Tuatara fact file

Description
Biology
Range
Habitat
Status
Threats
Conservation
Find out more
Glossary
References
Print factsheet

Tuatara description
Kingdom
Animalia
Phylum
Chordata
Class
Reptilia
Order
Rhynchocephalia
Family
Sphenodontidae
Genus
Sphenodon (1)
An unusual and unique reptile found only in New Zealand, the tuatara (Sphenodon
punctatus) has been dubbed a living fossil as it is the only surviving member of an
ancient group of reptiles that flourished during the time of the dinosaurs (2) (6) (7) (8) (9).
The name of this group, Rhynchocephalia, means beak heads, referring to the
overhanging upper jaw of these species (2) (3).
The tuatara is a medium-sized reptile and superficially resembles a lizard in
appearance. It has a large head, a stout body, powerful limbs with sharp claws, and a
thick tail (3) (8), but it differs from lizards in details of its internal anatomy (8) (9). Unlike
lizards, the tuatara also has unusual dentition, with a single row of teeth in the lower
jaw which fits into a groove between two rows of teeth in the upper jaw (2) (9). The
teeth of this species are not set in sockets, instead being simple serrations in the jaw
bone(2) (7). The tuatara has no external ear opening, although it is still able to
hear (7) (8).
The body of the tuatara varies from olive-green to grey, blackish-brown or pinkish, and
is often marked with pale speckles (2) (8) which give this reptile its scientific
name punctatus, meaning speckled or spotted (10). The speckles tend to be brighter
in juveniles and in adults which have recently shed their skin (8). Newly hatched
tuatara are brownish-pink or grey, sometimes with light patches on the body and
tail (2) (8).
The name tuatara comes from New Zealand Maori words meaning peaks on the
back, referring to the conspicuous folds of skin and spiny crest along this species
neck, back and tail (2) (8) (10) (11). The spines are usually white (12) and are most
prominent in males, being raised during territorial or courtship displays (2) (7)(10). The
adult male tuatara can also be distinguished from the adult female by its larger
size (4) (8) (10), more triangular head (4) (10) and less pear-shaped abdomen (10).
A further unusual feature of the tuatara is that it possesses a third eye, also known
as a parietal or pineal eye, which is located centrally on top of the head, beneath the
skin (2) (7) (8). This eye has a lens and retina, but its exact function is unclear (8). It is

sensitive to light but is not thought to form images, instead potentially being involved
in regulating the tuataras exposure to the sun (2). Although the parietal eye is not
unique to the tuatara, it is better developed in this species than in any other
animal (8).
The tuatara has been reported to sometimes produce a harsh croaking sound, similar
to the call of a frog (8).
Until recently, the tuatara has generally been considered to comprise two separate
species, the common tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) and the Brothers Island tuatara
(Sphenodon guntheri) (1) (6) (8) (9) (13), with the Brothers Island tuatara being slightly
smaller (14). The common tuatara has also sometimes been further divided into
two subspecies (6) (9) (13). However, the taxonomy of the tuatara is debated and more
recently some scientists have considered it to be a single species, albeit with
distinctive and important geographical variations (6) (15).
Also known as
beak-head, Brothers Island tuatara, common tuatara, Cook Strait tuatara,
Gunthers tuatara, Gnthers tuatara, sphenodon.
Synonyms
Hatteria punctata, Sphenodon guntheri, Sphenodon punctatum.
French
Hatteria Ponctu, Sphnodon Ponctu.
Spanish
Tutara.
Size
Male total length: up to 61 cm (2)
Female total length: up to 45 cm (2)
Snout-vent length: up to 28 cm (3)
Male weight: up to 1 kg (4)
Female weight: up to 0.5 kg (4)
Top

Tuatara biology
The tuatara lives in burrows, either digging one itself or sharing the burrow of a
nesting seabird (2) (4) (8). Anocturnal species, the tuatara emerges from its burrow at
night to feed, but it may also come out to bask in the sun during the day (2) (3) (8) (9).
This reptile has relatively few natural predators, although it may potentially be taken
by birds of prey, kingfishers and gulls (9). If attacked, the tuatara is able to shed its tail
and then grow a new one (8) (10).
A sit and wait predator, the tuatara generally waits for prey to approach (4) (18), and it
hunts mainly by sight (2). Its diet includes a variety of small animals,
particularly invertebrates such as beetles, crickets and other large insects. It also eats
spiders, snails, worms and small lizards, and will even take the eggs and chicks of
seabirds(2) (4) (8) (9) (18), as well as occasional adult birds and some carrion (8) (18).
Most prey is seized in the tuataras mouth and crushed between its jaws. Small prey
may be eaten whole, but larger animals may be killed by persistent biting and then
gnawed (18). The tuatara has a unique jaw motion which gives its teeth a shearing,
sawing action, allowing it to process food more efficiently (2) (9) (19).
The tuatara mates in the summer, between January and March (2) (4) (9). At this time,
males become territorialand will attempt to warn off intruders by inflating their bodies
and raising their crests. Aggressive encounters may also involve head shaking,
opening and closing the mouth, and sometimes chasing and biting (3) (4) (7). When
courting a female, the male tuatara erects its crest and circles the female in a slow,
exaggerated, stiff-legged walk (3) (4) (10).

The female tuatara does not lay her eggs until the spring, from October to
December (2) (3) (4) (8) (9). At this time, the female chooses a suitable nesting site,
typically in an open, sunny area on a warm, north-facing slope, and digs a shallow
hole (4) (9). Up to 18 or 19 oval, soft-shelled eggs are laid, and the female then backfills the hole and may cover it with leaves and grass (4) (8). The female tuatara may
guard the nest for a few days to prevent other females digging it up (4) (20), but the
eggs are then abandoned (2) (8) (9).
The tuataras eggs hatch after 11 to 16 months (3) (9), one of the
longest incubation periods known for any reptile (2) (8). The newly hatched tuatara are
active by day for the first two months of life, only later starting to burrow and
becoming nocturnal (2) (9) (10). As in many reptiles, the sex of the tuatara is determined
by the temperature at which the eggs are incubated (4) (9), but this species is unusual
in that higher temperatures produce males and lower temperatures produce females,
rather than the other way around (2) (21) (22).
Tuatara grow slowly and do not reach sexual maturity until they are around 9 to 13
years old (2) (23). Growth may continue for many more years, and the tuatara can
potentially live to over 60 years old (7) (23), or possibly even to over 100 (2) (8). As well
as developing slowly, the tuatara also reproduces very slowly, and females are
thought to lay eggs only once every four years on average (3) (4) (9). Tuatara on North
Brother Island breed even more slowly, producing eggs only around once every nine
years (24), and laying relatively small clutches of three to eight eggs (24) (25).
Top

Tuatara range
The tuatara is endemic to New Zealand. It once occurred throughout the mainland, but
after the arrival of humans and other mammals, it survived on just over 30 offshore
islands in Cook Strait and off the north-eastern part of the North Island (2) (6) (8) (9) (11).
The Brothers Island tuatara (formerly the species S. guntheri) occurs naturally only on
North Brother Island, a four-hectare island in Cook Strait,
although translocated populations have now been established on three other
islands (2) (12) (16). Other tuatara populations have also been translocated and
reintroduced to further islands (2) (6), and several populations have now been
reintroduced into sanctuaries on New Zealands North and South Islands, marking the
return of the species to the mainland (12) (17).
More

Species with a similar range

South polar skua

(Stercorarius maccormicki)

Hochstetters frog
(Leiopelma hochstetteri)

Pennantia
(Pennantia baylisiana)
Top

Tuatara habitat
On the offshore islands on which it survives, the tuatara typically inhabits coastal
forest or low scrub (2) (4) (9), generally preferring relatively open areas with little ground
cover and with crumbly soil in which it can burrow (4) (9).
The islands on which the tuatara lives usually support colonies of breeding
seabirds (6) (8), whose burrows and droppings help to enhance soil fertility and
encourage a greater abundance of the tuataras invertebrate prey(2) (4) (6) (9) (10).
The tuatara has a low metabolic rate and is well adapted to being active at cool
temperatures (2) (8), which vary seasonally from 5 to 28 degrees Celsius (4) (9). This
reptile does not need standing water in its habitat, but does make the most of rainfalls
during otherwise dry summer months (4) (9) (12).
More

Species found in a similar habitat

Eastern woodrat
(Neotoma floridana)

Indian crested porcupine

(Hystrix indica)

Galanthus
(Galanthus reginae-olgae)
Top

Tuatara status
The tuatara is classified as Least Concern (LC) on the IUCN Red List (1) and is listed on
Appendix I of CITES (5). The Brothers Island tuatara (Sphenodon guntheri or
possible subspecies Sphenodon punctatus guntheri) is classified as Vulnerable (VU) on
the IUCN Red List (1).

Top

Tuatara threats
The loss of the tuatara from mainland New Zealand is thought to have been caused by
habitat destruction and the introduction of mammalian predators, particularly
rats (2) (4) (8). Studies on islands where rats and tuatara coexist have shown that
tuatara numbers are low, few juveniles are present and adults are in poor condition,
suggesting that rats prey on tuatara eggs and young as well as competing with adults
for food (9) (26) (27). As it breeds so slowly, the tuatara cannot make up for these
losses (6), and the species has become extinct on a number of rat-inhabited islands in
the past century (9) (28).

Although work has been done to remove rats from many islands, tuatara populations
are still at risk from accidental reintroductions of these non-native mammals (6) (9).
Many tuatara populations are small, so lowgenetic diversity may also be a threat,
potentially affecting the species ability to adapt to change (6). Illegal capture of
tuatara has also sometimes occurred (9), and the small islands this reptile inhabits are
at risk from any chance events, such as fires (21).
A further threat to the tuatara may come from climate change. As its sex is
temperature-dependent, a warmer climate may produce more males, leading to a
skewed sex ratio (21) (22) (24) (25). This is likely to be a particular problem on North
Brother Island, where the tuatara population is already biased towards males (22) (24). It
remains to be seen whether the species will be able to adapt by changing its nesting
behaviour (24) (25).
The overall tuatara population is believed to number around 50,000 to 60,000
individuals (8) (9). However, by the year 2000 the population of the Brothers Island
tuatara (formerly the species S. guntheri) had been estimated at only around 473
adults, and most Brothers Island tuatara are confined to just 2.2 hectares of North
Brother Island. This population almost became extinct due to the construction of a
lighthouse and accompanying buildings on the island in the late 19th century, and
although it is now recovering it has lowgenetic diversity and a particularly low
breeding rate (16). Subsequent automation of the lighthouse may pose a further threat,
as a lack of lighthouse keepers increases the risk of illegal landings on the island (13).
Top

Tuatara conservation
A range of conservation measures are in place to try and save this rare and unique
reptile. The tuatara is legally protected (2) (10) (21), and is also listed on Appendix I of
the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), meaning that
international trade in this species is prohibited (5). The New Zealand Department of
Conservation has put a recovery plan in place to guide conservation efforts for the
tuatara (9), and has also produced a plan for the management of the species in
captivity (4).
One of the main actions to protect tuatara has been the eradication of rats from many
of the islands it inhabits (9). Long-term monitoring programmes have been
recommended to assess the effectiveness of these eradications, but may need to
continue for several decades to detect the effects on this long-lived reptile (28). Further
rat eradication programmes are also planned, and care needs to be taken to ensure
rats do not re-invade any islands (9).
Captive incubation of wild eggs is also playing a major role in tuatara conservation.
Eggs have been successfully hatched in captivity, and both adult and juvenile tuatara
have been translocated to a number of rodent-free islands to establish new
populations (6) (9) (25) (29) (30). Captive-raised juveniles have also been released to
augment existing populations (9), and in 2012 over 200 tuatara were reintroduced to 4
predator-free mainland sanctuaries and one offshore island (17). In addition, captive
tuatara can play an important role in education, public awareness and
research (4) (6) (9).
Habitat restoration and management will be important for some tuatara
populations (9), particularly on North Brother Island (13) (16). To combat the potential
effects of global warming, tuatara may need to be moved to cooler sites (24), and a
model has been developed to predict the suitability of different areas (25). One of the
mainland sites to which tuatara were moved in 2012 is in the southern part of the
South Island, approximately 600 kilometres further south than the most southern

naturally occurring population in Cook Strait, and will therefore have a cooler
climate (12).
As well as further research into the tuataras behaviour and biology (9), more work
needs to be done to clarify its taxonomy, as this will have an impact on how its
populations are managed and how conservation resources are allocated (9) (13).
Fortunately, intensive conservation work in recent decades has given the tuatara a
more secure conservation status, giving hope that this distinctive, prehistoric-looking
reptile can survive into the future (9).
Top

Find out more

Find out more about the tuatara and its conservation:

New Zealand Department of Conservation - Tuatara:

http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/native-animals/reptiles-and-frogs/tuatara/
Gaze P. (2001) Tuatara Recovery Plan 2001-2011. Department of Conservation,
Wellington, New Zealand. Available at:
http://www.doc.govt.nz/documents/science-and-technical/TSRP47.pdf
BBC Science & Nature - Tuatara:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/3052.shtml
The Reptile Database:
http://reptile-database.reptarium.cz/search.php
Top

Authentication
Authenticated (25/07/13) by Susan Keall and Nicola Nelson, Allan Wilson Centre for
Molecular Ecology and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of
Wellington.
http://www.victoria.ac.nz/home
Top

Glossary
Carrion
The flesh of a dead animal.
Endemic
A species or taxonomic group that is only found in one particular country or
geographic area.
Genetic diversity
The variety of genes within a particular species, population or breed causing
differences in morphology, physiology and behaviour.
Incubation
The act of incubating eggs; that is, keeping them warm so that development is
possible.
Invertebrates

Animals with no backbone, such as insects, crustaceans, worms, molluscs,

spiders, cnidarians (jellyfish, corals, sea anemones) and echinoderms.
Metabolic rate
The speed at which an animal uses energy; the amount of energy it expends in
a given time.
Nocturnal
Active at night.
Subspecies
A population usually restricted to a geographical area that differs from other
populations of the same species, but not to the extent of being classified as a
separate species.
Taxonomy
The science of classifying organisms, grouping together animals which share
common features and are thought to have a common ancestor.
Territorial
Describes an animal, a pair of animals or a colony that occupies and defends an
area.
Translocated
When individual living organisms from one area have been transferred and
released or planted in another area.
Top

References
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

IUCN Red List (May, 2013)

http://www.iucnredlist.org/
Halliday, T. and Adler, K. (2002) The New Encyclopedia of Reptiles and
Amphibians. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Zug, G.R., Vitt, L.J. and Caldwell, J.P. (2001) Herpetology: An Introductory
Biology of Amphibians and Reptiles. Second Edition. Academic Press, San Diego.
Blanchard, B., Wellington Zoo, and the Tuatara Recovery Group, Department of
Conservation (2002)Tuatara Captive Management Plan and Husbandry Manual.
Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand. Available at:
http://www.doc.govt.nz/documents/science-and-technical/tsop21.pdf
CITES (May, 2013)
http://www.cites.org/
New Zealand Department of Conservation - Tuatara (May, 2013)
http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/native-animals/reptiles-and-frogs/tuatara/
Pianka, E.R. and Vitt, L.J. (2003) Lizards: Windows to the Evolution of Diversity.
University of California Press, Berkeley.
Burton, M. and Burton, R. (2002) International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Third
Edition. Marshall Cavendish, New York.
Gaze, P. (2001) Tuatara Recovery Plan 2001-2011. Department of Conservation,
Wellington, New Zealand. Available at:
http://www.doc.govt.nz/documents/science-and-technical/TSRP47.pdf

10.
11.

Lutz, D. (2006) Tuatara: A Living Fossil. DIMI Press, Salem, Oregon.

The Reptile Database (May, 2013)
http://reptile-database.reptarium.cz/search.php
12.
Keall, S. and Nelson, N. (July, 2013) Pers. comm.
13.
Daugherty, C.H., Cree, A., Hay, J.M. and Thompson, M.B. (1990) Neglected
taxonomy and continuing extinctions of tuatara (Sphenodon). Nature, 347: 177-179.
14.
Cree, A., Daugherty, C.H., Schafer, S.F. and Brown, D. (1991) Nesting and clutch
size of tuatara (Sphenodon guntheri) on North Brother Island, Cook
Strait. Tuatara, 31(1): 9-16.
15.
Hay, J.M., Sarre, S.D., Lambert, D.M., Allendorf, F.W. and Daugherty, C.H. (2010)
Genetic diversity and taxonomy: a reassessment of species designation in tuatara
(Sphenodon: Reptilia). Conservation Genetics,11: 1063-1081.
16.
Hoare, J.M., Pledger, S., Keall, S.N., Nelson, N.J., Mitchell, N.J. and Daugherty,
C.H. (2006) Conservation implications of a long-term decline in body condition of the
Brothers Island tuatara (Sphenodon guntheri).Animal Conservation, 9(4): 456-462.
17.
Department of Conservation (2012) Tuatara on tour. Conservation Blog, 18
October. Available at:
http://blog.doc.govt.nz/2012/10/18/tuatara-on-tour/
18.
Walls, G.Y. (1981) Feeding ecology of the tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) on
Stephens Island, Cook Strait.New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 4: 89-97.
19.
Jones, M.E.H., OHiggins, P., Fagan, M.J., Evans, S.E. and Curtis, N. (2012)
Shearing mechanics and the influence of a flexible symphysis during oral food
processing in Sphenodon (Lepidosauria: Rhynchocephalia). The Anatomical
Record, 295(7): 1075-1091.
20.
Refsnider, J.M., Keall, S.N., Daugherty, C.H. and Nelson, N.J. (2009) Does nestguarding in female tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) reduce nest destruction by
conspecific females? Journal of Herpetology, 43(2): 294-299.
21.
Nelson, N.J., Keall, S.N., Pledger, S. and Daugherty, C.H. (2002) Male-biased sex
ratio in a small tuatara population. Journal of Biogeography, 29: 633-640.
22.
Mitchell, N.J., Nelson N.J., Cree, A., Pledger, S., Keall, S.N. and Daugherty, C.H.
(2006) Support for a rare pattern of temperature-dependent sex determination in
archaic reptiles: evidence from two species of tuatara (Sphenodon). Frontiers in
Zoology, 3: 9.
23.
Castanet, J., Newman, D.G. and Girons, H.S. (1988) Skeletochronological data
on the growth, age, and population structure of the tuatara, Sphenodon punctatus, on
Stephens and Lady Alice Islands, New Zealand. Herpetologica, 44(1): 25-37.
24.
Mitchell, N.J., Allendorf, F.W., Keall, S.N., Daugherty, C.H. and Nelson, N.J. (2010)
Demographic effects of temperature-dependent sex determination: will tuatara survive
global warming? Global Change Biology,16: 60-72.
25.
Mitchell, N.J., Kearney, M.R., Nelson, N.J. and Porter, W.P. (2008) Predicting the
fate of a living fossil: how will global warming affect sex determination and hatching
phenology in tuatara? Proceedings of the Royal Society B - Biological Sciences, 275:
2185-2193.
26.
Towns, D.R. et al. (2007) Responses of tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) to
removal of introduced Pacific rats from islands. Conservation Biology, 21(4): 10211031.
27.
Tyrrell, C.L., Cree, A. and Towns, D.R. (2000) Variation in Reproduction and
Condition of Northern Tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus punctatus) in the Presence and
Absence of Kiore. Science for Conservation 153, Department of Conservation,
Wellington, New Zealand.

28.

Cree, A., Daugherty, C.H. and Hay, J.M. (1995) Reproduction of a rare New
Zealand reptile, the tuataraSphenodon punctatus, on rat-free and rat-inhabited
islands. Conservation Biology, 9(2): 373-383.
29.
Nelson, N.J., Keall, S.N., Brown, D. and Daugherty, C.H. (2002) Establishing a
new wild population of tuatara (Sphenodon guntheri). Conservation Biology, 16(4):
887-894.
30.
Wellington Zoo - Conservation and research projects (May, 2011)
http://www.wellingtonzoo.com/content/conservation/research.aspx