from the alternating
current. At 60 Hz in copper, the skin depth is about 8.5 mm. At high frequencies the skin depth
becomes much smaller. Increased AC resistance due to the skin effect can be mitigated by using
specially woven litz wire. Because the interior of a large conductor carries so little of the current,
tubular conductors such as pipe can be used to save weight and cost.
Skin depth is due to the circulating eddy currents (arising from a changing H field) cancelling
the current flow in the center of a conductor and reinforcing it in the skin
Skin depth principle is used in transmission of RF signal from one direction and DC current
from other direction simultaneously. Due to this the DC current travels from the centre of the
conductor while the RF signal which is at high frequency travels from the oter surface i.e. the
skin of the conductor.
Negative Modulation
The increase in picture brightness causes reduction in carrier amplitude i.e. the carrier amplitude
will be maximum corresponding to sync tip and minimum corresponding to peak white.
In television though positive modulation was adopted in initial stages, negative modulation is
generally adopted (PALB uses negative modulation) now a days, as there are certain advantages
over positive modulation.
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
Impulse noise peaks appear only in black region in negative modulation. This black
noise is less objectionable compared to noise in white picture region.
Best linearity can be maintained for picture region and any non-linearity affects only
sync which can be corrected easily.
The efficiency of the transmitter is better as the peak power is radiated during sync
duration only (which is about 12% of total line duration).
The peak level representing the blanking or sync level may be maintained constant,
thereby providing a reference for AGC in the receivers.
In negative modulation, the peak power is radiated during the sync-tip. As such even
in case of fringe area reception, picture locking is ensured, and derivation of inter
carrier is also ensured.
Visual disturbance due to phase errors are severe and unacceptable where large
picture areas are concerned (i.e. at LF) but
ii)
Phase errors become difficult to see on small details (i.e. in HF region) in the picture.
Thus low modulating frequencies must minimize phase distortion where as high
frequencies are tolerant of phase distortions as they are very difficult to see.
The radiated signal thus contains full upper side band together with carrier and the vestige
(remaining part) of the partially suppressed LSB. The lower side band contains frequencies up to
0.75 MHz with a slope of 0.5 MHz so that the final cut off is at 1.25 MHz.
Power Supplies
DC POWER SUPPLY
The Linear Power Supply System
230 V AC supply is fed to an isolation transformer which steps down the voltage to the required
low level. Here the rating of the transformer depends on the current requirement of the load.
Therefore, the transformer is normally bulky.
AC
Isolation
Power
TR.
Rectifiers
and
Filters
Vref.
Series
Pass
Element
Feedback
and
Control
Vout
1.
2.
Very low ripple.
Demerits
1.
Because of the bulky transformer the power supply unit is usually bulky.
2.
3.
4.
5.
AC
RF I
Filter
Rectifiers
And
Filters
Switching
Element
Isolation
Power
TR.
Feedback
and
Control
Vref.
Output
Rectifier
And Filters
Vout
4.44 x f x B x A x N
Or
Where
fxBxA
Because of the inherent limitations, the flux density cannot be increased in power transformer
above 0.97 wb/m so if the frequency is increased the transformer size can be brought down and
hence the weight. This is what has been done in SMPS.
The 230 V AC is fed directly to the rectifier and filter through Radio Frequency
interference/electromagnetic interference filter. This dc voltage then chopped by a switching
transistor or FET. This chopped high frequency AC is then applied to a power transformer for
stepping it down. This stepped down voltage is further rectified and filtered and given to the
load.
A sample of the output voltage is taken and compared with a reference voltage. The error
voltage is then given to the base of the switching transistor for increased or decreased switching
action.
Normally, the frequency of operation is between 10 kHz to 60 kHz from no load to full load.
Even frequencies up to 1 MHz are now available in market.
Principle of SMPS
Because of higher frequencies and to reduce the core loss ferrite is normally used as the core. It
can also be seen that the switching element is acting like switch (ON and OFF) and hence the
heat dissipation will be low.
The merits and demerits of a SMPS is as follows:
Merits
Because of less transformer weight the power supply is light and compact.
Very wide input voltage range between 90 to 260 V AC.
Very good hold up time, typically 25-milli sec.
Efficiency is quite high 70 to 80%.
Demerits
Higher output noise.
Higher ripple content.
EMI/RFI generation.
Higher design complexity.
Fig. SMPS
Antenna
Principle
Antenna is usually a metalic device (as a rod or a wire) used for radiating or receiving
electromagnetic waves.The radio frequency power developed at the final stage of a transmitter is
delivered through cables/feeders, without themselves consuming any power to the transmitting
antenna.This travels in the free space in the form of radio waves (electromagnetic waves).The
receiving antenna picks up the radio waves and delivers useful signal at the input of a receiver
for reception of signals.The transmitting and receiving antennae are reciprocal in the sense, any
characteristics of the antenna in general applies equally to both.
Antenna Radiation Resistance
The input impedance Zin of an antenna is the ratio of voltage to current at its input terminals where the
power is fed to the antenna.
Zin
Ra + jXa
Ra
Xa
Ra
Rr+Ri
Rr
Ri
It is through the mechanism of radiation resistance, power is transferred from the guided wave at antenna
input to the free space wave.
The reactive part of the input impedance is due to the storage of electric magnetic field
(capacitive and inductive reactances) in the near field of the antenna.The net reactive impedance
of the antenna can be matched with the conjugate impedance of the source driving the antenna.
Radiation Resistance is a fictitious term.It is equivalent of resistance which would dissipate the
same amount of power as being radiated by the antenna when fed with the same amount of
power.
Radiation Efficiency
The radiation efficiency determines the effective transfer of power from the input to free space,
and given by
Rr
Ri R r
Radiation Efficiency =
Isotropic Antenna
It is an imaginary (non-existent) point (dimensionless) antenna which radiates equally with unity
gain in all directions in three dimensional planes.
Power Gain of Antenna
Unlike the isotropic antenna, any practical antenna has physical dimension.The field at any point
away from the antenna is the vectorial sum of the individual fields received at that point from a
large number of elementary portions of the whole antenna. Depending upon the path length of
these individual waves, they may reinforce or cancel at such equidistance points around the
practical antenna and thus contribute different levels of field in different directions, but at equal
distances around the antenna. What however actually happens is that instead of laying equal
field, field is accentuated in certain directions and suppressed in other directions.
Extending this principle, very large power gain can be achieved in any plane by stacking in a
particular way, a number of antenna elements in a perpendicular plane.
The power gain in a given direction is the ratio of the power to be fed to the isotropic antenna to
actual power of the antenna in question to lay field at a given receiving point in that direction.
Radiation Pattern (Polar Diagram)
Graphical representation of the directional radiation properties of the antenna as a function of
space coordinates in three dimensions is called the radiation pattern. Such a representation will
be usually very complicated to interpret. It is usual practice to represent the same in two
dimensions for both horizontal and vertical planes. The length of vector from the centre or the
reference point is proportional to the power gain in that direction.
Half Power (3 dB) Beam Width
The angle between the two directions in which the radiation intensity is one half (3 dB below)
the maximum value of the beam.
Bandwidth of Antenna
The range of frequencies within which the performance of the antenna with respect to certain
characteristic (such as input impedance, pattern, beam width, polarisation, side lobe level, beam
direction, gain)conforms to a specified standard. More commonly in broadcasting the
characteristics of importance are gain and input impedance.
Polarisation
The plane containing the electric vector in the electro magnetic wave describes the polarisation
of the radiated wave. Ideally maximum signal is coupled if the antennae (both transmitting and
receiving) are oriented in the plane of polarisation of the electro -magnetic wave. A vertical
radiator radiates/picks up vertically polarised wave, horizontal radiator radiates/picks up
horizontally polarised wave.
There are number of well defined polarisations such as horizontal (HP), vertical (VP), slant (+
45o (SP), circular (left or right) (LCP, RCP), dual (DP), mixed (MP), elliptical (left or right)
(LEP/REP) etc.
HP : The electric vector is in horizontal plane. TV broadcasting in India use horizontal
polarisation.
VP : The electric vector is in the vertical plane. The self-radiating MW masts of AIR radiate
VP waves. Electric supply undertakings use vertical polarisation for their VHF communications.
CP: The electric vector in circular polarisation rotates in a circular motion. They may be
considered as the resultant of equal amplitude of vertical and horizontal polarised components
combined in phase quadrature (90o).
The polarisation is said to be right or left circular polarised (RCP or LCP) depending on the
rotation of electric vector of the propagating wave clockwise or anti clockwise respectively, as
seen from the transmitting point or by an observer with his back to the transmitter.
INSAT down link signals are left hand circularly polarised.
Apreture of an Antenna 'A'
This term usually relates only to receiving antenna. Aperture (or effective area) of a receiving
antenna is the ratio of power delivered to the load (connected to the Antenna) to the incident
power density.
G2
4
A Yagi-Uda consisting of a reflector, driven element and a single director as shown here. The
driven element is typically a /2 dipole or folded dipole and is the only member of the structure
that is directly excited (electrically connected to the feedline). All the other elements are
considered parasitic. That is, they reradiate power which they receive from the driven element
(they also interact with each other).
One way of thinking about the operation of such an antenna is to consider a parasitic element to
be a normal dipole element with a gap at its center, the feedpoint. Now instead of attaching the
antenna to a load (such as a receiver) we connect it to a short circuit. As is well known in
transmission line theory, a short circuit reflects all of the incident power 180 degrees out of
phase. The fact that the parasitic element involved isn't exactly resonant but is somewhat shorter
(or longer) than /2 modifies the phase of the element's current with respect to its excitation from
the driven element. The so-called reflector element, being longer than /2, has an inductive
reactance which means the phase of its current lags the phase of the open-circuit voltage that
would be induced by the received field. The director element, on the other hand, being shorter
than /2 has a capacitive reactance with the voltage phase lagging that of the current. If the
parasitic elements were broken in the center and driven with the same voltage applied.
Fig. Illustration of forward gain of a two element Yagi-Uda array using only a driven element
(left) and a director (right). The wave from the driven element excites a current in the passive
director which reradiates a wave having a particular phase shift. The addition of these waves
(bottom) is increased in the forward direction, but leads to cancellation in the reverse direction.
parabolic antennas are used in the high frequency part of the radio spectrum, at UHF and
microwave (SHF) frequencies, at which wavelengths are small enough that conveniently sized
dishes can be used.
The operating principle of a parabolic antenna is that a point source of radio waves at the focal
point in front of a paraboloidal reflector of conductive material will be reflected into a collimated
plane wave beam along the axis of the reflector. Conversely, an incoming plane wave parallel to
the axis will be focused to a point at the focal point.
Fig. In a parabolic antenna, incoming parallel radio waves (Q1 - Q3) are reflected to a point at the
dish's focus (F), where they are received by a small feed antenna.
Paraboloidal or dish The reflector is shaped like a paraboloid truncated in a circular rim. This
is the most common type. It radiates a narrow pencil-shaped beam along the axis of the dish
3. Cassegrain Antenna
In telecommunications and radar, a Cassegrain antenna is a parabolic antenna in which the feed
radiator is mounted at or behind the surface of the concave main parabolic reflector dish and is
aimed at a smaller convex secondary reflector suspended in front of the primary reflector. The
beam of radio waves from the feed illuminates the secondary reflector, which reflects it back to
the main reflector dish, which reflects it forward again to form the desired beam.
The primary reflector is a paraboloid, while the shape of the convex secondary reflector is a
hyperboloid. The geometrical condition for radiating a collimated, plane wave beam is that the
feed antenna is located at the far focus of the hyperboloid, while the focus of the primary
reflector coincides with the near focus of the hyperboloid.[1] Usually the secondary reflector and
the feed antenna are located on the central axis of the dish. However in offset Cassegrain
configurations, the primary dish reflector is asymmetric, and its focus, and the secondary
reflector, are located to one side of the dish, so that the secondary reflector does not partially
obstruct the beam.
Wave Propogation
Propagation of Radio waves takes place by different modes, the mechanism being different in
each case. Based on that it can be classified as :
1.
Ground (Surface) waves
2.
Space (Tropospheric) waves
3.
Sky (Ionospheric) waves
Allocation of frequencies for Broadcasting
Medium Wave (MW) Band
MF
30
3000 kHz
9 kHz
30 MHz
VHF
30 300 MHz
Band 1
40 68 MHz
Channel spacing 7 MHz
Band 2
88 108 MHz
Channel spacing 100 kHz
TV channel # 4
Band 3
174 230 MHz
Channel spacing 7 MHz
TV CH # 5 CH #12
FM Sound Broadcasting
UHF
300 3000 MHz
Band 4
470 606 MHz
Channel spacing 8 MHz
Band 5
606 798 MHz
Channel spacing 8 MHz
CH # 21 CH # 37
CH # 38 CH # 61
120 hr h t I
d
120 =
ht
hr
Antenna current
When ground wave and sky wave signals are received, fading occurs in those areas where the
signals are of comparable strength and the area is called as fading zone. This fading zone should
be kept as far as possible from the transmitter, and the optimum antenna that achieves this
objective is of height 0.55, where is the wavelength of the operating frequency.
Space (Tropospheric) Waves
They travel more or less in straight lines. As they depend on line of sight conditions, they are
limited in their propagation by the curvature of the earth except in very unusual circumstances.
Space wave can be direct or reflected from earth surface. Direct wave will be steady and strong.
Line of sight (LOS)
2a
LOS
h t hr m
Where
a
ht
hr
Radio waves normally goes in curved path due to refraction in troposphere. It can be noted that
not only the transmitting antenna height, but also the receiving antenna height is equally
important.
Fresnel Zone
Propagation is not by single thread like ray. Certain volume around the ray called First fresnel
zone is significant for propagation. Therefore, just LOS alone is not sufficient First fresnel zone
must be clear.
Environment Effects
Effects of buildings
Built up area has little effect on low frequencies (few MHz). But above 30 MHz obstruction loss
and shadow loss becomes important. The attenuation of brick wall may be 2-5 dB at 30 MHz
and increase to 10-40 dB at 3000 MHz.
Effects of trees and vegetation
The effect of thick vegetation is to absorb RF and it is particularly more for vertical polarization
than horizontal polarization. This is one of the reasons that TV broadcasting mostly uses
horizontal polarization.
Clutter losses
The loss due to natural and man made obstruction can only be statistically evaluated and a
certain allowance made in the calculations of field strength. Such losses in general are grouped
and referred to as Clutter losses. This loss is dependent on frequency of operation and the area
surrounding the transmitter.
Definitions
Effective radiated power (ERP)
ERP is the product of Intrinsic power of the transmitter and the gain of the transmitting antenna
over a dipole. Alternatively it is the sum of these parameters if they are expressed in decibels.
ERP
=
=
188 MHz
181 MHz
Desired Channel
Upper adjacent
Pic carrier
Pic
carrier
Lower adjacent
Sound carrier
Sound
carrier
5.5 MHz
180.75
182.25
1.5MHz
187.75
189.25
1.5MHz
(ii)
(iii)
Wave guides
Zo of a Feeder Line
The inductance, resistance, capacitance and conductance of the line determine the characteristics
impedance. G is the conductance of the line.
The
characteristic
impedance
R jL
Zo
G jC
is
given
by
the
following
basic
formula
At higher frequencies R & G becomes negligible with respect to reac tan ces of L & C. There fore
Zo
1.
2.
L
C
d
S
In MW band, normally the feeder lines used are unbalanced and has following characteristics.
6 wires, 230 Ohms
16 wires, 120 Ohms
24 wires, 60 Ohms
In SW, normally the balanced feeder lines are used. The impedances are
300 ohms, 4 wire
600 ohms, 2 wire
3.
For Storing energy in excess of that dissipated in load, in the form of standing
waves.
LOSSES IN THE FEEDER LINES
There are four types of losses. They are :
Radiation Loss : It is due to irregularity and usually very small for well designed
lines.
CHOICE OF FEEDER LINE IMPEDANCE
When the feeder line impedance is chosen low, feeder current will be more, resulting increase in
copper loss and earth loss. When feeder line impedance is high, feeder voltage will be high
resulting in the use of higher voltage rating insulators. So the choice depends upon the
availability of components and technology in use.
In AIR, following types of feeder lines are used.
230 ohm 6 wire (open wire) lines for all old 100 kW as well as 10/20 kW.
60 ohm quasi coaxial feeder line - megawatt of Chinsuraha, Rajkot and Nagpur.
120 ohm quasi coaxial feeder - all 300 kW and all 100/200 kW new version.
120 ohm feeder line is now standardised for modern transmitters.
Measurement Of Characteristic Impedance, Zo
Zo of a feeder line is given by the relation
Zo
Z oc .Z sc
Zoc = Open circuit Impedance, measured at input by keeping the feeder line end open
Zsc = Short circuit Impedance, measured at input by keeping the feeder line end short
Generally Zoc & Zsc are either capacitive or inductive depending upon the length of feeder line as
multiple of /4.
Zoc & Zsc can be measured with VIM or RF bridge by keeping the line open and shorting high
potential wire (inner) with ground wire (outer) at other end.
Another method utilises the fact that when the feeder line is terminated by its characteristic
impedance, its input impedance is equal to the characteristic impedance. Input impedance is
measured for various termination. The characteristic impedance is equal to that termination for
which input impedance is same as the termination itself.
Cables
The coaxial transmission system comprising of cables and connectors are primarily used for
efficient transmission of electromagnetic energy. Interconnection of an antenna and RF
transmitter or receiver is the most common use of coaxial transmission lines. Their electrical
efficiency and uniformity must be maintained over the desired frequency range and in a wide
variety of installations and environments. The coaxial cable consists of an outer tubular
conductor completely surrounding a concentric inner conductor and separated by a die electric
medium. The field components present in the dielectric medium are radial electric field Er and a
concentric magnetic field H.
Characteristic Impedance
VSWR
Capacitance
CW power rating
Maximum Operating Voltage
Attenuation
Velocity of propagation
Electrical Length Stability
Pulse Response
Shielding
Cut-off frequency
Flexibility or cable design and construction
Operating temperature range
Cable Noise
Environmental resistance
The LNB is a combination of Low-noise amplifer, block downconverter and IF amplifier. It takes
the received microwave transmission, amplifies it, downconverts the block of frequencies down
to a lower block of intermediate frequencies where the signal can be fed to the indoor satellite
TV receiver using relatively cheap cable.
The signal from the dish is picked up by a feedhorn and is fed to a section of waveguide. In this
waveguide a metal pin, or probe, protrudes into the waveguide at right angles to the axis and this
acts as an aerial, and feeds the signal to a printed circuit board in the LNB.
The low-noise quality of an LNB is expressed as the noise figure (or sometimes noise
temperature). This is the ratio of the amount of noise in the output to the amount in the input, in
decibels (dB). The ideal LNB would have a noise figure of 0dB.
Every LNB off the production line has a different noise figure because of manufacturing
tolerances. The noise figure quoted in the specifications, is important for determining its
suitability, is usually representative of neither that particular LNB nor the performance across the
whole frequency range, since the noise figure most often quoted is the typical figure averaged
over the production batch.
Block downconversion
The purpose of the LNB is to use the superheterodyne principle to take a
block (or band) of relatively high frequencies and convert them to similar
signals carried at a much lower frequency (called the intermediate frequency
or IF). These lower frequencies travel through cables with much less
attenuation, so there is much more signal left at the satellite receiver end of
the cable. It is also much easier and cheaper to design electronic circuits to
operate at these lower frequencies, rather than the very high frequencies of
satellite transmission.
The frequency conversion is performed by mixing a fixed frequency produced by a local
oscillator inside the LNB with the incoming signal, to generate two signals equal to the sum of
their frequencies and the difference. The frequency sum signal is filtered out and the frequency
difference signal (the IF) is amplified and sent down the cable to the receiver:
C-Band: IF frequency = local oscillator frequency - received frequency
Ku-Band: IF frequency = received frequency - local oscillator frequency
The local oscillator frequency determines what block of incoming frequencies is downconverted
to the frequencies expected by the receiver.
Waveform Monitor
A waveform monitor is a special type of oscilloscope used in television production applications.
It is typically used to measure and display the level, or voltage, of a video signal with respect to
time.
The level of a video signal usually corresponds to the brightness, or luminance, of the part of the
image being drawn onto a regular video screen at the same point in time. A waveform monitor
can be used to display the overall brightness of a television picture, or it can zoom in to show one
or two individual lines of the video signal. It can also be used to visualize and observe special
signals in the vertical blanking interval of a video signal, as well as the colorburst between each
line of video.
Waveform monitors are used for the following purposes:
To assist with the calibration of professional video cameras, and to "line up" multiplecamera setups being used at the same location in order to ensure that the same scene shot
under the same conditions will produce the same results.
As a tool to assist in telecine (film-to-tape transfer), color correction, and other video
production activities
To monitor video signals to make sure that neither the color gamut, nor the analog
transmission limits, are violated.
For setting camera exposure in the case of video and digital cinema cameras.
A waveform monitor is often used in conjunction with a vectorscope. Originally, these were
separate devices; however modern waveform monitors include vectorscope functionality as a
separate mode. (The combined device is simply called a "waveform monitor")
Pattern Generator
The composite test pattern consists of a central field of different signal components surrounded
by the grid lines and the circle.
Grid Pattern
The grid pattern consists of several crossed lines in the surrounding area of the central pattern.
There are 15 horizontal and 19 vertical lines arranged to get perfect square blocks on the screen.
These lines are superimposed on a background whose gray value is 20 to 30% of the maximum
white level.
Circle
The brightness of the circle corresponds to 100% white level. The sine-squared pulse at the
central horizontal region of the circle has a half amplitude pulse duration of 200 ns. The circle
passes through eight grid line intersection point.
The circle presents an extra sensitive way of checking the geometric distortion.
Colour Bar
This pattern consists of a sequence of eight equidistant colour regions.The sequence of colours
are chosen according to the decreasing values of their luminance levels. The sequence of colours
from left to right is as follows :
White, yellow, cyan, green, magenta, red, blue, black.
The chrominance control in the colour TV set can be adjusted to set the colour saturation by
observing the above colours on the TV screen.
Staircase Signal
The staircase signal follows the colour bar signal in the vertical direction. This area consists of
five gray steps with the signal level 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, 100% and white.
This signal is used to check the reproduction of tonal gradation and the white balance. The
contrast and the brightness controls of a TV set are adjusted such that the five gray steps are
distinguishable.
White to Black and Black to White Region
White to black and black to white region follows the staircase signal in the vertical direction.
The transitions have the rise time and the fall time approximately equal to 180 n sec. The white
area has 100% white level.
The signal is used to check the transient characteristics of the TV receiver.
Caption Signal
The black area in the signal can be used for inserting a set of characters to identify the
transmitting station or the time or the captions indicating the programme interruption. There is
an in-built dedicated caption generator facility using Read Only Memories for this purpose.
A maximum of 8 characters is possible for the caption.Therefore, to specify a caption, two
separate words of a maximum four characters each are to be indicated
Xtr.
Or
load
DC Connector
Directional
Coupling
Crystal
Diode
Meter
Bypass
DC Connect
Element
Meter
Cable
A sample loop and diode elements are contained within each plug in element. The main RF
barrel is actually a special coaxial line segment with 50 ohms characteristic impedance. The
thruline sensor works due to the mutual inductance between the sampling loop and the centre
conductor of the coaxial element. As it is using a special point contact diode as a detector, the
power measured is the average power. While taking power measurement of TV signal the RF
input to the thruline power should be modulated with sync only and audio drive should be
removed. This is because the RF power during normal transmission will vary with video signal
and the meter indication under such case should be taken as an indication of your transmitter
working and should not be taken as the real output power. It may also be noted that audio drive
is also present during normal transmission. To get the peak power value in case of TV signals
the average block power is to be multiplied by a factor of 1.674.
em
M
R
eR
The output voltage E of the coupler then is proportional to the mutual inductance and the
frequency.
The thruline power meter is not a VSWR meter, but VSWR can be determined from the formula
or the graphs.
Fig.Exciter
Fig.Transmitting Antenna