Fluid-Loss Control: The Key to

Successful Acid Fracturing

c.w. Crowe, SPE,

B.H. Hutchinson, * and B.L. Trlttipo, Dowell Schlumberger

Summary. Acid fluid loss is extremely difficult to control and is generally considered to be the major factor limiting the effectiveness
of acid fracturing treatments. Chemical erosion of fracture faces and the development of wormholes are largely responsible for the reduced efficiency of acid fracturing fluids. The creation of acid wormholes increases the effective area from which leakoff occurs, thus
reducing the acid hydraulic efficiency. Once wormholes form, most acid fluid loss originates from these wormholes rather than penetrating uniformly into the fracture face.
Methods of acid fluid-loss control are discussed and evaluated with an improved fluid-loss test procedure. This procedure uses limestone cores of sufficient length to contain wormhole growth. Studies demonstrate that if wormhole growth can be controlled, acid fluid
loss approaches that of nonreactive fluids.
An improved acid fracturing fluid having unique rheological characteristics is described. This acid has a low initial viscosity but temporarily becomes extremely viscous during leakoff. This high leakoff viscosity blocks wormhole development and prevents acid entry into
natural fractures. After the treatment, spent-acid viscosity declines rapidly to ensure easier cleanup.

Introduction
Acid fracturing is a well stimulation process in which acid, usually
HCl, is injected into a carbonate formation at pressures sufficient
to fracture the formation or to open existing natural fractures. As
acid flows along the fracture, portions of the fracture face are dissolved. Because flowing acid tends to erode fracture faces nonuniformly, conductive channels, which usually remain after fracture
closure, are created. The effective fracture length is determined
by the volume of acid used, its reaction rate, and the acid fluidloss rate. Productivity improvement is largely a function of the
length of the etched fracture.
The maximum effective distance obtainable by acid fracturing
is limited by either spending or fluid loss. If the acid spends too
rapidly, the etched portion of the fracture will be rather short. If
acid fluid-loss characteristics are poor, excessive leakoff will terminate fracture growth. It is commonly believed that, at low to
moderate temperatures, acid leakoff is the dominant factor limiting the effective length of the etched fracture. l
During many, if not most, acid fracturing treatments, the treating pressure declines continually, eventually falling below a level
required to propagate the fracture. Thus, fracture extension becomes
impossible. In some cases, treating pressure never reaches a level
sufficient to initiate a hydraulic fracture, indicating that the acid
is expended in a matrix treatment of the near-well bore region. For
maximum stimulation results, the treating pressure must remain
above fracturing pressure during the entire treatment. Acid pumped
below this pressure cannot contribute to fracture extension.
Fluid-loss control during acid fracturing of carbonate formations
presents problems unique to reactive fluids. Most fluid-loss additives and gelling agents used in nonreactive aqueous fracturing fluids
are unstable in acid. As a result, special acid-stable additives must
be used. In addition, acid flow along carbonate fracture surfaces
produces constant chemical erosion, thus making it difficult for wallbuilding fluids to deposit an effective filter cake. Another complication is that during leakoff, acid tends to enlarge certain larger
pores and natural fractures selectively, resulting in wormholes and
channels perpendicular to the fracture face. This phenomenon greatly increases the effective surface area from which leakoff occurs
and is generally believed to affect acid fluid loss adversely. 2
Various additives and treating techniques have been developed
as means of controlling acid fluid loss. One of the earliest acid fluidloss additives was karaya gum. Unlike most natural gums, karaya
gum does not readily dissolve in acid but forms small swollen particles that act to block wormholes physically in the early stages of
their development. The effectiveness of karaya gum is limited, however, by its rapid acid hydrolysis at temperatures above 125F
[52C]. To overcome this problem, synthetic acid-swellable polymers were later developed. Although these materials performed well
in laboratory tests, field treatments produced mixed results. In ad'Now at EI Paso Products Co.
Copyright 1989 Society of Petroleum Engineers

SPE Production Engineering, August 1989

dition to suffering from mixing and gravity-separation problems,

the increased polymer stability occasionally resulted in poor or incomplete posttreatment cleanup.
To be effective, additives must be stable in acid at elevated temperature. Fluid-loss additives that are stable in hot acid, however,
are generally very difficult to dissolve or to degrade after the treatment. One method of overcoming this problem involves the use
of an oil-soluble acid fluid-loss additive. Additives of this type are
usually composed of a mixture of oil-soluble resins. This resin mixture consists of rigid larger-size material, which acts to bridge large
pores in the formation, and a smaller-sj}:e pliable resin, which serves
as a filtration-control agent by deforming and sealing the spaces
between the larger particles. Nierode and Kruk 1 evaluated the performance of various acid fluid-loss additives against long limestone
cores and found an oil-soluble resin mixture to be the only product
capable of controlling acid fluid loss at differential pressures simulating those encountered downhole. The major limitation of this system is the high concentration of additive required for fluid-loss
control. At the required concentration of 200 lbmll ,000 gal [24
kg/m3], high additive costs have limited the commercial application of this product.
Acid fluid-loss additives generally are not often used because of
performance and cost limitations. As a result, alternative methods
of fluid-loss control are sometimes incorporated. The most common technique involves injection of a viscous, nonreactive pad
preceding the acid. 3 This technique usually includes a water-based
fracturing fluid to cool the fracture and to lay down an impermeable filter cake on the fracture face. While the technique is widely
used, studies l .4 have shown that such filter cakes are relatively ineffective for acid fluid-loss control. Laboratory tests reveal that the
filter cake is quickly penetrated by wormholes resulting from even
small amounts of acid leakoff. Once this occurs, acid fluid loss is
identical to that observed if no pad were used.
While the use of the pad probably provides only limited acid fluidloss control, it does have other useful functions. It cools the tubular goods through which the acid must flow, thus reducing corrosion. It also cools the fracture and increases fracture width, resulting
in reduced acid reaction rate and increased live-acid penetration.
As an added benefit, the viscous pad promotes acid fingering, thus
reducing the amount of reactive surface area to which the acid is
exposed and improving fracture length and conductivity. 5
Recognizing the limitations of a single stage of pad for controlling acid fluid loss, researchers developed variations of this technique. In one such procedure, the fracture is initially created by
a gelled pad, after which alternating stages of acid and additional
pad are pumped. 4 These additional pad stages are designed to enter
and seal wormholes created by the preceding acid. Alternating acid
and gel stages allows acid leakoff into wormholes and enlarged
natural fractures to be controlled and treatment efficiency to be improved. Fine particulate material is often added to the pad stages
to aid in fluid-loss control. 4 Various particulate materials are used
215

HASSLER
PRESSURE

PUMP
CO, .....;!f-+-~..VACUUM
H,O

~nNG

PISTON

OIL
BLEED

--'

":J

OISPLACEIoINT

CI;<M."

0
U
0

:::;

'">-

W
I

HEATED PRESSURIZED
CORE HOLDER

BACK PRESSURE

Fig. 1-Laboratory core-flow equipment used in acid fluid-loss studies.

for this purpose, the most common of which is lOO-mesh sand. Oilsoluble resins and salt of a similar particle size are also sometimes
used. 6
Acid fluid loss can also be reduced by gelling the acid. This
method of fluid-loss control has become widely used since the development of more acid-stable thickening agents. 7 Thickeners most
commonly used include xanthan biopolymers, various acrylamide
copolymers, and certain surfactants that thicken acid by micellar
association. The effectiveness of gelling agents for controlling acid
fluid loss varies greatly, depending on the gelling agent used and
well conditions encountered.

Nature of Acid Fluid Loss

A full understanding of the 'nature of acid fluid loss is important
in developing effective methods for controlling it. That acid leakoff
into permeable carbonate rock results in the creation of wormholes
has long been known. This phenomenon has been the subject of
numerous investigations. These studies 2 ,8,9 show that a few large
pores initially receive a disproportionate amount of acid, resulting
in their rapid selective enlargement. Consequently, most of the acid
enters a few enlarged pores, creating the observed wormhole effect. The creation and branching of wormholes and enlargement
of natural fractures have a major effect on acid fluid loss because

30

30

TEMP 150"F

/.

~.-.--.-.-

:. . . . . .
G
"
"
o

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--_. 0.25 ml/min

0.5 ml/mln

- 1 ml/min

20

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40

50

60

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0

15

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they increase the effective amount of surface area from which acid
fluid loss occurs. Factors governing the propagation of these wormholes are analogous to those affecting acid spending in a hydraulic
fracture. Wormholes continue to grow in length, provided that live
acid is delivered to the wormhole tip. Thus, increased temperature
decreases wormhole penetration distance. Likewise, wormhole
depth is lengthened by increased acid concentration and injection
rate. Once wormholes reach this maximum spending-limited depth,
injection of additional acid acts mainly to enlarge the diameter of
existing wormholes. This can be demonstrated by acid core-flow
studies performed with the test equipment shown in Fig. I. In these
tests, HCl was injected, against a 1,0oo-psi [6.89-MPa] backpressure, into permeable Indiana limestone cores measuring 1 in. [2.54
cm] in diameter by 11.8 in. [30 cm] in length. All cores used in
this study were cut perpendicular to the bedding plane from the
same block of Indiana limestone to minimize permeability variations between cores. In each test, a specified amount of acid was
injected into each limestone core, after which the core was cut into
O.4-in. [I-cm] segments. Examining the segments and measuring
their permeability established the maximum wormhole depth. Fig.
2, a plot of these data, demonstrates the influence of acid injection
rate on wormhole penetration distance. At the higher injection rates,
deeply penetrating wormholes develop, while wormhole develop-

!.:,/"

a.

70

VOL 157. Hel (ml)

Fig. 2-Effect of acid leakoff rate on wormhole growth.

: I
: I
I
I

1--- 1S!l Hel

15~

1.0 ml/mln (200"F)

He! 1.0 ml/mln (15O"F)

!
o

10

20

30

40

VOLUME Hel

50

60

70

(ml)

Fig. 3-Effect of temperature on wormhole growth.

216

SPE Production Engineering, August 1989

25

~.--.

......

20

u
-15
:z;
0

I
I

i=
~

II:
I-

10

:z;

1-'- ....

(I"; 1

HCt 0.5 ml/mln

1" HCI 0.5 ml/mln (15O'f)

D..

10

20

30

.0

VOLUME Hel

50

60

70

(ml)

Fig. 4-Effect of acid concentration on wormhole growth.

Fig. 5-Fluid-lnvaslon pattern as Influenced by a simulated

wormhole.

ment at lower rates is almost nonexistent. Also apparent is the rapid

wormhole growth in length during the early stages of acid injection owing to selective channeling of the acid. For example, at an
injection rate of 1.0 mLimin, wormhole penetration reaches a depth
of 3.7 in . [9.4 cm] after injection of only 2.5 mL of acid . Note
that this penetration depth does not usually represent a single wormhole but a branched wormhole network. Thus, leakoff of only a
small amount of acid greatly increases the amount of new surface
area from which fluid loss can occur. This is a major reason why
acid fluid loss is more difficult to control than that for nonreactive
fluids.
Factors other than leakoff velocity also influence wormhole
penetration depth. Fig. 3 illustrates wormhole growth during acid
core-flow tests performed at different temperatures. As might be
expected, increasing the test temperature decreases the depth of acid
penetration.
As shown in Fig. 4, acid concentration also has an effect on wormhole penetration depth. Increasing HCl concentration from 15 to
28% approximately doubles the effective penetration depth.
The development of wormholes during acid fracturing treatments
has several other implications. In addition to increasing acid fluid
loss, these wormholes also alter the pattern of fluid invasion into
the fracture face. Once developed, acid fluid loss originates
predominantly from existing wormholes, with little fluid leakoff
actually occurring at the fracture face. This effect is illustrated in
Fig . 5. To simulate an existing wormhole, a 0.125-in. [0.32-cm]
-diameter hole was first drilled to a depth of 2.6 in. [6.6 cm] into
an Indiana limestone core. The core was then mounted in the coreflow apparatus shown in Fig. I . Dyed water was injected; then the
core was removed and cut lengthwise to reveal the colored-fluidinvasion pattern. As shown, almost all fluid loss originates from
the drilled hole, with little dyed-fluid invasion at the core face. A
somewhat similar fluid-invasion pattern is observed when dyed 15 %
HCl is injected into a limestone core containing no pre-existing hole.
As Fig. 6 shows, almost all fluid loss again originates from the
wormhole created by the acid. This observation has several important implications. First, it shows why filter cakes deposited by
nonreactive pad fluids have little influence on subsequent acid fluid
loss. Once wormholes penetrate a filter cake, they are responsible
for almost all acid fluid loss, regardless of any remaining fIlter cake.
Second, the acid reaction rate can be retarded by the addition of
fIlterable solids to the acid. 10 If tests are performed at a differential pressure low enough to limit wormhole development, such additives deposit fIlter cakes, which act as barriers between the acid
and the fracture surface. While this method of acid retardation is
effective under conditions of little or no wormhole development,
the existence of deeply penetrating wormholes eliminates most
leakoff at the fracture face and prevents fIlter cakes from developing.
The existence of wormholes also influences development of fracture conductivity. Because acid fracturing depends on the etching
of fracture faces to create flow channels, acid lost to wormholes

would result in less rock dissolution from the fracture face and thus
lower conductivity. Previous studies II showed that localized
~hanges in the permeability of the fracture face have a far smaller
effect on productivity than does fracture length or conductivity.

SPE Production Engineering, August 1989

Acid Fluid-Loss Tests

The initial problem encountered in any investigation of acid fluidloss control involves the selection of laboratory test methods. Earlier
studies l ,3.4,10 used a variety oftesting techniques, with no particular method being universally accepted. Wormhole development
severely complicates acid fluid-loss testing because even moderate
amounts of acid leakoff produce channels completely through short
limestone cores. Various testing techniques have previously been
used to overcome this problem. In some cases, filter paper or sandstone cores, rather than limestone, were used. This technique prevents wormhole development but is not representative of actual
treating conditions. Another technique is simply to measure the time
required for the wormhole to penetrate a limestone core under a
prescribed set of test conditions. While this may provide a comparison of relative fluid-loss efficiency, it usually does not provide
actual fluid-loss volumes. Also, such tests are sensitive to test conditions and are actually a measure of wormhole growth rather than
fluid loss. Another approach involves tests performed against limestone but at very low (5- to 30-psi [34.5- to 206.9-kPa]) differential pressures. This limits acid leakoff to a low level, thus preventing
wormhole development, as demonstrated by the data in Fig. 2.
While such tests allow measurement of actual acid fluid loss, their
value is questionable because differential pressures used are probably far below those actually experienced during actual treatments.
Previous acid fluid-loss studies used differential pressures ranging from 5 (Ref. 10) to 1,700 psi (Ref. 1) [34.5 to 11 722 kPa] .
The proper choice of realistic test conditions is not readily apparent. This choice is very difficult because the actual effective differential pressure during acid fracturing treatments probably varies
greatly, depending on well conditions. To be widely effective, however, any method of acid fluid-loss control should function over
a wide range of differential pressures.
These assumptions indicate that the most representative acid fluidloss test is one that uses rather long limestone cores and is performed at differential pressures sufficient to achieve appreciable
leakoff with significant wormhole development. Test conditions,
however, should not allow acid channeling completely through the
core during a normal 25-minute fluid-loss test. All tests should be
performed against a backpressure of at least 1,000 psi [6.89 MPa]
to minimize gas blockage reSUlting from CO 2 generated by acid
spending.
Therefore, an acid fluid-loss test was developed with the coreflow apparatus shown in Fig. I. Indiana limestone cores measuring
I x 11.8 in. [2.54 x 30 cm] were used in all tests. Test conditions
were chosen in which both wormhole growth and spent-acid reac217

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15% Hel

,,/

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,
\

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....
-'

0.2

o
o

20

10

.30

50

60

TIME (min)

Fig. 6- Fluld leakoff from wormholes as Illustrated by InJection of dyed 15% HCI (150 F).

Fig. 7-Effect of pre-existing HPG filter cake on acid fluid loss

(see Table 1). (Inltlalleakoff rate 1.0 mL/mln, 150F.)

tion products would be contained within the core during the test
period. At the beginning of each test, 2 % KCl brine was flowed
through the core to establish the differential pressure required to
achieve a preselected initialleakoff velocity , usually either 0 .5 or
1.0 mLimin. This step established the differential pressure to be
used in the fluid-loss test. Use of this procedure served to normalize permeability differences of cores used in the tests. After this
pressure determination, the acid solution was circulated across the
core face, with no differential pressure applied through the core,
to flush brine from the system. The acid reservoir was then pressurized to a level sufficient to achieve the desired differential pressure, and the reservoir valve was opened to apply the predetermined
differential pressure across the core, thus beginning the test. A constant differential pressure was maintained during the test. Acid
leakoff was measured by computer monitoring of the fluid volume
displaced by the liquid chromatography pump used to pressurize
the acid. This procedure was chosen because it provided an actual
measurement of acid entering the core. Previous studies 12 showed
that HCl spending normally produces more CO 2 than can be dissolved by the spent acid, titus resulting in a gaseous phase of CO 2 ,
As a result, the fluid volume displaced from a saturated limestone
core during acid injection is greater than that injected. The direct
measurement of acid injected eliminates this problem.
Because acid is not circulated across the face of the core during
the fluid-loss test, the test is static rather than dynamic. With normal filter-cake-forming fluids, one might expect dynamic flow to
affect fluid-loss results significantly owing to filter-cake erosion.
For acid, however, leakoff is predominantly from wormhole tips

rather than into the fracture face . As a result, one would not expect flow across the core face to have a major effect on test results.

Evaluation of Methods for Acid

Fluid-Loss Control
One of the techniques commonly used for acid fluid-loss control
incorporates a viscous pad preceding the acid to deposit an impermeable filter cake on the fracture surface. As discussed earlier, previous
studies indicate that this technique provides only limited fluid-loss
control as a result of rapid filter-cake penetration by acid wormholes. Data in Fig. 7 show a comparison of fluid loss of 15 % HCl
against limestone vs. acid fluid loss against a similar core on which
a filter cake of hydroxypropyl guar (HPG) had previously been
deposited. As can be seen, the acid leakoff rate is almost totally
unaffected by the presence of the filter cake.
Fig. 8 shows a similar test using multiple stages of gelled pad
and acid. This test was begun by first injecting an HPG pad for
25 minutes, followed by injection of 15% HCI for 4 minutes. Again,
fluid loss during this brief acid injection was unaffected by the presence of the filter cake. Earlier tests (Fig. 3) showed that leakoff
of this volume of acid, under these conditions, would create wormholes to a depth of about 3.9 in. [10 cm]. After the short acid treatment, a second stage of pad was injected. Fluid loss during injection
of this second pad was much higher than that observed with the
initial pad because of the increased leakoff area resulting from the
acid wormholes. It was also observed that the effect of the pad on
fluid loss is delayed because it must travel the length of the worm-

TABLE 1-IDENTIFICATION OF FLUIDS USED

IN CORE TESTING

15% Hel

1.0

HPG
SGA
APGA
XPGA
New system

2% KCI solution gelled with 40 Ibm/1,000

gal hydroxypropyl guar
15% HCI gelled with a surfactant gelling
agent (56 cp at 100F and 19 cp at
150F)
15% HCI gelled with acrylamide copolymer
(35 cp at 150F)
15% HCL gelled with xanthan biopolymer
(38 cp at 150F)
Improved-efficiency gelled 15% HCI having
an initial viscosity of 30 cp at 150F but
increasing to about 1,000 cp during leakoff

Viscosilies measured al 170 seconds - ,

.......

"

1:

~ 0.8

--E
.....
.....
o

0.6

o.~

'"

' ........ /

15~ Hel

-------

~ 0.2

-'

o
o

10

20

.30

~o

50

60

70

TIME (min)

Fig. 8-Effect of multiple HPG stages on acid fluid loss (see

Table 1). (Initial leakoff rate = 1.0 mL/mln, 150F.)
218

SPE Production Engineering, August 1989

14Lr==================;----"""]
_.-0-.- SGA,O.5ml/min(1000F)
---Cr-- 15% Hel, 0.5ml/min(100F)
12
<)...... SGA. 0.5ml/min(150F)
- i l - - 15% Hel, 0.5ml/min(150F)

~10

o
....I

a
:5

25

20

E
en
en
o
....I

a
:5
....I

TEMP 150F

---b--- XPGA

15

10

,,,-::.';'

---<r-15% Hel

~<

"':.::~::::::

II..

WD =22em

.....-.... APGA

D=14em

""1

~';:!"-

...

WD = 14 em

TIME (mino.

TIME (mino.5 )

Fig. 9-Effect of SGA's on acid fluid loss (see Table 1).

Fig. 10-Effect of stable-polymer-type gelling agents on acid

fluid loss (see Table 1).

holes to reach the site of fluid leakoff. As demonstrated, most leakoff

occurs at the wormhole tip. After this second pad stage, 15% HCl
was again injected. During this period of acid injection, fluid loss
remained at a very low level for the entire 25 minutes of the test,
compared with the uncontrolIed acid leakoff observed during the
initial acid injection. It is interesting to note that fluid loss actualIy
declined during acid injection, apparently the result of wormholes
being fuII of gel when acid injection resumes. Thus, the fluid leaked
off at the wormhole tip is actually gelled water, not acid. Posttest
core examination revealed that total wormhole penetration depth
was no greater than that produced by the first short period of acid
injection. Thus, both fluid loss and wormhole development are controlIed by the use of multiple stages of acid and gelIed water.
GelIed acids have found increased use in acid fracturing since
the development of more stable acid gelling agents. It is commonly believed that these gelling agents reduce both fluid loss and acid
reaction rate. The two classes of acid gelling agents most often used
are synthetic copolymers based on acrylamide and surfactant systems that thicken acid by forming micelIar networks within the acid
solution. While both systems exhibit good chemical stability in acid,
the surfactant gelIed acids (SGA's) lose viscosity rapidly as temperatures approach 150F [66 o q.13 This viscosity loss is not
caused by gelling-agent degradation but by disruption of the micellar
association network. A unique characteristic of the SGA's is that
reaction products produced during acid spending also disrupt this
micelIar association and cause the spent acids to revert to a thin
fluid. Because this viscosity reduction aids in the recovery of the
spent acid after the treatment, it is considered an advantage.

A series of tests was performed to evaluate fluid-loss characteristics of gelled acids. In the first test, fluid loss of 15 % HCl, thickened with a surfactant gelling agent, was compared with unthickened
acid. As the test results in Fig. 9 show, differences in fluid loss
between gelIed and ordinary acid are not as great as might be anticipated. This failure to control fluid loss is apparently related to
the loss of acid viscosity during spending and the development of
wormholes during acid 1eakoff.
The addition of stable polymeric thickeners was found to reduce
acid fluid loss significantly. Fig. 10 shows a comparison of fluidloss properties of 15 % HCl vs. the same acid gelled with two different polymers. Increasing the acid viscosity significantly reduces acid
fluid loss, but the reduction in fluid loss is less than might be anticipated on the basis of gelled-acid viscosity. This higher-thanexpected fluid loss is apparently related to wormholes created during acid leakoff. Wormholes extending to a depth of 5.5 in. [14
cm] were produced during the test, even with the gelIed acids. The
rapid growth of wormholes during early 1eakoff and the resulting
increase in new leakoff area combine to reduce fluid efficiency below that expected from a nonreactive fluid. Thus, it appears that
improved acid fluid-loss control may require an acid system capable of controlling wormhole growth.
To solve this problem, tests were performed with a gelIed acid
having unique rheological properties. This gelled-acid system has
an initial viscosity of about 30 cp [0.03 Pa' s]. Spending of the acid
during leakoff, however, produces a rise in pH, which initiates a
process in which the effective acid leakoff viscosity temporarily
rises to about 1,000 cp [I Pas]. Complete acid spending triggers

30

:20
~

o....I

a
:5

TEMP 150F
INITIAL LEAKOFF = 1 ml/min

WD

~./

-'-0-'- 15% Hel

APGA
.. _.-.... NEW SYSTEM
---<r- GELLED WATER

---I:l.-

./

/ ' WD=14em

t,c.

.I:r/

cr

./'

fl' /' ,.tf",,"

10

.,'

....I
II..

=j2 em /.0

WD = 2 em

J. ../\

./ U'

.. ~,,'

,"

..... l)-_ f.::l'!

.......A. ..

:--<;

TIME (mino.5 )
Fig. ll-Comparison of low-fluid-loss acid system with other
fluids (see Table 1).

SPE Production Engineering, August 1989

Fig. 12-Fractured limestone block and core drilled from similar block.
.

219

TEMP 150F

25

---6.--- APGA
-<)- NEW SYSTEM

20

- - 0 - - 15% HCI

en 15
en
0
...J

Q
:::>
...J
u.

10
CHANNELED CORE

/~ AT12min
/'

"""
r.::::::::" <>............

<>...........

............. ,

0
0

2. Wormholes grow very rapidly during the early stages of acid

leakoff before approaching a spending-limited maximum length.
3. Once wormholes develop, the differential pressure distribution is such that almost all fluid loss occurs from wormholes rather
than into the fracture face.
4. Wormhole growth and the resulting creation of additional new
surface area from which leakoff occurs make acid fluid loss very
difficult to control.
5. As a result of rapid wormhole penetration, filter cakes previously deposited on fracture surfaces have little effect on acid fluid
loss.
6. Wormhole growth also reduces the efficiency of gelled acids
compared with gelled nonreactive fluids.
7. Systems designed to block wormhole growth show promise
for improving the efficiency of acid fracturing treatments.

TIME (mino.S )
Fig. 13-Comparison of fluid loss of various acids against
simulated natural fractures (see Table 1). (Initial leakoff
rate = 1.0 mL/min.)

References
1. Nierode, D.E. and Kruk, K.F.: "An Evaluation of Acid Fluid Loss
Additives, Retarded Acids, and Acidized Fracture Conductivity, " paper
SPE 4549 presented at the 1973 SPE Annual Meeting, Las Vegas, Sept.
30-0ct. 3.
2. Hoefner, M.L. and Fogler, H.S.: "Fluid-Viscosity and Reaction-Rate
Effects During Carbonate Acidizing: Application of a Network Model,"
SPEPE (Feb. 1989) 56-62.
3. Davis, J.J., Mancillas, G., and Melnyk, J.D.: "Improved Acid Treatments by Use of the Spearhead Film Technique," paper SPE 1164
presented at the 1965 SPE Rocky Mountain Regional Meeting, Billings, MT, June 10-11.
4. Coulter, A.W. et al.: "Alternating Stages of Pad Fluid and Acid Provide Improved Leakoff Control for Fracture Acidizing," paper SPE
6124 presented at the 1976 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans, Oct. 3-6.
5. Lee. W.S.: "Geometry Determination for Multi-Stage Acidizing Treatments With or Without Viscous Preflush," paper SPE 14515 presented at the 1985 SPE Eastern Regional Meeting, Morgantown, WV, Nov.
6-8.
6. Schriefer, F.E. and Shaw, M.S.: "Use of Fine Salt as a Fluid-Loss
Material in Acid Fracturing Stimulation Treatments," paper SPE 7570
presented at the 1978 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston, Oct. 1-3.
7. Crowe, C.W., Martin, R.C., and Michaelis, A.M.: "Evaluation of Acid
Gelling Agents for Use in Well Stimulation," JPT(Aug. 1981) 415-24.
8. Rowan, G.': "Theory of Acid Treatment of Limestone Formations,"
J. Inst. Petrol. (1957) 45, No. 431, 321-24.
9. Daccord, G., Touboul, E., and Lenormand, R.: "Carbonate Acidizing: Toward a Quantitative Model of the Wormholing Phenomenon,"
SPEPE (Feb. 1989) 63-68.
10. Gdanski, R.D. and Norman, L.R.: "Using the Hollow-Core Test To
Determine Acid Reaction Rate," SPEPE (March 1986) 111-16.
11. Holditch, S.A.: "Factors Affecting Water Blocking and Gas Flow From
Hydraulically Fractured Gas Wells," JPT (Dec. 1979) 1515-24.
12. Shaughnessy, C.M. and Kunze, K.R.: "Understanding Sandstone
Acidizing Leads to Improved Field Practices," JPT (July 1981)
1196-1202.
13. Norman, L.R.: "Properties and Early Field Results of a Liquid Gelling Agent for Acid," paper SPE 7834 presented at the 1978 SPE Petroleum Technology Symposium, Hobbs, Oct. 30-31.

a second chemical reaction, which reduces the viscosity of the spent

acid to 30 cp [0.03 Pa' s] or less. While it is difficult to measure
the duration of this high-viscosity state, rapid spending of bulk samples of the gelled acid indicate that it is probably 5 minutes or less.
Fig. 11 presents fluid-loss test results that compare this new system with ordinary 15% HCI, 15% HCI gelled with an acrylamide
copolymer, and water gelled with the same acrylamide copolymer.
Of the acids tested, the new system provided the best fluid-loss control, with leakoff approaching the efficiency of gelled water. Examination of cores used in these tests showed that, with this new
system, wormhole penetration was only about 0.4 to 0.8 in. [1 to
2 cm], compared with 5.5 in. [14 cm] for gelled acid and 8.7 in.
[22 cm] for ordinary 15 % HCI. Examination of cores treated with
the new system showed multiple pitting of the core face by many
short wormholes rather than any single dominant, deeply penetrating wormhole. This apparently results from repeated initiation and
blockage of wormholes during the test.
In addition to tests on permeable limestone cores, flu.id-Ioss tests
were also performed against simulated natural fractures. In these
tests, cores fractured along their lengthwise axes were used. These
cores were prepared by first cutting small (2 x 2 x 12-in.
[5 x 5 x 30-cm]) blocks of Indiana limestone notched with a core
saw to a depth of about 0.4 in. [1 cm] on opposite sides. Lengths
of metal tubing having diameters slightly larger than the notches
were centered in each notch. With a shop vise, pressure was applied to the tubing until the specimen fractured under tension. A
I-in. [2.54-cm] -diameter core, with a fracture centered along its
length, was then drilled from the fractured block. Fig. 12 shows
one of these limestone blocks, along with a fracture core prepared
with this technique.
Results of fluid-loss tests against these fractured cores are shown
in Fig. 13. Test results are similar to those obtained in earlier tests
with nonfractured cores (Fig. 11). Again, the new system provided the best fluid-loss control. Acid channeling by the new system
into the fracture was limited to only about 0.8 to 1.2 in. [2 to 3
cm]; ordinary 15% HCI penetrated 9.4 in. [24 cm]. Surprisingly,
acid gelled with the acrylamide copolymer channeled completely
through the core in 12 minutes. Before acid breakthrough, however, actual fluid loss was below that for the ungelled acid.

SI Metric Conversion Factors

E-03
cp x 1.0*
OF (OF - 32)/1.8
E-03
gal x 3.785 412
in. x 2.54*
E+OO
E-Ol
Ibm x 4.535924
psi x 6.894757
E+OO

Conclusions
1. Acid fluid loss into permeable limestone results in the creation of wormholes, with final lengths determined by leakoff rate,
temperature, and acid concentration.

Original SPE manuscript received for review Sept. 27, 1987. Paper accepted for publica
tion May 17,1988. Revised manuscript received Sept. 6,1988. Paper (SPE 16883) first
presented at the 1987 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in Dallas,
Sept. 27-30.

220

* Conversion factor is exact.

Pa's
C
m3
cm
kg
kPa

SPEPE

SPE Production Engineering, August 1989