Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Published by:
The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
Ground Floor, 204 Lygon Street, Carlton Victoria 3053, Australia
ii
PReFACe
The 2012 MeA Research Projects Review includes a selection of papers summarising the work undertaken by final year
students in the mining engineering program across the four Mining education Australia (MeA) universities. The papers
were co-authored by students who completed their mining research project in 2012 and their academic supervisor. All
the papers in this volume were peer-reviewed by academics from the MeA member universities.
Preparation of a conference paper is one of the assessment requirements in the Mining Research Project (or
thesis). The project is undertaken over two consecutive semesters in the final year of the MeA undergraduate degree
program. while the learning outcomes are primarily aimed at applying the principles of the scientific process to reallife issues facing the industry, it is also concerned with students applying the principles of project management and
risk management; preparing a proposal with clearly defined objectives and benefits; planning and scheduling tasks
and activities; liaising with people from a range of dierent backgrounds; and developing both verbal and written
communication skills.
The MeA program is an education initiative between the four major universities in Australia that oer a degree
program in Mining engineering; Curtin University through the western Australian School of Mines (wASM), University
of Adelaide (UoA), University of New South wales (UNSw) and University of Queensland (UQ). The program, which
was launched in 2007, was collaboratively developed by academic sta from each of the partner institutions with
advice from education consultants to ensure the latest in teaching and learning practices were embedded into it.
The program is supported by the Minerals Council of Australia (MCA) who, through its various industry partners, has
helped ensure MeA Graduates will be able to meet current and future challenges of the global minerals industry.
over 190 students across the four MeA universities completed the research project course in 2012 and consequently
many will have completed the degree program. As graduate mining engineers they are now set to begin their
professional careers in the mining industry.
As in previous years, the research projects span a broad spectrum of topic areas, reflecting the range of issues
being faced by the mining industry. The distribution of project categories across MeA in 2012 is shown in Figure 1
while Figure 2 shows the topic distribution at each of the four universities reflecting to some degree the dierences in
expertise and focus at each university.
iii
The fourth MeA Student Conference was held in october 2012 at the wASM campus of Curtin University in Kalgoorlie;
a copy of the program is shown in Appendix 1. This year the event was enlarged to a half-day conference with up to
three students selected from each university to present a paper on their research project. The list of presenters is
shown in Appendix 2. The three 2012 prize winners at the conference were:
Mining research Project course convenor, and chairman MEa Program leaders committee
iv
Review Panel
Mr Duncan Chalmers (UNSW)
Associate Professor Emmanuel Chanda (UoA)
Dr Chris Daly (UNSW)
Dr Nazife Erarslan (UQ)
Dr Paul Hagan (UNSW)
Dr Adrian Halim (WASM)
Dr Andrew Jarosz (WASM)
Dr Murat Karakus (UoA)
Associate Professor Mehmet Kizil (UQ)
Dr Rudra Mitra (UNSW)
Dr Simit Raval (UNSW)
Associate Professor Serkan Saydam (UNSW)
Professor Warren Seib (UQ)
Associate Professor Chaoshui Xu (UoA)
viii
CONTENTS
An Investigation into Semi-Intact Rock Mass
Representation for Physical Modelling Block Caving
Mechanics Zones
P Carmichael and
B Hebblewhite
13
V Golding, D Jafari,
B Rajopadhyaya, D Sundquist
and E Chanda
19
25
31
37
45
51
57
67
75
83
Author Index
ix
IntroductIon
Block caving is fast becoming the method of choice for
extracting large, low-grade deposits at depth. It has been
identified by Laubscher (1994) and later by Chitombo (2010)
that block caving is entering a new era of super caves. As
such it has been recommended by Chitombo (2010) that
extensive research be undertaken in all aspects of block
caving with particular focus on propagation, fragmentation
and particle migration to ensure block caving remains safe
and efficient in the future.
Cave propagation and fragmentation is governed by five
caving mechanics zones, first analysed by Duplancic and
Brady (1999) by way of a seismic and long hole drilling
survey. These various caving zones are indicated in Figure 1.
Extensive time and resources are required to analyse these
zones in the full scale and as such are unavailable to most
operations. Therefore, numerical modelling is currently the
method of choice to analyse cave propagation due to the
current accessibility of computational power; however, the
results obtained are only as accurate as the inputs provided.
As such, there is a requirement for greater understanding
the caving process to be able to provide accurate inputs for
the calibration of numerical models.
It is believed that with continual research and analysis,
the governing physics of the caving process can be fully
Fig 1 - The five regions associated with caving, determined by Duplancic and
Brady (1999).
understood to not only aid in numerical modelling
investigations but also ensure accurate and reliable cave
prediction at existing and new operations in the future.
The primary objective of this research project was to provide
a method by which the industry can study and analyse the
caving process in a controlled environment.
apparatuS
The main apparatus used in the experimentation was a purpose
built 2D modelling frame, which is shown in Figure 3 The
critical dimensions of the frame are outlined in Tables 1 and 2.
Methodology
preliminary testing
A preliminary analysis was first undertaken to determine
a range of cemented rock masses suitable for large-scale
testing. This preliminary testing was largely qualitative as
the investigators were seeking an indication of material
behaviour rather than accurate material properties.
The materials chosen for the testing were sand, 5 mm gravel,
15 mm gravel, Boral casting plaster and water due to their
availability and low cost.
The preliminary testing involved slump testing
approximately 40 mixtures ranging from zero per cent to
six per cent plaster and zero per cent to 30 per cent sand, using
the moulds shown in Figure 2.
1250
Width
1000
Depth
188
TABLE 2
Modelling frame critical dimensions.
large-scale testing
Overview
Once the preliminary testing was completed the successful
materials were applied to a newly acquired 2D physical
modelling frame.
The purpose of this testing was to determine the compatibility
of the cemented rock mass to model cave propagation with
varying stress and fault regimes in place.
The procedure involved mixing up approximately 380 kg
of a material for loading into the frame. Once loaded it was
allowed to set for 24 hours. When set an undercut was created
and stresses were applied to induce caving. The resulting
cave propagation was documented and analysed.
With the frame being new and little work having been done
in this area, the process was largely trial and error and as
such, the procedure changed for each test undertaken, based
on recommendations from previous tests.
2
56 300
1250 188
an InveStIgatIon Into SeMI-Intact rock MaSS repreSentatIon for phySIcal ModellIng Block cavIng MechanIcS zoneS
TABLE 3
Large-scale tests undertaken.
Plaster (per cent)
Fault (degrees)
Stress regime
Low
High
1.5
High
1.2
High
Medium
45
Medium
Very high
45
Medium
Normal (prestressed)
large-scale testing
Eleven tests were undertaken using the developed material
and modelling frame. These tests are outlined in Table 3.
A number of key findings were made from these large-scale
tests.
Firstly, it was identified that, as with full-scale operations, air
gap management was key to the success of the test. In one test
the air gap was not managed, consequently the cave instantly
broke through to the surface. Despite the failure to manage
caving, the cross-section of the propagation struck similarities
with a numerical modelling investigation undertaken by
Vyazmensky (2012), as shown in Figure 6.
Another finding was the identification of fracturing above
the cave back, starting in the seismogenic zone and further
expanding in the zone of discontinuous deformation.
Fracturing could not be visually identified in the seismogenic
zone; however, fracturing was audible. It was not until the rock
mass entered the zone of discontinuous deformation that the
MINING eDUCATIoN AUSTRALIA ReSeARCh PRojeCTS ReVIew 2012
concluSIonS
The results of this investigation show that it is possible to
utilise a semi-intact rock mass to model cave propagation and
the associated mechanics zones when used in conjunction
with a block cave modelling frame.
However, at this stage the delineation of the caving
mechanics zones is impossible due to the inability to visually
detect fracturing above the cave back. This was a result of
material texture.
recoMMendatIonS
Although caving was achieved, it was identified that there are
still a number of flaws in the cemented rock mass. The two
major flaws are outlined below.
The first issue associated with the material is the texture,
more specifically the porosity. Due to the porosity and
dark colour of the material, it is difficult to identify any
small fracturing above the cave back, making it impossible
to delineate the mechanics zones for analysis. As such, it
is recommended that an infill material be investigation to
an InveStIgatIon Into SeMI-Intact rock MaSS repreSentatIon for phySIcal ModellIng Block cavIng MechanIcS zoneS
acknowledgeMentS
The authors acknowledge the support of James Tibbett and
thank the contributions made by Jake Kell, Alison Tibbett and
Kanchana Gamage.
referenceS
Chitombo, G P, 2010. Cave Mining 16 years after Laubschers 1994
paper Cave mining state of the art, in Proceedings 2010 Second
International Symposium on Block and Sublevel Caving (ed: Y Potvin),
pp 45-61 (Australian Centre for Geomechanics: Perth).
Duplancic, P and Brady, B H, 1999. Characterisation of caving
mechanisms by analysis of seismicity and rock stress, in
Proceedings 9th International Congress on Rock Mechanics 1999,
pp 1049-1053 (Balkema: Rotterdam).
Kell, J, 2012. Personal communication (undergraduate student):
University of New South Wales, 6 September.
Laubscher, D, 1994. Cave mining - state-of-the-art, in Proceedings
6th Underground Operators Conference 1995 (ed: T S Golosinski),
pp 165-175 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy:
Melbourne).
Vyazmensky, A, 2012. Personal communication
Geotechnical Engineer) Kazakhmys PLC, 14 June.
(Principal
Introduction
Due to the high operational cost related to the truck and
shovel method, it is vital that the efficiency of the truck cycle
is maximised. The smallest improvement to the efficiency of
any truck and shovel operation presents the opportunity for
an increase in revenue of millions of dollars.
At Brockman 4, a Rio Tinto Iron Ore mine site in Western
Australias Pilbara, observations show that often, numerous
trucks are found queuing at the crusher or there are no trucks
available to supply feed. This paper investigates possible
solutions and ways to minimise wait-for-crusher and wait-fortruck delays, and the effects that implementing such solutions
can have on production and revenue in the long term.
Modular DISPATCH is a dispatching system used on
all mobile equipment on site to record various parameters
such as the time taken to load, haul, queue and dump. This
data, collected over a six month sample period, was used to
generate a series of inputs into a computer software package
known as TALPAC. TALPAC is a haulage fleet evaluation
system that is used to determine the productivity and related
economics of any truck and shovel haulage system (Runge,
1993). This software package was used to create a series of
haulage simulations that replicate those at Brockman 4, and
whose effect on crusher delays could be further analysed.
Furthermore, a computer system known as Citect is
installed throughout all plant processes on site and effectively
determines when trucks are able to dump in the crusher
by changing a light signal alongside. The possibility of
integrating the Modular and Citect systems at Brockman 4
has been investigated, as the exchange of information across
the mine-plant interface is expected to increase production.
The prime focus of this paper is to minimise wait-forcrusher and wait-for-truck delays by investigating both the
fleet composition and external solutions in order to achieve
this.
Truck-shovel matching
In a truck and shovel operation, it is imperative that the
capacities of the dig units are compatible with the capacities
of the truck fleet. Fleet efficiency can be investigated by first
categorising the truck and shovel fleet as being truck-shovel
matched, over-trucked or under-trucked. The term truckshovel matched refers to situations where the ideal capacity
and number of haul trucks is available for any given dig unit.
Operations that are over-trucked involve a larger number
of trucks than the optimal number, yielding unnecessary
additional costs with no improvement to production.
1. SAusIMM, Graduate Mining Engineer, School of Mechanical and Mining Engineering, The University of Queensland, St Lucia Qld 4072. Email: vanessa.collins1@uqconnect.edu.au
2. MAusIMM, Associate Professor, School of Mechanical and Mining Engineering, The University of Queensland, St Lucia Qld 4072. Email: m.kizil@uq.edu.au
Mining Education Australia Research Projects Review 2012
data collectIon
Data were collected from Brockman 4 mine site in Western
Australia over a six month sample period. Various data
collected included the following:
modular data (cycle times)
haul routes/strings from Vulcan
daily wait-for-crusher and wait-for-truck delays
maintenance/downtime data
daily production reports
hourly crusher throughput.
The sample period began on 1 January, 2012, at 6.00 am
and ended on the 1 July 2012, at 6.00 am. The sample period
consisted of 180 operating days and 360 shifts.
reSultS
characterisation of delays primary crusher
Crusher delays over the six month period were categorised
according to four different delay types: operating delays,
operating standbys, scheduled loss and unscheduled loss.
The total delay duration for each month was then broken
down into the various delay categories, and presented in the
stacked bar graph as seen in Figure 2, which demonstrates
their relative proportions.
Wait-for-truck delays exist as a subcategory of operating
standby delays. The graph in Figure 2 shows a separate
series of stacked bars alongside the total delay durations for
each month. These bars represent the total operating delay
MINING eDUCATIoN AUSTRALIA ReSeARCh PRojeCTS ReVIew 2012
TABLE 1
Economical analysis.
Month
Potential
utilisation
increase (%)
Potential
production
increase (t)
Potential
revenue increase
@$100/t
January
143 389
14 338 900
February
143 603
14 360 300
March
105 034
10 503 400
April
73 680
7 368 000
May
99 158
9 915 800
June
86 016
8 601 600
TOTAL
65 088 000
60 km/h empty
40 km/h loaded on flats
20 km/h downhill/uphill whilst loaded
10 km/h around corners.
For the purpose of this exercise, two Komatsu 730E
were used as the fixed variable for the mixed-fleet haulage
scenarios as this was the number of Komatsu 730Es on site as
of June, the month from which the haul roads were modelled.
The number of Komatsu 830Es was then allowed to run on
auto in order to determine the ideal number required for
each digger.
10
TABLE 2
Mixed fleet truck numbers (Komatsu 830Es when two Komatsu 730Es
were fixed).
Pit
Loader
Letourneau
L-1850
Shovel Hitachi
5500
Excavator
Hitachi 3600
P02I
11
15
11
P03E
P03C
TABLE 3
Mixed fleet production capabilities.
Mixed
Loader Letourneau
L-1850
Shovel Hitachi
5500
Excavator
Hitachi 3600
P02I
18 742 632
26 668 760
19 795 772
P03E
18 814 835
26 978 261
19 924 772
P03C
19 147 615
27 174 059
20 101 023
TABLE 4
Initial cost associated with ROM loader.
Component
Cost (A$)
Capital cost
$550 000
$550 000
$1 861 500/year
$120 000/year
$240 000/year
Total
$2 651 500
11
TABLE 5
Hopper system cost analysis.
Component
250 tonne hopper
Operating costs per year
Operators
Total ($)
450 000
450 000
118 260/year
120 000/year
240 000/year
808 260
CONCLUSIONS
By categorising delays from either side of the mine-plant
interface, it was possible to quantify the significance of waitfor-crusher and wait-for-truck delays at Brockman 4 (44 and
62 per cent respectively). The data analysis showed a decrease
in wait-for-truck delays from January to June, 2012 as a result
of gradually eliminating the use of Komatsu 730E trucks.
When comparing these observations to previous research
(Kizil, Knights and Nel, 2011), it could be concluded that the
reduction in wait-for-truck times over the sample period is
attributed to the gradual reduction in mixed fleet haulage
over this time.
By analysing Modular data outputs over a six month period,
it was possible to determine where the production cycle at
12
The economical analysis also determined that if the waitfor-truck delays were removed from the production cycle,
there would be a potential increase in revenue of A$130 M/a
for the company.
Acknowledgements
Cost (A$)
References
Banfield, G, 2012. Personal communication, 11 May.
Bonates, E and Lizotte, Y, 1988. A computer simulation model to
evaluate the effect of dispatching, International Journal of Surface
Mining, 2:99-104.
Georgieff, D, 2006. Improving truck utilization during shovel delays,
undergraduate thesis (unpublished), University of Queensland,
Brisbane.
Holke, B, 2004. Planning and application of hydraulic shovels in
open pit mines: shovels/truck operation and shovel/crusher
operation, Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels (0022-2755), 34(4).
Kizil, M, Knights, P and Nel, S, 2011. Improving truck-shovel
matching, in Proceedings 35th APCOM Symposium, pp 381-391 (The
Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).
Oberisser, H, 2010. Fully mobile IPCC solutions [online]. Available
from: <http://www.mining magazine.com/equipment/fullymobile-ipcc-solutions> [Accessed: 26 April, 2012].
Olsen, J P and White, J, 1992. On improving truck/shovel productivity
in open pit mines, in Proceedings 23rd International Symposium 1992
Application of Computers and Operations Research (SME: Arizona).
R2Mining, 2011. Australia mine and mill equipment costs [online].
Available
from:
<http://calc2011.au.costs.infomine.com/
Projects/projectlist.aspx> [Accessed 30 September, 2012].
Rio Tinto Iron Ore, 2011a. ER crusher Dispatch/Citect integration
project valuation (unpublished), Paraburdoo Mine Site,
Paraburdoo.
Rio Tinto Iron Ore, 2011b. Paraburdoo Modular-Citect interface:
automated truck reassignment and loader reassignment
(unpublished), Paraburdoo Mine Site, Paraburdoo.
Runge, 1993. Section 6: Truck and loader productivity estimation,
section 7: factors affecting truck and loader productivity, section
10: sample TALPAC output, Planning and Operation of Truck
and loader Mining Systems Technical Training Course Notes,
Course Ref: 1593, pp 59-81, 83-100, 125-141 (Runge Mining
(Australia) Pty Ltd: Mackay).
Schneider Electric, 2012. Products and Services [online]. Available
from: <http://www. schneider -electric.com/site/home/index.
cfm/ww/> [Accessed 11 May, 2012].
Introduction
Grizzlies are used in underground mining to act as size
separators at the crusher tipping stations. Acceptable size ore
will fall through the apertures of a selected size, and anything
too big (oversize) will remain on the screen for secondary
breakage. Due to the arrangement of the tipple stations
at Ridgeway Deeps (RWD) the rock breaker cannot act
independently of the LHDs tipping, so therefore the LHDs
must stop tipping each time the grizzly has a blockage or a
build-up of oversize ore. RWD is suffering from an average
of two hours downtime per shift due to the rock breaker
operation.
An investigation was undertaken to determine alternatives
to modifying the current grizzly and how other block
cave mines have dealt with this problem. As RWD is an
experimental mine for Newcrest it is important that the
larger neighbouring Cadia panel cave mine base their designs
upon lessons learnt from Ridgeway. This study developed an
alternative design based upon the findings of investigations
into:
Fragmentation
The predicted cave fragmentation as per the feasibility
study for RWD BC reveals that the initial fragmentation
1. SAusIMM, School of Mechanical and Mining Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane Qld 4072. Email: casey.costello@uqconnect.edu.au
2. MAusIMM, Head of Division of Mining Engineering, School of Mechanical and Mining Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane Qld 4072. Email: p.knights@uq.edu.au
Mining Education Australia Research Projects Review 2012
13
grIzzlIeS
overview
A grizzly is a screen that acts as a scalping device for oversize
material (Darling, 2011). Very coarse material is usually
screened on a grizzly, which in its simplest form consists of
heavy parallel bars set in a frame. The most common use of
grizzlies is the feed to a primary crusher. Clogging is a major
problem, especially on the cross-members that hold the bars
together (Darling, 2011). Square mesh grizzlies are used
to get a more accurate maximum size of material, whereas
rectangular and non-gridded grizzlies can allow material of
larger size to pass through. Heavy duty grizzly bars are cast
from manganese steel and have double tapers.
grizzly design
When designing a grizzly for a specific purpose, the openings
between the grizzly bars should be commensurate with the
size of the receiving hopper where the product has to be
discharged (Gupta and Yan, 2006).
Stationary screens are operated either at horizontal or
inclined planes. A relatively steep installation is preferred for
higher throughputs but the quality of separation is likely to be
affected as the effective aperture and open area are decreased.
During the process of screening, particles either fall through
the apertures or get held back. Obviously larger particles than
the aperture opening cannot pass through (Gupta and Yan,
2006).
Fig 1 - Particle size and shape at screen surface (Gupta and Yan, 2006).
14
removal of grizzlies
The removal of the grizzlies at Northparkes and Palabora
has proved successful for both mines (Butcher et al, 2011).
Northparkes made the initial decision to not include grizzlies
at the feasibility stage as the crusher could handle the
largest size rock a LHD could transport. Palabora, similar
to RWD suffered from downtime due to the rock breaker.
Palabora educated their workforce on identifying oversize,
relying upon the capability of their crushers, and the effect
of the impact resulting from an 8 m drop to the ore bin to
assist breakage (Capes, 2007). It can be concluded that the
requirement of a grizzly rests upon the crusher requirements
and specifications.
Typically the maximum rock size the crusher will accept
and crush without bridging is approximately 90 per cent of
the crusher gape for a single toggle machine. The largest jaw
crusher gape is around the 1500 mm mark, which results
in the largest practical rock size that could be accepted by
the crusher of approximately 1350 mm in size. The cave
fragmentation predicts an F80 of 1480 mm, which is greater
than the nominal size (Maunsell, 2007). Therefore, a grizzly
scalping screen is required to guard against damage to the
crusher.
tipping style
An investigation regarding if the style of tipping affects
oversize was also conducted. Three tipping styles were
identified:
Fig 5 - Frequency of rock shapes versus the average time to break them.
It can be seen that nesting due to round rocks and round
oversize rocks are on average the highest frequented rock
shapes. The time to break each rock shape is fairly similar
16
concluSIonS
An investigation into the grizzlies at Ridgeway Deeps mine
was undertaken in order to design a modified grizzly design
that will reduce downtime. The chosen research topic has
proved difficult to investigate as the design requirements
are site specific. The dimensions and/or requirement of
a grizzly are based upon the crusher feed requirements.
Preliminary research found that the crushers at RWD can
accept a maximum rock size (90 per cent of the crusher
gape) of 1350 mm. The option of removing the grizzlies was
investigated as it has proven successful for other block cave
mines. It was found, however, that due to the predicted cave
fragmentation and the crusher capacity grizzlies are required.
The original grizzlies consisted of eight round apertures 1200
1200 mm in size.
The data gathered produced the following conclusions:
18
referenceS
Allman, A, Dunstan, G and Syme, T, 2007. Ridgeway Deeps feasibility
study, Newcrest Mining Limited.
Brunton, I, Sharrock, G and Lett, J, 2011. Full scale near field flow
behaviour at the Ridgeway Deeps block cave mine, in Proceedings
MassMin 2012 (Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and
Petroleum: Montreal).
Bullock, R L and Hustrulid, W A, 2001. Underground Mining Methods:
Engineering Fundamentals and International Case Studies, 718 p
(Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration: Littleton).
Butcher, A, Cunningham, R, Edwards, K, Lye, A, Simmons, J,
Stegman, C and Wyllie, A, 2011. Northparkes Mine [online], The
Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. Available from:
<http://www.ausimm.com.au/content/docs/northparkes_
example_paper.pdf> [Accessed: 16 March 2012].
Capes, G, 2007. Palabora 2010 visit: Production and secondary break
benchmark, Newcrest Mining Limited.
Darling, P, 2011. SME Mining Engineering Handbook, third edition,
1835 p (Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration: Littleton).
Duffield, S, 2001. Design of the second block cave at Northparkes E26
Mine, in Proceedings MassMin 2000, pp 35-46 (The Australasian
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).
Gupta, A and Yan, D, 2006. Mineral Processing Design and Operation
An Introduction, pp 293353 (Elsevier BV: Amsterdam).
Maiwasha, C, Ngidi, N and Pretorius, D, 2010. Competent persons
report on the mineral assets of Palabora Mining Company
Limited, South Africa [online]. South Africa, Rio Tinto. Available
from: <http://www.jse.co.za/Libraries/JSE_Documents_and_
Statistics_-_CPR_-_Rio_Tinto/Palabora_Mining_Company.sflb.
ashx> [Accessed: 19 April 2012].
Maunsell, 2007. Ridgeway Deeps Mine MHS and fixed infrastructurefeasibility study report, Maunsell Pty Ltd, Brisbane.
Palabora Mining Company Limited, 1996. Palabora feasibility
report, Palabora Mining Company Limited.
Multi-Objective Optimisation of
Mining-Metallurgical Systems
V Golding1, D Jafari2, B Rajopadhyaya3, D Sundquist4
and E Chanda5
Abstract
Optimisation of integrated mining and metallurgical systems poses some significant challenges
due to the conflicting nature of business objectives. Traditionally, mine planners would seek to
optimise the net present value (NPV) of a project, but the issue of sustainability in mining requires
consideration be given to a wider range of goals. Standard linear programming can optimise a
system, based on a single objective such as maximising the NPV. However, the single objective
function approach is not adequate to accommodate multiple objectives that are often conflicting
in nature. A mine optimisation model should be formulated in such a way as to include multiple
objectives and applicable constraints. A model that can simultaneously optimise a number of
conflicting objectives is required to handle such complexity in mine planning. Multi-objective
optimisation is a linear programming method, which can handle mine optimisation problems
with multiple goals. In this paper, a weighted goal programming (WGP) approach was used,
whereby each objective function had priority over the other(s), depending on corporate decisions.
The aim was to develop a mine optimisation model that includes energy, water consumption
and equivalent carbon emissions as objective functions. The model is based on WGP and is
used to find the optimum material flow rates in a network model of a large-scale mining and
metallurgical operation. The network system and relevant data is based on a large-scale open pit
mining operation to add realistic values to the generic system. The LINGO software package was
used for the analysis.
Preliminary results show that the model can successfully consider the different objective function
goals, weights and constraints to optimise the given network by changing resource utilisation. The
program is quick to solve and useful for undertaking what-if analyses.
INTRODUCTION
An essential part of the mine planning process is optimising
the net present value (NPV) for the operation (Rafiee and
Asgahri, 2008; Topal and Ramazan, 2012). The NPV essentially
determines the value of the operation and helps to predict
the life of the mining operation. Whilst this is a valuable
tool in the planning process, the optimisation is simplistic in
that it only considers a single objective. This single objective
optimisation (SOO) provides a single, unique solution for the
production schedule of the operation, but does not consider
some of the operational constraints that have the potential to
significantly alter the capacity and practicality of the mining
operation. Such operational constraints could be in the form
of energy consumption, carbon emission and water use. SOO
does not have the capacity to include these factors into the
optimisation strategy.
Multi-objective optimisation (MOO), also known as multicriterion optimisation, involves finding the optimum values
of decision variables corresponding to all objective functions
A mathematical model will be created and applied to a largescale mining-metallurgical operation in South Australia. The
model will ensure that the cost associated with carbon, energy
1. SAusIMM, Student, School of Civil Environmental and Mining Engineering, University of Adelaide, SA 5005. Email: vaughn.golding@student.adelaide.edu.au
2. SAusIMM, Student, School of Civil Environmental and Mining Engineering, University of Adelaide, SA 5005. Email: davood.jafari@student.adelaide.edu.au
3. SAusIMM, Student, School of Civil Environmental and Mining Engineering, University of Adelaide, SA 5005. Email: brajesh.rajopadhyaya@student.adelaide.edu.au
4. SAusIMM, Student, School of Civil Environmental and Mining Engineering, University of Adelaide, SA 5005. Email: dermott.sundquist@student.adelaide.edu.au
5. MAusIMM, Director of Teaching, School of Civil, Environmental and Mining Engineering, University of Adelaide SA 5005. Email: echanda@civeng.adelaide.edu.au
Mining Education Australia Research Projects Review 2012
19
v goldIng et al
Methodology
A network was adapted from a typical large-scale mining
operation that encompasses a comprehensive miningmetallurgical system. That is, from the extraction of a raw
material through to a smelted and refined saleable product.
network model
The modelling of the mining-metallurgical system involved
identifying nodes where a decision must be made about ore
utilisation. Nodes are also required where a constraint must
be applied, such as the limitations of a smelter or refinery.
Processes that do not require a decision to be made, or a
constraint implemented, can be simplified by combining
associated costs. The revised network for the hypothetical
mine is presented in Figure 2.
The operation has been modelled for a one-year period.
This allows a yearly production schedule to be generated that
will satisfy the annual targets for carbon production, water
consumption and energy use.
Stockpiles have not been considered as an ore source
although they could be easily added to the network. The
primary purposes of stockpiles are short-term grade control
and processing beyond the life of mining, which is not
applicable to the time frame being modelled.
Model formulation
The network represents the flow of ore from one node to
another. The ore is extracted, crushed, processed and then
concentrated or smelted into a refined product.
decision variables
The variable Xij as described above represents the tonnes of
equivalent ore from source i to sink j. These are the decision
variables used in the optimisation model. The number of
decision variables corresponds to the number of arcs within
the described network. For the chosen network, each of the
decision variables is described below.
objective functions
Using the described decision variables, a number of objective
functions can be defined. This will allow the MOO analysis
to be formulated. For the purposes of this optimisation, the
objective functions will focus on carbon emissions, energy
use, water use and economic value.
X0,1: Tonnage of ore extracted from the pit
MINING eDUCATIoN AUSTRALIA ReSeARCh PRojeCTS ReVIew 2012
Source
X ij
ij
Sink
(1)
where:
Cij represents the cost of equivalent carbon emissions in the
form of a dollar value per equivalent tonne of ore.
Xij represents the material flowing from the respective
source i to sink j in terms of equivalent tonnes of ore.
21
V Golding et al
(2)
where:
Eij represents the cost of energy use (per kwh) in the form of
a dollar value per equivalent tonne of ore.
Xij represents the material flowing from the respective
Wij represents the cost of water use (per litre) in the form of
a dollar value per equivalent tonne of ore
Xij represents the material flowing from the respective
source i to sink j in terms of equivalent tonnes of ore
where:
Vij represents the present value ($) in the form of a dollar
value per equivalent tonne of ore
Xij represents the material flowing from the respective
source i to sink j in terms of equivalent tonnes of ore
Constraints
In order for the model to reflect a real situation it must
produce results within a realistic range. That is, it should
have appropriate flows of ore through the network, and it has
to simulate the environment that a normal mine can operate
under. In order to ensure that this is achieved a number of
constraints are implemented. These include non-negativity
constraints, production constraints and flow constraints. The
use of these constraints will be explained further.
Non-negativity constraints
Material flowing through nodes in the network represents ore
as it travels through the stages of mineral processing in the
mine. It does not make sense for ore to travel backwards across
the arcs. That is, the amount of material moving through each
path must be positive. This non-negativity constraint applies
to all of the decision variables as described above.
Production constraints
The amount of material passing through the network cannot
exceed the capabilities of the mining operation or processing
facilities. Constraints were placed on the relevant nodes in
22
Modelling
where:
Additional constraints
Goal functions
The summation objective functions are converted to equations
by adding the deviation variables (ni, pi) and the goal. The
goals are based on hypothetical data for a typical operation.
The target values are $90 M, $150 M and $3 M for carbon,
energy and water cost objective functions respectively. They
represent costs that the company does not want to exceed in a
year of operation. The goal for economic value was assumed
to be A$2.43 B. Equation 5 shows the four goal functions, ie
carbon, energy, water and economic value.
/ Cij # Xij + n1 - p1 = 90 000 000
i,j
/ Eij # Xij + n2 - p2 = 150 000 000
i,j
/ Wij # Xij + n3 - p3 = 3 000 000
i,j
/ Vij # Xij + n4 - p4 = 2 430 000 000
i,j
(5)
Achievement function
It is required to assign weights to the different deviation
variables, based on the importance of their goal functions.
For instance, the energy goal function has greater importance
over the other costs due to its higher overall cost, therefore,
p2 will have a higher weight assigned to it. Similarly, p1 will
have lower weight and p3 will have the lowest weight. The
deviations are scaled by the goal assigned to their respective
goal functions. The achievement function is the sum of all the
unwanted deviations, which is minimised (see Equation 6).
Min f^ xh = w1 # `
1
# p1 + w2
90 000 000 j
1
# p2 + w3
150 000 000 j
1
#`
# p3 + w4
3 000 000 j
1
#`
# n4
2 430 000 000 j
#`
(6)
where:
a value of zero, which means that the target goal has been
perfectly reached.
Results
The LINGO output represents the result of the optimisation
process. The achieved objective value is 0.1021345, which
represents the sum of the deviations from the set goals. This
objective value is very small, which means that the goals
assigned to the carbon, energy and water objective functions
are almost achieved. In other words, the system is working
and the mining operation can make profits as well as achieve
these targets.
Data validation
The outputs from LINGO were compared to a hypothetical
mining operation as shown in Table 2. The estimated tonnages
for each of the relevant nodes were converted to equivalent
tonnages of ore, so that it can be compared directly to the
outputs from LINGO.
Discussion
The mining, metallurgical and smelting/refining components
of a mining operation were represented in a network flow
diagram as shown in Figure 2. The network displays a number
of different streams that produce different saleable products
in accordance with the described mining operation.
From the data validation, values appear to be within a
reasonable range of a typical large-scale open pit operation;
however, a number of shortcomings or biases are observable.
The most significant of these appears to be a bias towards
minimisation of cost, which may have been brought about
by an insufficient weighting of the revenue function. In
this respect, the object functions focused mainly on the
minimisation of cost, with respect to carbon emissions and
water and energy usage. The revenue generated was not
given appropriate weighting in this optimisation process.
This is mostly highlighted in the fact that a lot of material was
sent to the TSF instead of being passed on to flow through the
TABLE 1
LINGO modelling results.
Variable
Ore (mt)
Value ($)
Weight
Reduced cost
X0,1
50.0
P1
9 192105
W1
1.00
X0,2
10.0
P2
W2
1.00
XR,3
53.3
P3
W3
1.00
X3,4
6.5
P4
W4
1.23
X3,11
46.8
N1
X4,5
1.0
N2
X4,6
5.5
N3
682 421
X6,7
2.5
N4
X6,9
3.0
X7,8
2.5
X9,10
3.0
X11,12
10.0
X11,14
36.8
X12,13
10.0
X13,10
6.0
X13,15
4.0
X15,16
4.0
23
V Golding et al
TABLE 2
Comparison to a hypothetical mining operation.
Node
Min (t)
Mid (t)
Max (t)
Converted
(t)
Open pit
50 000 000
50 000 000
50 000 000
50 000 000
Underground
10 000 000
10 000 000
10 000 000
10 000 000
Concentrator
61 000 000
71 434 800
81 869 000
60 000 000
14 000 000
16 155 970
18 311 940
25 000 000
Refinery
12 500 000
16 520 250
20 540 500
29 000 000
Tailings storage
facility
45 000 000
45 375 000
45 750 000
4 000 000
Hydrometallurgy
6 500 000
9 864 280
13 228 560
8 000 000
Cu Conc
35 000 000
35 000 000
35 000 000
33 000 000
Cu Cathode
6 000 000
8 155 973
10 311 945
29 000 000
U3O8 concentrate
2 500 000
2 500 000
2 500 000
53 800 000
Au and Ag
bullion
4 000 000
5 875 000
7 750 000
45 300 000
24
REFERENCES
Chanda, E K, 2004. Network linear programming optimisation of
an integrated mining and metallurgical complex, in Orebody
Modelling and Strategic Mine Planning, pp 13-19 (The Australasian
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).
Jones, D and Tamiz, M, 2010. Practical Goal Programming, International
Series in Operations 11, Research and Management Science 141, DOI
10.1007/978-1-4419-5771-9_2, Springer Science Business Media,
LLC.
Kornbluth, J S H and Steuer, E, 1981. Multi objective linear fractional
programming, Management Science, 27:1024-1039.
Rafiee, V and Asghari, O, 2008. A heuristic traditional MIP solving
approach for long term production scheduling in open pit mine,
Journal of Applied Sciences, 8(24):4512-4522.
Rangaiah, G P, 2008. Process optimisation, multi objective
optimisation, techniques and application in chemical engineering,
Advances in Process Systems, 1:1-12.
Tamiz, M, Jones, D and Romero, C, 1998. Goal programming for
decision making: An overview of the current state-of-the-art,
European Journal of Operational Research, 111(3):569-581.
Topal, E and Ramazan, S, 2012. Strategic mine planning model using
network flow model and real case application, International
Journal of Mining, Reclamation and Environment, 26(1):29-37.
Introduction
Christmas Creek Iron Ore Mine is located approximately
110 km north east of Newman in the Pilbara region, Western
Australia. The deposit is hosted within the Nammuldi
Member at the base of the Marra Mamba Iron Formation
(CloutandRowley, 2009). Selective mining is used to extract
the iron ore at Christmas Creek, utilising the continuous
surface miners that are innovative to the region and the iron
ore industry. With advancements in technology, continuous
surface miners offer an alternative to traditional orebody
extraction techniques. The load and haul process is the
method primarily used in open cut mining applications.
Whether surface miners are used in conjunction with load
and haul practices, or as a completely different mining
method, the potential advantages may directly affect the
economic viability of a deposit. Selective mining poses
significant difficulties concerning the profitability of a
mine, especially, in the current market where large-scale
deposits with small stripping ratios are preferred. With the
utilisation of surface mining methods, thin seam mining of
iron ore bands, not only increases the economic viability
of a project, but assists with mine planning, drill and blast
design, transportation, processing and flexibility. Surface
miners allow high quality products to be excavated with
economic efficiency even from technically challenging
mineral deposits (Wirtgen GmbH, 2010). Additionally the
25
Fig 2 - Wirtgen SM2500 at Christmas Creek mine (Truong and Nguyen, 2012).
SMU hours, working hours, standby time, operating
delays, weather delays, unscheduled maintenance and
scheduled maintenance
the amount of picks, tool holders and fuel used
the tonnages milled
the area of mining (pit/strip/flitch)
the ground conditions that were encountered and any
additional comments.
This information was obtained via email and then compiled
into monthly summary spreadsheets before analysis could
continue. Due to the large amount of data, a significant
period of time was spent assembling the information into
readable and comprehensive data sets. It is estimated that
approximately 600 to 800 spreadsheets were used in the
analysis.
(1)
evaluatIng the perforMance and productIvIty of contInuouS Surface MInerS In Iron ore
where:
P
CW
CD
reSultS
operational production results
Productivity of surface mining fleet
Calculating the productivity of the surface miners was one
of the key pieces of analysis throughout the duration of the
project. Figure 3 portrays a comparison of the five machine
models and their average production rates. The targeted
production rates also highlight whether a machine made
target or not.
The total rostered time for each machine model was broken
down into a comparison of working, standby, operational
delay, unscheduled maintenance and scheduled maintenance.
This comparison is shown in Figure 6 where T1255 machines
achieved the highest amount of working time. Considering
they had the worst performance at -16.7 per cent, this suggests
that the target rates were too high at 550 t/h. The SM2200
machines had the lowest working time at 24 per cent, resulting
in large periods of operational delay and unscheduled
maintenance at 36 per cent and 27 per cent respectively. This
excessive amount of downtime was the cause for not meeting
targets and its -8.1 per cent performance. The most productive
machine the SM4200, had a working time of 37 per cent. By
reducing its excessive operational delay a further increase
in performance would prevail. Overall, across all 31 surface
miners, the working time was 34 per cent, standby eight per
cent, operational delay 18 per cent, unscheduled maintenance
21 per cent and scheduled maintenance 18 per cent.
evaluatIng the perforMance and productIvIty of contInuouS Surface MInerS In Iron ore
Fig 7 - Comparison of rostered time on a monthly basis for surface mining fleet
from July 2011 to Apr 2012.
TABLE 1
Average availability, utilisation and effective utilisation for the surface
mining fleet.
Machine
Effective
utilisation (%)
SM2200
64
45
24
SM2500
55
59
32
SM4200
76
49
37
T1255
68
64
43
T1655
66
48
32
Average
61
59
34
TABLE 3
Instantaneous operating ranges for SM2200.
Material
Very hard
0 - 1.7
Hard
1.7 - 5
Medium
5 - 6.7
Soft
6.7 - 10
TABLE 4
Instantaneous operating ranges for SM2500.
Fig 10 - Comparison of material type overall unit cost for surface mining fleet.
cutting dimensions and density. The density used was
2.8 t/m3 based on the rock properties at the Fortescue deposits
(Hutchins, 2012). For the calculation to work correctly, the
cutting width and depth of a machine is fixed for a given strip.
Table 2 details the cutting dimensions used for each of the
Wirtgen surface miners in the calculation.
As the forward speed of the machine is the principal
TABLE 2
Surface miner cutting dimensions for instantaneous productivity calculations.
Machine
Wirtgen SM2200
2200
300
Wirtgen SM2500
2500
500
Wirtgen SM4200
4200
650
concluSIonS
The paper investigated two types of data with regard to
several different surface mining machines. The SM4200 and
T1255 were the largest machines and produced the highest
production rates. The best performance was recorded by the
SM4200 and the SM2500. However, the worst performed
machines were the T1255 and SM2200 over the project
duration. There was a distinct linear correlation between
material type and productivity. The SM2200 and SM2500
followed the linear trend, whilst the larger SM4200 machine
experienced smaller fluctuations in productivity as the
material type varied. In terms of efficiency, a decrease in
utilisation was an alarming trend, as the availability steadily
increased over project duration. An assessment of the total
rostered time exposed a target rate too high for the T1255
machines. However, an improvement in unscheduled
maintenance downtime by more than half was promising.
Regarding the overall unit cost, the larger T1655 and SM420
were the cheapest machine to operate, whilst the smaller
T1255 was the most expensive on a dollar per tonne basis.
The instantaneous productivity calculations resulted in
the construction of plots for three shifts. Areas of high and
low productivity were identified with corresponding zones
30
Material
Very hard
0 - 1.7
Hard
1.7 - 5
Medium
5 - 8.3
Soft
8.3 - 11.7
TABLE 5
Instantaneous operating ranges for SM4200.
Material
Very hard
0 - 3.3
Hard
3.3 - 6.7
Medium
6.7 - 15
Soft
15 - 25
acknowledgeMentS
The authors would like to thank the continued support
of Downer EDi Minings technical services department in
Brisbane and at the Christmas Creek Mine site. Additionally,
the author would like to thank Fortescue Metals Group,
Western Australian Surface Mining and UEA for providing
the data. The author gratefully acknowledges the advice and
information provided by Jim Hutchins.
referenceS
Clout, J M F and Rowley, W G, 2009. The Fortescue Metals Group
story From exploration to the third largest iron ore producer in
Australia, in Proceedings Iron Ore 2009, pp 63-71 (The Australasian
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).
Hutchins, J, 2012. Personal communication, 9 August.
Truong, B and Nguyen, A, 2012. Xmas Creek Operation, workshop
delivered at the 2012 Engineers and Surveyors Conference,
Mackay, March 2012.
Walker, B, 2011. Surface mining An overview, presentation, CC
Operations.
Williams, J, Mendelawitz, D and Castle, M, 2007. Applicability of
using Wirtgen surface miners as a mining tool for iron ore, in
Proceedings Iron Ore 2007, pp 427-432 (The Australasian Institute
of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).
Wirtgen GmbH, 2010. Job report surface mining: iron ore mining in
Australia: surface miners are main mining equipment [online],
Germany, Wirtgen Group GmbH. Available from:<http://www.
wirtgengroup.de/en/aktuelles_und_presse/presseberichte/
uebersicht/Presseartikel_detail_4703.html> [Accessed: 10th May
2012].
Introduction
Emerging Miners are mining companies that are at the
development stage; these companies have proved up mineral
reserves and are undergoing the process of advancing into
production. This transformation from explorer to producer is
characteristically a high risk phase of a companys life cycle.
There is generally quite a high level of investor, management
and corporate pressure to succeed in bringing the projects
from scoping to construction and operations; as well as a
distinct lack of operating experience hampering the ability to
achieve these goals. Additionally, it is quite common for these
companies to run, what could be classified as, medium to high
levels of risk. Such companies are not faced with the capital
allocation issues of the larger, more established companies;
and having a mine may be more desirable for shareholders
than having no mine at all (Stirzaker, 1997).
Research objectives
With reference to the issue of risk in an emerging miners
project development system, the objective of this study was to
analyse potential techniques for incorporating risk effectively
1. GAusIMM, The University of New South Wales, Sydney NSW. Email: t.graham@student.unsw.edu.au
2. MAusIMM, The University of New South Wales, Sydney NSW. Email: s.saydam@unsw.edu.au
Mining Education Australia Research Projects Review 2012
31
32
TABLE 1
Scenario analysis methods.
Event tree analysis (probabilities)
Sensitivity analysis
Monte Carlo simulation
Risk adjusted discount rate
Program evaluation and reviewing technique (PERT)
Sensitivity analysis
The sensitivity analysis has been used to model a variation in
each of the input variables in both the schedule (duration) and
the budget to see what kind of a variation will be produced in
the overall outcome (total).
This analysis produced some results of minor relevance to
the researchs objectives. It has identified which jobs in the
schedule the overall duration is most sensitive to (shown
through Figure 4). However, these results are limited as they
have not given any indication about what the actual expected
outcome is likely to be. This is further exaggerated in the case
of the budget analysis (not shown) which only indicated the
obvious conclusion that the total budget sum is most sensitive
to a variation in the larger budget items an outcome which
provides little assistance to managers attempting to make a
decision about which option to pursue.
TABLE 2
Results of program evaluation and review technique analysis.
Schedule duration
Budget total
Original
PERT
1491 days
100%
100.2%
concluSIonS
The presence of uncertainty has been recognised as a primary
factor leading to the existence of risk in an Emerging Miners
MINING eDUCATIoN AUSTRALIA ReSeARCh PRojeCTS ReVIew 2012
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance provided by
the Cockatoo Coal senior management team for their support
and provision of resources and data vital for this study;
Andrew Lawson, Luca Rocchi, Steve Jukes, and particularly
Dane Stewart for his assistance and supervision in this
process.
References
Chinbat, U, 2011. Risk analysis in the mining industry, in Risk
Management in Environment, Production and Economy (ed:
MMSavino), pp 103-122 (InTech: Croatia).
Cockatoo, 2012. Cockatoo Coal Limited [online], Available from:
<http://www.cockatoocoal.com.au> [Accessed: 12 March 2012].
Dobie, C, 2007. A Handbook of Project Management A Complete Guide
for Beginners to Professionals (Allen and Unwin: NSW).
Eschenbach, T, Lewis, N, Henrie, M, Baker, I V E and Hariman, JC,
2007. Real options and real engineering projects, Engineering
Management Journal, 19(4):11-19.
Klingel, A R, 1966. Bias in PERT project completion time calculation
for a real network, Management Science, 13(4):194-201.
McCabe, B, 2003. Monte Carlo simulation for schedule risks, in
Proceedings 2003 Simulation Conference: Driving Innovation, Winter
Simulation Conference, New Orleans.
Mooney, C Z, 1997. Monte Carlo Simulation (Sage Publications: USA).
Project Management Institute, 2012. Stage-Gate your roadmap for
new product development [online], Available from: <http://
www.prod-dev.com> [Accessed: 15 October 2012].
Stirzaker, M, 1997. Feasibility studies - Risks and sensitivities, in
Proceedings MINDEV 97 The Third International Conference of
Mine Development (The Australasian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy : Melbourne).
35
36
INTRODUCTION
Blasting in mining has been used for centuries to effectively
and efficiently break rock for excavation. The fragment size
after blasting has a major impact on the performance of all
aspects of the mining operation and on the economics of the
mine and mill (Marton and Crookes, 2000). The term rock
fragmentation is used to describe the range of sizes, including
the distribution, of rock portions after blasting. Fragmentation
size affects all downstream processes, from load and haul
(including immediate digging), crushing and grinding, through
to processing. Improved fragmentation through blasting can
increase diggability, thereby increasing productivity of loaders
and excavators, reduce the need for secondary breakage of
oversize material, increase mill throughput and decrease
energy consumption in crushing (Hudaverdi, Kulatilake and
Kuzu, 2010). Therefore, the mine to mill approach has gained
popularity, optimising blast design for the profitability of the
overall operation, rather than individual processes (Hudaverdi,
Kulatilake and Kuzu, 2010). Each operation has an optimum
fragment size, which when achieved by blasting, will result in
the greatest efficiency of the operation. Tools and technologies
that can predict the performance of individual blasts make
it possible to ensure that the optimum fragment size will be
achieved every time (Marton and Crookes, 2000).
1. SAusIMM, Graduate Mining Engineer, School of Civil, Environmental and Mining Engineering, University of Adelaide, SA 5005. Email: alexis.holland@student.adelaide.edu.au
2. SAusIMM, Graduate Mining Engineer, School of Civil, Environmental and Mining Engineering, University of Adelaide, SA 5005. Email: madeleine.iles@student.adelaide.edu.au
3. MAusIMM, Lecturer, School of Civil, Environmental and Mining Engineering, University of Adelaide, SA 5005. Email: mkarakus@civeng.adelaide.edu.au
Mining Education Australia Research Projects Review 2012
37
`S
115
ANFO
19/30
(1)
where:
BI:
K:
Qe:
RM = 1 - e- c Xc m
(2)
RM:
X:
screen size, cm
XC:
n:
index of uniformity
(4)
burden, m
S:
spacing, m
D:
borehole diameter, mm
W:
L:
H:
bench height, m
TABLE 1
Rock factor parameters (Aghababaei et al, 2009).
RMD (rock mass description)
Powdery/friable
10
Vertically jointed
JF*
Massive
50
10
0.1 m to MS
20
MS* to DP*
50
20
30
40
X
XC =
n - ln ^ 1 - R h
M
(6)
where:
38
(5)
If Y<50
HF = UCS*/5
If Y>50
Meaning
Unit
MS
Oversize
DP
Youngs modulus
GPa
Uniaxial compressive
strength
MPa
UCS
JF=JPS+JPA
XM
C` 1 + 1 j
n
(7)
where:
is the gamma function (n) = (n - 1)!
(8)
(9)
where:
XMAX
X50
(13)
19/30
ANFO
ANFO
19/30
reSearch gapS
Z R
Vb_-1
X
]
S ln c MAX m W b
]
Wb
X
P^ x h = [ 1 + S
S
XMAX W `
]
S ln e
Wb
]
S
X50 o W b
\
T
Xa
`S
`S
115
115
(12)
where:
(11)
(10)
Methodology
A series of trial blasts were undertaken to provide a data set,
which was used for the three main areas of research:
1. Blast Design Assistant (BDA) analysis
2. development of a new prediction equation using genetic
programming
3. comparison of current models, BDA and the newly
proposed equation and investigation into the benefit of
the g(n) factor.
The blasts were conducted at CITIC Pacifics Sino Iron
Project, located at Cape Preston, 100 km south west of
Karratha, in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. Results
were collected from nine specifically designed trial shots,
with assistance from Orica Mining Services. The actual
fragmentation of the material after blasting was estimated
using Oricas image analysis software Powersieve 3.
Model comparison
Finally, a model comparison was carried out by comparing
each model to the actual fragmentation results from site
and calculating the prediction error. The models compared
in this research were the Kuz-Ram, corrected Kuz-Ram and
KCO (using the three-parameter Swebrec function with and
without the inclusion of the g(n) correction factor), the BDA
software and the newly proposed equation. The models were
compared in their ability to predict the 80 per cent passing
size.
Fig 2 - Blast Design Assistant output, the base case and predicted fragmentation curves.
40
Results
Blast design assistant analysis
For each of the nine trial shots, the following blast design and
explosive properties were collected from site and entered into
BDA:
TABLE 2
Summary of average prediction errors for Swebrec fit.
BDA
fit
base
case
1
Average
error
(%)
43.1
26.3
41.3
18.9
60.4
4.9
10.0
3.9
3.9
1.9
11.0
8.8 16.5
0.5
12.2
1.8
1.5
3.0
7.9
6.6 13.1
4.7
6.2
2
3
4
0.8
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
1.6
1.5
2.4
7.6
6.2 12.6
4.4
0.4
10.4
5.1
3.8
4.5
9.2
8.0 13.9
0.8
14.0
4.5
2.7
5.4
4.5
1.3
2.7
7.9
6
7
0.2
8
1.6
9
5.2
3.7
6.1
5.3
2.0
1.7
8.7
14.4
5.1
3.2
6.1
4.9
1.4
1.2
8.4
9.8
6.4
6.1
7.3
4.1
14.8
1
0.0
7.3
2.2
12.0
42.4
17.0
13.1
15.9
8.9
5.4
6.0
5.6
17.2
TABLE 3
Summary of average prediction errors based on percentage passing.
Average error (%) per shot
1
Total
average
error (%)
P20
53.7
32.8
27.3
26.9
32.4
62.7
41.1
94.7
27.8
44.4
P50
51.3
24.2
21.1
21.6
21.1
33.8
33.8
36.2
27.6
30.1
P80
45.9
20.2
18.6
17.9
19.9
21.0
27.3
21.0
41.4
25.9
Blast
Z
]]
x5
[ f log x1 log > ln x3 x7.e Hp
o
P80 = ln ]] e 2
10 e
x4
\
JPS
_
x2 . log x6b
10 b
x4
`
b
b
a(14)
(15)
where:
|1 = Burden
Spacing
|2 =
Stemming
+ cos (Joint Plane Angle)
Hole Length
| 3 = Drillhole diameter
Hole length
|4 =
|6 =
Model comparison
The final step in the data processing was to compare the
accuracy of the Kuz-Ram, corrected Kuz-Ram, KCO model
and the developed model, using the actual field data. Each of
these models required specific inputs, some of which called
for manipulation of gathered field data, or assumptions.
The BDA predictions were included in this comparison
as an additional test of the Swebrec function. The P80 as a
direct output from BDA was averaged, and the P80 was also
calculated from the averaged output Swebrec parameters. The
error in prediction was calculated for each blast area and the
average absolute error for each prediction model was used to
rate the models by accuracy (see Table 4). The calculated P80
values are tabulated in Table 5.
42
TABLE 4
Average absolute error for each prediction method.
Model
Swebrec
100
Kuz-Ram
93
Kuznetsov-Cunningham-Ouchterlony:
Swebrec with g(n) factor
57
Corrected Kuz-Ram
51
50
Proposed model
TABLE 5
Actual and predicted P80 values.
Blast
area
Kuz-Ram
Corrected
Kuz-Ram
Swebrec
KCO
BDA (parameters
averaged)
BDA (P80
averaged)
Proposed
model
0.310
0.449
0.348
0.464
0.361
0.262
0.216
0.250
0.230
0.448
0.350
0.464
0.364
0.355
0.230
0.229
0.190
0.350
0.272
0.364
0.284
0.303
0.190
0.171
0.240
0.399
0.312
0.414
0.325
0.362
0.240
0.237
0.225
0.439
0.342
0.454
0.356
0.279
0.253
0.230
0.215
0.462
0.361
0.478
0.375
0.372
0.215
0.226
0.200
0.495
0.384
0.511
0.399
0.375
0.200
0.224
0.200
0.414
0.323
0.429
0.336
0.363
0.199
0.152
0.250
0.462
0.361
0.478
0.375
0.239
0.250
0.242
Proposed model
The new equation, developed via genetic programming in
GPLAB to predict the 80 per cent passing size of a muck pile,
has incorporated additional parameters compared to current
models and hence offers a robust description of the factors
that affect blast outcomes. In theory, this equation should,
therefore, offer highly accurate predictions in various rock
types, with a variety of design parameters. Presently, the
equation offers highly accurate predictions of the 80 percent
passing size for the geological conditions specific to CITIC
Pacifics magnetite site. This is to be expected as the field
data that was input and utilised by GPLAB to develop the
equation came from this site. Therefore, validation of the
newly proposed model against a wide variety of field data
will be beneficial to evaluate the equations merit.
The equations use of 18 different parameters, which describe
a myriad of factors affecting fragmentation from blasting, is
vigorous and should be encouraged. This is a development on
the present position of fragmentation prediction modelling.
The equation, although initially appearing complex, is a
straightforward substitution of variables (1 7) and their
corresponding design, explosive or rock property parameters,
all of which are readily available at a mine site. Often, this
information is required for other purposes and is, therefore,
being recorded at site anyway. Therefore, collection of the
input information required by the P80 equation will not only
be readily available, but should not interfere with current
operations nor create more work.
When used with everyday computer applications such
as Microsoft Excel, the formula for the equation can be set
up so that the design parameters are simply entered into
corresponding cells, offering a quick and easy prediction.
The equation can be utilised to check the proposed design
of a shot to determine the resulting P80 of the muck pile. If
the prediction does not satisfy the target P80 required by
downstream processes, changes to the blast design can be
made immediately until the target P80 is reached. All members
of the drill and blast team can simply and quickly enter the
parameters of the proposed design into the spreadsheet
containing the prediction equation. The equation is, therefore,
highly practical and efficient.
Model comparison
The prediction error for the 80 per cent passing size was
compared for each model. The Kuz-Ram, corrected Kuz-Ram,
Swebrec and KCO models consistently over-estimated the P80
Mining Education Australia Research Projects Review 2012
size, while the two BDA predictions and the generated model
both over- and under-estimated the P80 size.
CONCLUSIONS
A new model predicting the 80 per cent passing size was
developed using genetic programming and field data.
43
REFERENCES
Aghababaei, H, Gheibie, S, Hoseinie, S H and Pourrahimian, Y,
2009. Modified Kuz-Ram fragmentation model and its use at the
Sungun Copper Mine, International Journal of Rock Mechanics and
Mining Sciences, 46:967-973.
44
Introduction
In the past five years, electric power price in Australia has
increased significantly and is likely to continue to increase in
the foreseeable future. This can make a mine uneconomic to
operate.
The electrical power required for the ventilation system for
a mine is one of the major components of the total electrical
power consumption, which typically represents more than
one-third (de la Vergne, 2003). To reduce ventilation power
consumption, ventilation requirement must be reduced.
One option to achieve this is to replace diesel vehicles with
electric ones. An electric motor produces zero emissions and
only emits one-third the heat of an equivalent diesel engine.
Airflow specification can therefore be less (Marks, 2012).
Currently ventilation requirement in Australian underground hard rock mines is determined by multiplying the
rated diesel engine power of all vehicles with the regulatory
airflow requirement. For example, 0.05 m3/s per kW rated
engine power is the requirement in Western Australia Mines
Safety and Inspection Regulation (WAMSIR) 1995, regulation
10.52 (6) (WA Government, 1995). Currently, there is no
such requirement for electric vehicles in Australia. The only
regulation concerning ventilation for electric vehicles is
WAMSIR 1995 regulation 9.34 which states that a minimum
air velocity of 0.25 m/s is maintained in all underground
areas in the mine where vehicles or locomotives powered
by electricity is used. However, this means that the airflow
Methodology
The first step of this research was to quantify the contaminant
produced by an electric heavy vehicle, which is heat.
The measurement to quantify heat produced by an electric
heavy vehicle was carried out in Rio Tintos Northparkes
Copper-Gold mine in New South Wales (NSW). This mine
was selected as it exclusively uses electric vehicles, which
are electric load haul dump (LHD) units, as production
equipment. The LHD unit is Sandvik LH514E. Data collected
were Dry bulb (DB) temperature, wet bulb (WB) temperature,
Barometric pressure, airflow quantity (air velocity and airway
dimension). By using psychometric equations, the amount
of heat produced by an electric LHD can be calculated.
In addition to this, power consumed by the unit was also
determined by measuring current, voltage and power factor.
45
Ventilation Requirement for Electric Vehicles in Underground Hard Rock Mines A Conceptual Study
Table 2
Heat emitted by LH514E.
Trial
Heat (kW)
161.8
156.6
138.8
128.3
139.2
Average
145.0
Table 1
Data collected at Northparkes Mine.
Trial
DB (C)
WB (C)
DB (C)
WB (C)
21.00
16.20
106 197.00
18.90
13.40
106,205.00
21.50
16.30
106 189.00
18.90
13.60
106,201.00
21.30
16.00
106 117.00
18.90
13.60
106,202.00
21.20
16.20
106 181.00
19.00
14.00
106,211.00
21.50
16.20
106 209.00
18.90
13.80
106,217.00
Average
21.30
16.18
106 178.60
18.92
13.68
106 207.20
47
Table 3
Deep mine fleet.
Unit
Fleet size
Light vehicle
98
68.6
12
823.2
221
154.7
154.7
176
123.2
123.2
Charge up rig
104
72.8
72.8
IT
152
106.4
212.8
Jumbo
110
77
154
Production drill
104
72.8
145.6
231
161.7
323.4
321
224.7
1123.5
Small truck
485
339.5
2037
Large truck
548
383.6
1918
Grader
152
106.4
212.8
Water cart
152
106.4
212.8
Shotcrete rig
82
57.4
57.4
Concrete agitator
170
119
Table 4
Vehicles operating in the deep mine at the same time.
Equipment
Fleet size
238
TOTAL
7809.2
Table 6
Mount Isa (hot strata) geothermal parameters.
Parameters
Values
IT
Large truck
Grader
Water cart
Geothermal gradient
Large load-haul-dump
10%
Small truck
Light vehicle
1.23 W/mC
0.55 10-6 m2/s
Parameters
Rock thermal conductivity
Rock thermal diffusivity
Table 7
Electric vehicle fleet in the deepest block of the deep mine.
Values
1.75 W/mC
98.5 kPa
9 years
Table 5
Kalgoorlie (cool strata) geothermal parameters.
28C
Unit
Motor output
(kW)
Fleet size
Total output
(kW)
23C
Light vehicle
68.6
343
Geothermal gradient
Charge up rig
72.8
72.8
10%
IT
106.4
106.4
77
77
98 kPa
Jumbo
9 years
Production drill
72.8
145.6
Large load-haul-dump
224.7
449.4
Small truck
339.5
339.5
Large truck
383.6
1918
Grader
106.4
106.4
Water cart
106.4
106.4
Shorcrete rig
57.4
57.4
Concrete agitator
119
119
TOTAL
3840.9
48
Ventilation Requirement for Electric Vehicles in Underground Hard Rock Mines A Conceptual Study
Table 8
Shallow mine fleet.
Unit
Diesel
engine
power (kW)
Electric
motor
output (kW)
Fleet
size
Total
electric
output (kW)
Light vehicle
98
68.6
343
Charge up rig
66
46.2
92.4
Small LHD
123
86.1
172.2
Medium LHD
142
99.4
198.8
Large LHD
298
208.6
417.2
Large truck
600
420
420
Medium truck
392
274.4
274.4
IT
82
57.4
114.8
Shotcrete rig
82
57.4
57.4
Concrete agitator
100
70
70
TOTAL
2160.2
Table 9
Vehicles operating in the shallow mine at the same time.
Unit
Fleet size
Large truck
IT
Light vehicle
CONCLUSIONS
This study has found an indication that utilising electric
vehicles will require less ventilation and therefore will save
some primary fan power cost. The reduction of ventilation
requirement varies between mines located in cool and hot
strata, and between deep and shallow mines. This is because
mines located in hot strata have more heat load than that
located in cool strata due to the larger heat emitted by the
strata. Deep mines have more heat load than shallow mines
as heat emitted by the strata increases along with depth. A
refrigeration plant must be used in deep mines located in
hot strata. Utilising refrigeration plant reduces the quantity
requirement; however, it comes with increasing cost of
operating and maintaining the plant.
49
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study required visiting Rio Tintos Northparkes mines,
which was made possible through the funding from Mining
Education Australia (MEA). The authors would like to thank
Prof Peter Knight, Executive Director of MEA and Mrs Paulette
50
REFERENCES
De la Vergne, J, 2003. Hard Rock Miners Handbook [online].
Available
from:
<http://www.altomines.com/pdfs/
HardRockMinersHandbook.pdf> [Accessed: 30 March 2012].
Marks, J R, 2012. Airflow specification for metal and non-metal
mines, in Proceedings of 14th US/North American Mine Ventilation
Symposium (eds: F Calizaya and M Nelson), pp 191-195,
(University of Utah: Salt Lake City).
Sandvik Mining, 2012. Specification of LH514 and LH514E [online].
Available from: <http://www.mining.sandvik.com> [Accessed:
15 August 2012].
Van den Berg, L, 2012. Personal communication regarding
refrigeration plant design limit, Senior Consultant and Manager
Ventilation, Snowden, 25 September.
Western Australian (WA) Government, 1995. Mines Safety
and Inspection Regulation 1995 [online]. Available from:
<http://www.mirmgate.com/docs/compliancegate/wa/
MineSftyAndInspectionRegs1995_05-c0-01.pdf>
[Accessed:
30March 2012].
Introduction
Blasting is an integral aspect of almost all modern surface
mining operations. However, despite its importance, blasting
has the potential to create a large source of dust, noise and,
importantly, vibration. If not well designed, blast vibration
can be a source of concern for nearby stakeholders in the
vicinity of mining operations due to the potential effects
on dwellings and infrastructure, as well as causing general
annoyance in communities. The Hunter Valley region of
New South Wales (NSW) is the most productive thermal coal
producing region in Australia. The valley is also home to horse
studs and wineries that support a thriving tourism industry.
This mixture of land uses causes local mining operations to be
held to some of the highest operational standards in the world
(Richards and Moore, 1995).
This paper provides technical justification for establishing
a vibration model to accurately predict vibration levels from
blasting at Glendell Colliery, to enable a more thorough
consideration of the resulting effects and implications.
Glendell Coal is an open cut mining operation in the Hunter
Valley of NSW. It is part of the Mt. Owen Complex and is
owned and operated by Xstrata Coal NSW (XCN). The deposit
is mined using conventional truck and shovel methods,
featuring large scale production blasts. The Great Northern
Rail Line bounds the operation on the southern side of the final
Vibration Modelling
Prediction of vibration has traditionally been performed
using charge weight scaling laws or some derivative of such.
These laws make their base predictions on the assumption
that the peak particle velocity (PPV) caused by a blast will be
the same as that generated if a single blast hole containing a
charge equal to that of the maximum instantaneous charge
(MIC) was detonated at the centroid of the area (Blair, 2004).
Recent times have seen an increase in use of wave form
models, which take each individual blast hole and model the
sum of the orthogonal wave components. These individual
wave forms can then be superimposed after applying the
appropriate delays to form a complete model of the blast.
1. SAusIMM, Graduand Mining Engineer, The University of New South Wales, Sydney.
2. Senior Lecturer, The University of New South Wales, Sydney. Email: d.chalmers@unsw.edu.au
Mining Education Australia Research Projects Review 2012
51
D
MIC
-b
(1)
mm/s
D:
MIC:
TABLE 1
Typical values for site laws (constants) in coal mines (source: Richards and
Moore (1999)).
Site Value
Upper limit
500
-3.0
Lower limit
10000
-1.4
1600
-1.6
power lines
For the monitoring sites Power line 1 and Power line 2:
PPV = 3668 e
D
MIC
-1.72
mm/s
(2)
predIctIon and ModellIng of BlaSt vIBratIon and ItS effectS at glendell collIery
PPV = 1652 e
MIC
-1.34
mm/s
(3)
operations
D
MIC
-1.44
mm/s
(4)
conSequenceS
The vibration model developed for Glendell was used to
consider if changes to current blast practices are likely to be
needed. In cases where changes are anticipated to be required,
this model will be used to explore the flow-on effects for the
main stakeholders involved. Due to the nature of blasting,
measures to minimise vibration levels seldom improve
blasting activities from the perspective of performance,
efficiency or cost. Whilst refinement of the initiation timing
can reduce vibration levels considerably, these improvements
soon plateau, making further design changes necessary. The
likely effect on production activities of the proposed changes
was also considered in order to gauge the implications of
these changes by reducing productivity and increasing costs.
Blast design
When using charge weight scaling laws to predict and
subsequently manage vibration levels, the only variable a
blast engineer can directly influence is what the MIC for the
designed blast will be. As MIC is also a main variable in the
commonly used charge weight scaling laws, it can be used
as the main driver for vibration constrained blast design. By
rearranging the charge weight scaling formula to the form
below and substituting the site constants determined earlier,
the highest MIC able to be used while staying within vibration
limits can be determined.
MIC =
K.D
1 o
PPV b
kg
(4)
economic
Implementing the blast designs required to manage vibration
levels at Glendell in the future, will come at an economic cost
to the operation. These costs will be direct, such as an increase
in initiation products, and indirect, such as lost production,
increased down time due to maintenance and greater
compliance costs.
As blast hole diameters are reduced, less volume is blasted
per metre of drilling, costing more in terms of consumables,
equipment and fixed costs such as labour.
In terms of blasting activities, the use of decked blasts
and smaller diameter holes will increase shot-firing labour
requirements and decrease the productivity of the existing
shot crew. Additionally, when decked blasts are used, there
is an increase in the amount of initiation equipment required,
as each deck is primed separately. This cost is exacerbated
when electronic detonators are used, which at $55.03 each,
plus $10.69 for a booster, increases the cost per hole by $65.72.
Further, to add a second deck, the initiating equipment
expense increased to $20 767 for an average blast before any
other costs are factored in.
In bulk mining operations such as Glendell, equipment
productivity is an important issue. The method by which
ground is blasted directly influences the excavation rate
achieved and is sensitive to the degree of fragmentation and
muck-pile heave. As Glendell operates three Hitachi EX5500
that are responsible for the majority of the waste moved on
site, the effect of reduced production rates was examined
for these machines. The consequence of a reduction in the
productivity of EX5500 is significant, as illustrated in Figure 3.
53
other
The site vibration model highlights the narrowing margins
for error that exist as mining approaches the infrastructure
items, presenting a challenge to maintaining a healthy
social licence. As such, ongoing attention should be directed
towards cultivating a positive relationship between Glendell
and its stakeholders.
concluSIonS
The research project conducted highlighted that rule of thumb
values are not appropriate for vibration prediction at Glendell
Coals mining operation. Whilst rule of thumb values can be
used currently without ill-effect, future blasts will be within
the margin for error in managing vibration as the site matures.
While preparing and analysing the data, as well as in a
consideration of the results of the project, it became apparent
that the current system of record keeping for blasting activities
at Glendell is comprehensive as it captures useful information
in a manner that is conducive to subsequent study and
examination. The high standard of information retained
about blasting practices at the mine was a significant aid to
the completion of the research project and lends confidence
to derived results.
By analysing data from past blasts using methods such
as regression analysis, it was possible to exclude abnormal
blasts, leaving only those that are representative of typical
blasts at Glendell. This data was then grouped in several
ways to determine what the most effective and efficient way
of predicting vibration at this site would be.
Based on the analysis performed, grouping data based on
the lithology of the area being blasted produces the most
satisfactory result in the sense of statistically fit, broad
classifications where used. It is likely that this method could
be improved by more rigorously exploring the potential
correlations between rock-mass attributes and vibration
behaviour.
Having developed a vibration model, it was applied to
determine what changes to drill and blast practices are
required and when they will need to be implemented. Based
on order of magnitude style calculations, it was immediately
apparent that some degree of change is required. With the aid
of a vibration model tailored to the site conditions, accurate
predictions of the adaptations required could be made. Key
findings included the stand-off distances at which significant
changes are likely to be required, but perhaps the most
important finding is that the current blasting practices are not
suitable at distances closer than 500 m to most infrastructure
items. This is important considering the percentage of the
mining area within this zone. The changes are unlikely to
MINING eDUCATIoN AUSTRALIA ReSeARCh PRojeCTS ReVIew 2012
Prediction and Modelling of Blast Vibration and its Effects at Glendell Colliery
Acknowledgements
The author acknowledges the support of Glendell Colliery,
specifically Mr Shaun Leary and Mr Anthony Davidson for
supporting the project and providing the data needed to
perform the investigation.
References
Blair, D P, 2004. Analysis and modelling of airblast and ground
Vibration, in Proceedings EXPLO, pp 1-10 (The Australasian
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).
Davidson, A, 2012. Personal communication. Drill and Blast
Engineer, Glendell Coal, 14 February.
Gilbert, S, 2012. Personal communication, Drill and Blast Engineer,
Ravensworth Surface Operations. 18 January.
Humphreys, M, 2012. Personal communication, Consulting Mining
Engineer, MiPlan, 9 February.
Richards, A B and Moore, A J, 1995. Blast vibration control by
wavefront reinforcement techniques, in Proceedings EXPLO
95, pp 323-328 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy: Melbourne)
Richards, A B and Moore, A J, 1999. Predictive assessment of
surface blast vibration, in Proceedings EXPLO 99, pp 91-97 (The
Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).
55
56
Introduction
Due to the finite nature of coal as an energy resource, it
will inevitably be depleted. Therefore, in the interest of the
Queensland coal industry the state and federal governments
provide annual coal resource life estimates. Such publications
include Australias Indicated Mineral Resources (Geoscience
Australia, 2012) and Queensland Exploration Scorecard
(Queensland Exploration Council, 2011). However, the method
in which the estimates are calculated in publications such as
these can be inaccurate and misleading. Therefore, this paper
reviews past approaches to depletion modelling of coal and
other finite energy resources, such as those by Hubbert (1956)
and Mohr et al (2011), with the aim of producing a new method
that will offer increased accuracy. All past studies indicate that
depletion will follow a bell-curve shape. Therefore, the desired
model will mirror this trend, using annual coal production
and coal resource data, inclusive of all coal types.
Using the proposed model, forecasts will be made regarding
peak coal and resource depletion. However, in order for the
forecasts to remain accurate a number of factors that influence
coal resource depletion will have to follow historical rates of
change. If this occurs, the accuracy of historical production
data will hold, as will depletion forecasts made using the
proposed model.
Bowen
Surat
Galilee
Clarence-Moreton
Eromanga/Cooper.
In addition to the large resource size of both Queensland
and Australia, the region is positioned well as a coal exporter
and to handle increasing global demand for coal because of
(Productivity Commission, 1998):
1. Mining Engineer Undergraduate, The University of Queensland, 25 Oakmont Street, Rothwell Qld 4022. Email: alex.meikle@uqconnect.edu.au
2. FAusIMM(CP), Casual Lecturer, School of Mechanical and Mining, The University of Queensland, 14 Crestview Street, Kenmore Qld 4069. Email: w.seib@uq.edu.au
Mining Education Australia Research Projects Review 2012
57
logistic curves
The concept of modelling depletion rates and future
production of finite resources was first analysed by Hubbert
(1956). He theorised that production levels of a given finite
resource begin at zero, prior to production commencing, rise to
one or more maxima before returning to zero, when resource
exhaustion occurs. In following with this assumption, a bellshaped curve was suggested as an accurate model for the
production curve. Hubbert (1959) later adopted a generalised
logistic curve as the representation of production trends
(Mohr et al, 2011).
The logistic curve has since been widely used in subsequent
studies when modelling fossil fuel depletion such as coal
(Hk et al, 2010; Patzek and Croft, 2010). The logistic equation
is defined as (Mohr et al, 2011):
QL ^ t h = QT c
m
e`-rL `t - t pjj + 1
where:
QL(t)
QT
tp
rL
ModellIng approacheS
gompertz curves
QG ^ t h = QT e - e
(2)
where:
QG(t)
QT
rG
P^ t h
QT - Q^ t h
(3)
where:
dG(t)
QT
P(t)
Supply-demand models
The supply-demand model investigated was designed by
Mohr and Evans (2009). The model consisted of a defined
number of idealised mines, each consisting of a mine life,
L, and production rate, P. Depending on the production
requirements at the time, mines would either begin or
cease production for the given time period. The time of first
production was defined as T0, the production rate constant,
r, dictated the rate at which new mines began production.
As with previous modelling methods, a standard and high
URR estimate was used, and it influenced the number of
mines allocated to a given region. Using this approach, two
constraints were used:
1. the static case no interaction between supply and
demand would occur
2. the dynamic case both supply and demand influenced
each other.
Modelling of the supply-demand scenario hypothetically
began in 1880, with an initial demand of 1 Mt that would
increase at 4.8 per cent per annum. The production rate
constants for each state and coal type were obtained from
historical production data (Mohr et al, 2011).
Depletion of Queensland coal resources was found to
occur approximately in 2125, for both URR scenarios using
the dynamic scenario. This would represent a resource life of
approximately 113 years.
Peak coal
Peak coal, or the point where coal production reaches a
maximum, is key when predicting resource depletion. Bardi
and Lavacchi (2009) theorised that in the initial stages of
extraction of an abundant and cheap resource, economic
growth and increasing investments into extraction/
exploration will result. As the more easily accessed and
cheaply extracted resources become depleted, extraction
costs begin to climb due to increased overburden depths
and reduced resource quality. In time, investments are
outweighed by rising extraction costs; growth slows and
eventual production enters a depletion-driven decline.
The three modelling approaches used in Mohr et al (2011)
all indicate similar years when peak coal will be reached:
2048 - 2052, for the lower URR and 2056 - 2057 for the higher
URR. Excluding the Gompertz curve model, the production
rate experienced at peak coal is also relatively similar 453 489Mt/a for the lower URR and 564 - 644Mt/a.
Modelling Conclusions
From the three modelling approaches investigated, it is clear
that the proposed model should produce a depletion profile
that is a bell-shaped curve. Furthermore, the results of the
study conducted by Mohr et al (2011) can be used as a rough
guide to the desired outcomes of the proposed modelling
scenario. Therefore, peak coal should occur approximately in
the period 2048 - 2057, with a magnitude of 564 - 644Mt/a.
Additionally, resource depletion should approximately occur
between 2125 - 2150, depending on the determination of URR
used in the proposed scenario.
Modelling Methodology
Resource and production data
In order to produce an accurate model of Queensland coal
resource deletion, accurate historical data must be sourced.
Mining Education Australia Research Projects Review 2012
- ^ x - bh
2c 2
(4)
(5)
where:
z = x-b - c
c
d
(6)
TABLE 1
Coal Resource and production data for 2011.
Cumulative production (Mt)
4742
37 156
60 187
62 417
Symmetric modelling
The symmetric Gaussian modelling approach was successful
in modelling each of the seven URR scenarios proposed for
testing. Table 2 shows the individual modelling results that
were produced.
From Table 2 the impact of increasing URR size is evident.
By almost doubling the URR from scenario one to seven
the projected peak coal level increased from 558 Mt/a to
892 Mt/a. Whereas the resource life only increases by 32 years
from scenario one to seven. Therefore, the initial assumption
that the symmetric model would have difficulty accurately
reflecting an increase in URR, was proved correct.
Figure 4 graphically depicts the depletion profiles of
scenarios 1, 3 and 7, corresponding to the base, low and high
URR scenarios. For all scenarios a high degree of accuracy
was present in representing the historical production data,
reflected by an average R2 value of 0.99 for all tested scenarios.
56 430 - 75 966
136 - 153
709 - 892
2054 - 2063
asymmetric modelling
Prior to conducting any asymmetric Gaussian modelling,
suitable peak coal levels had to be determined. In the case of
the base URR scenario, peak coal levels of 500, 550 and 600 Mt
were selected due to their proximity to the initial peak coal
prediction made by the symmetric. However, for the low and
high URR scenarios, a different approach had to be taken
Fig 5 - Peak coal projection for asymmetric low and high ultimate recoverable
resource scenarios.
TABLE 2
Symmetric modelling results.
inferred resources
(%)
Ultimate recoverable
resource (Mt)
Case 1
41 902
121
558
2047
Case 2
20
53 925
131
700
2052
Case 3
20
20
56 430
136
709
2054
Case 4
20
40
58 930
139
732
2056
Case 5
40
65 969
145
798
2059
Case 6
40
20
70 960
149
846
2061
Case 7
40
40
75 966
153
892
2063
61
TABLE 5
Asymmetric modelling low and high ultimate recoverable resource scenarios,
with specified peak coal level.
Unit
Low ultimate
recoverable
resource
High ultimate
recoverable resource
Resource
Mt
56 447
75 975
Resource depletion
2198
2326
Resource life
186
314
Peak coal
Mt
650
650
Peak coal
2050
2053
TABLE 4
Asymmetric modelling low and high ultimate recoverable resource scenarios.
Ultimate recoverable resource
56 447
75 975
Mt
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99
Peak coal
Mt
650
700
750
650
700
750
Peak coal
2050
2051
2052
2053
2054
2057
Resource depletion
2198
2170
2143
2326
2291
2257
Resource life
186
158
131
314
279
245
62
sufficient demand will exist and that the global coal market
does not become over-supplied.
ModellIng lIMItatIonS
Introduction
With any modelling process, there will invariably be
limitations involved. In the case of the modelling approach
taken in this project, the limitations stem from assumptions
made, and factors of influence not included, within the project
scope.
Two main assumptions were made in order to produce the
modelling results of this project. The assumptions were:
1. historical production will indicate future production
trends
2. Queensland coal resources and annual production data
are directly related, ie coal resources are mined in full.
Whilst past studies indicate that historical data can be a
good indication of future trends when modelling, future
changes in the coal industry have the ability to dramatically
alter the true depletion profile of Queensland coal resources.
Furthermore, the scope of this project considers solely
historical production data when projecting depletion profiles
for Queensland coal resources. Therefore, all other factors
that influence coal production and coal resource size have the
ability to reduce the accuracy of the projections made. Some
of these factors include:
coal supply
coal demand
coal price
government policy
coal-related infrastructure.
350
AnnualCoalExports(Mt)
Future coal exports are the factor that will affect most on
the forecasts made as part of this project. Therefore, export
trends for the past decade were assessed in Figure 12, for the
countries of high export quantities or areas of projected coal
export growth, as nominated by the Queensland Department
of Infrastructure and Planning (DIP, 2010). The DIP indicated
that Indonesia, Kazakhstan and Mongolia would all
experience considerable export growth in the coming decade
as coal export infrastructure is developed and expanded
(DIP, 2010). Figure 12 shows that substantial export growth
has occurred in both Australia and Indonesia during the past
decade.
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Year
Australia
USA
Mongolia
Indonesia
SouthAfrica
Russia
Kazakhstan
CoalImports(Mt)
180
160
140
120
Coal-related infrastructure
The final projected depletion scenario indicates a peak coal of
650Mt to occur between 2050 and 2053. While the operating
coal mines during the 2050 - 2053 period may have the
capability to extract the required 650Mt of coal to reach the
peak coal projection, there will be no economic motivation to
do so if the required infrastructure to export and sell the coal
does not exist.
In order to meet the projected peak coal level, sufficient
coal systems will have sufficient capacity. A coal system is
comprised of (DIP, 2010):
100
80
60
40
20
0
2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021 2023 2025 2027 2029
Year
China
India
Japan
700
350
600
300
500
250
400
200
300
150
200
100
100
50
CoalPrice($/t)
ExplorationSpending
(million$)
0
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
Year
ExplorationSpending
CokingCoalPrice
ThermalCoalPrice
Government policy
The state and federal government has the ability to impact coal
industry revenue in the form of royalties and taxes. The size
of the government royalties and taxes impacts on the overall
economic viability of coal extraction and, thus, resource size
and annual production levels are impacted. However, whilst
both governments increase royalties and taxes with time it is
in their best interest to keep the tax at a level that does not
impact annual coal production or exploration spending in
an overly negative manner. If it does, the revenue generated
for either government will be diminished, which would be
an undesirable scenario. Therefore, it can be concluded that
Mining Education Australia Research Projects Review 2012
Conclusions
Having conducted two separate modelling techniques,
using symmetric and asymmetric Gaussian curves, the final
and most accurate forecast was determined to be that using
the asymmetric curve for the low and high URR scenarios.
Using this modelling approach it was found that the true
Queensland coal depletion scenario would consist of the
following characteristics:
66
government policy
coal infrastructure systems.
Review of the identified factors indicated that whilst they
could affect the true depletion scenario, accuracy of the
projections should be maintained.
References
Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 2010.
Australian commodity statistics 2010 [online]. Available from:
<http://www.adl.brs.gov.au> [Accessed: 7 May 2012]
Bardi, V and Lavacchi, A, 2009. A simple interpretation of Hubberts
model of resource exploitation, Energies 2009, 2:646-661.
Bartlett, A, 2006. A depletion protocol for non-renewable natural
resources: Australia as an example, Natural Resources Research, 15:
151-164.
Department of Natural Resources and Mines, 2012. Queenslands
coal Advanced mines and projects [online]. Available from:
<http://mines.industry.qld.gov.au/assets/coal-pdf/new_coal_
min_adv_proj.pdf> [Accessed: 20 September 2012].
DIP, 2010. Coal Plan 2030 Laying the foundations of a future
[online], Queensland Government. Available from: <www.deedi.
qld.gov.au> [Accessed: 7 May 2012].
DME, 2007. Department of Mines and Energy. Queenslands worldclass coals [online]. Available from: < http://mines.industry.qld.
gov.au/ assets/coal-pdf/wcc_nov_07_1.pdf> [Accessed: 10 May
2012].
Fitzpatrick, A, Hitchon, B and McGregor, J R, 1973. Long-term
growth of the oil industry in the United States, Mathematical
Geology, 5:237-267.
Geoscience Australia, 2012. All publications from 2004 to 2011.
Australias identified mineral resources [online]. Available from:
<http://www.ga.gov.au/cedda/publications/1201> [Accessed:
20 September 2012].
Guo, H, 2011. A simple algorithm for fitting a Gaussian function,
IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, 89:134-137.
Hk, M, Zittel, W, Schindler, J and Aleklett, K, 2010. Global coal
production outlooks based on a logistic model, Fuel, 89:3546-3558.
Hubbert, M, 1956. Nuclear energy and the fossil fuels, Drilling and
Production Practice, 205: 7-25.
Kato, T, Omachi, S and Aso, H, 2011. Asymmetric Gaussian and its
applications to pattern recognition, PhD thesis (unpublished),
Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Sendai-shi.
Mohr, S, Hk, M, Mudd, G and Evans, G, 2011. Projection of longterm paths for Australian coal production Comparisons of four
models, International Journal of Coal Geology, 86(4):329.
Mohr, S and Evans, G, 2009. Forecasting coal production until 2100,
Fuel, 88:2059-2067.
Moore, C L, 1966. Projections of US petroleum supply to 1980, Office
of Oil and Gas, Washington DC, p 47.
Mutton, A J, 2003. Queensland Coals 14th Edition: Physical and
Chemical Properties, Colliery and Company Information, Queensland
Department of Natural Resources and Mines.
Patzek, T and Croft, G, 2010. A global coal production forecast with
multi-Hubbert cycle analysis, Energy, 35:3109-3122.
Productivity Commission, 1998. The Australian Black Coal Industry
[online]. Available from: <http://www.pc.gov.au> [Accessed: 7
May 2012].
Queensland Exploration Council, 2011. Queensland Exploration
Scorecard, Queensland Resources Council.
The Queensland Coal Board, 1980 - 1997. The Queensland Coal Board
annual reports/reviews from 1980 to 1997 [online]. Available
from: <http://www.nrm.qld.gov.au/mines> [Accessed: 4 May
2012].
INTRODUCTION
LOAD-HAUL-DUMPS
1. SAusIMM, School of Mechanical and Mining Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane Qld. Email: wpaterson4@gmail.com
2. MAusIMM, Head of Division of Mining Engineering, School of Mechanical and Mining Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane Qld. Email: p.knights@uq.edu.au
Mining Education Australia Research Projects Review 2012
67
Henderson (Z design)
The Henderson layout was developed at Henderson mine,
USA. The layout has since been phased out of Hendersons
operations and there are no other known cases of this layout
being used. The Henderson layout consists of opposite
drawpoint drifts that are in line with each other but inclined
to the production drift. Drawbells and drawpoints at right
angles to the production drifts (Brown, 2003).
The application of eLHDs has not been trialled for the
Henderson layout. A number of modifications would need to
be made to allow for their use. The modified layout would
require power sources to be located at opposite ends of
the extraction drives, as only half of the drawpoints would
be orientated towards an incoming LHD. Once half of the
drawpoints had been bogged the LHD would need to be
68
El Teniente (parallelogram)
Offset herringbone
The offset herringbone layout is a modification of the
herringbone layout. Due to the improved geotechnical and
operational aspects associated with the offset herringbone
layout, the original herringbone layout has all but been
phased out. The offset herringbone layout has become the
most commonly used layout for new block and panel cave
operations. The layout is characterised by drawpoints which
are offset and at right angles to the major apex (Esterhuizen
and Laubscher, 1992). The offset herringbone layout was used
as the extraction level layout for the block caving operations
at NPM (Brown, 2003).
Electric LHDs using trailing cables are most suited in their
application to the offset herringbone layout. An advantage of
the offset herringbone layout is that the LHD will always face
the same direction. This is particularly important when the
LHD trams to a permanent crusher or ore pass. As a result a
power feed only needs to be installed at one end of the panel;
this means that there will not be operational delays from
repositioning the LHD. The Northparkes E26 Lift 2 offset
herringbone extraction level layout can be seen in Figure 1.
This layout was designed with the intention of using eLHDs
with trailing cables, and a number of modifications have been
made to accommodate them including permanent gate end
bays (deWolfe, 2009).
first extraction level design for Lift 2 E26 did not include any
dedicated GEBs. Instead, the LHDs were to be parked in the
extraction drives and plug in points were to be installed on the
sidewall opposite the drive entrance. This design would have
prevented any vehicular movement along the perimeter drive
whilst LHDs were operating. The design was later changed
to one which had permanent GEBs allowing for improved
operations (Rio Tinto, 2002; Ross, 2008).
electrical
The electrical requirements of the mine should be calculated
and the appropriate infrastructure should be installed to
allow for the operation of eLHDs. The designed electrical
system must meet certain predetermined criteria.
Hartman (1992) defines the ten key criteria for a designed
electrical system:
Barrier systems
NPM is in the process of trialling the automation of its eLHD
fleet. As part of this process a barrier system using a light
curtain is installed. If one of the light curtains is breached, the
automated eLHDs shut down and cannot be reactivated until
the cause or the breach is investigated and they are manually
reset. Barrier systems were originally installed close to the
floor, however this resulted in unforseen operational delays.
During everyday operation of eLHDs, trailing cables are
occasionally subject to recoiling. The recoil from the trailing
cables was enough to set off the safety barriers, shutting down
all automated production for a period of time. Modifications
were made to the height of the barrier systems from the
floor reducing the downtime associated with trailing cable
recoil (Rio Tinto, 2011). However this problem is ongoing
and still results in LHD downtime. To avoid downtime from
trailing cable recoil further research should be conducted
into improving the design of the automation barrier system
however, this exceeds the scope of this project.
trailing cable
Modern electrical cables used in underground mining
operations are constructed using a complex layering system.
Cables may comprise of a number of layers including a
conductor, conductor shield, electrical insulation (dielectric),
insulation shield, auxiliary shield, primary shield, dielectric
field, insulation and an outer cover (Thue, 1999). Many
manufactures recommend specific trailing cables for their
electric LHDs. Sandvik (2011) recommends:
roadway design
The typical operation of eLHDs poses many hazards that
can result in damage to the trailing cable. One of the hazards
which trailing cables are most commonly exposed is the risk
of the trailing cable becoming stuck or damaged by debris in
the extraction drive. Other hazards include the cable being
69
70
TABLE 1
Summary of the data set provided by Northparkes Mine.
Parameter
Value
Shift period
12 hours
1/08/11 to 17/09/12
414
14 218
12
1660
1415
TABLE 2
Summary of the data from the load-haul-dump units analysed.
Load-hauldump type/no
LHD No
Period (days)
No of incidents
Electric
LHD8
414
1746
Electric
LHD9
414
1740
Electric
LHD10
414
1712
Electric
LHD11
414
1701
Electric
LHD12
414
1739
Electric
LHD14
414
1331
Diesel
LHD7
414
1446
Diesel
LHD13
414
1384
Previous studies
Before the commencement of Lift 1 E48 block cave the
availability and utilisation of the eLHDs had to be determined.
NPM operates a fleet of six Tamrock 1400E Electric LHDs and
one Tamrock Diesel 1400D LHD in their current production
operations. Rio Tintos feasibility study of Lift 1 E48 (2006)
determined the availability and utilisation the eLHDs and
the diesel LHD to be 82 per cent and 92 per cent respectively.
Table3 provides a breakdown of the various losses associated
with the availability and utilisation. Service time was
determined to be the largest loss associated with eLHD
availability; this was closely followed by contingency for
major component failures and break-downs, including cable
and tyre damage.
Shift change was found to be the only loss associated with
the utilisation, most of the time lost is associated with travel
to and from the shift changeover. The E48 feasibility report
(2006) made a number of recommendations to improve the
utilisation of the LHDs, these include:
hot seat changeovers
utilising the automation of the eLHDs to remotely control
them from the surface, meaning that the operator does not
need to waste time traveling down to the level.
Electric load-haul-dump-units
The operating characteristics of the eLHDs were calculated
using information provided by NPM. Table 4 summarises
TABLE 3
Availability and utilisation values for load-haul-dump units (Modified from
Rio Tinto, 2006).
Availability
Value
Losses
82%
Utilisation
Effective utilisation
92%
75.44%
Diesel load-haul-dump-units
The two diesel LHDs in operation at NPM were analysed as a
comparison point for the eLHDs. These LHDs are used in both
production and development operations and are exposed
to different operating conditions than their electric counter
parts. The smaller sample size of diesel LHDs means that the
results from the analysis are not as representative as that of
the eLHD analysis. Table 5 shows the calculated operating
characteristics of the diesel LHDs.
The availability of the diesel LHDs was found to range
between 89.30 per cent for LHD7 and 94.57 per cent for LHD13,
with an average availability of 91.94 per cent. The average
availability of the diesel LHDs was higher than the previously
predicted value of 82 per cent in the E48 feasibility study.
The increased availability of the LHDs may be attributed to
any number of operational or environmental factors. The
utilisation was determined to range between 65.75 per cent
and 68.01 per cent, with an average value of 66.88 per cent.
The effective utilisation of the diesel LHDs were found to
range between 60.73 per cent for LHD7 and 62.18 per cent for
LHD13, with an average effective utilisation of 61.46 per cent.
The values calculated for the effective utilisation of the diesel
LHDs were found to be significantly lower than the previously
indicated in the E48 feasibility study. The main reason for the
large discrepancy between that of the feasibility study and the
calculated utilisation can be attributed to unrealistic estimates
being used for the feasibility study.
Both the MTBF and MTTR were calculated for the diesel
LHDs. The MTBF for the diesel LHDs ranged between
27.50 hours and 38.02 hours with an average MTBF of
32.07 hours. The MTBF values for both diesel LHDs differ
significantly and a representative MTBF value cannot be
determined due to the small sample size. The calculated
MTBF values are significantly smaller than the ones used in
the E48 feasibility studies productivity simulation. Possible
reasons for the large discrepancy between the calculated and
the predicted MTBF values include:
TABLE 4
Calculated operating characteristics of Northparkes Mines eload-haul-dump units.
Load-haul-dump
unit no
Availability (%)
Utilisation (%)
Effective utilisation
(%)
MTBF (hours)
MTTR (minutes)
LHD8
87.52
75.18
65.80
18.26
169
LHD9
89.29
75.13
67.08
19.24
180
LHD10
86.01
78.28
67.32
20.78
164
LHD11
85.91
79.07
67.93
31.42
136
LHD12
88.07
77.95
68.65
20.15
188
LHD14
92.93
77.47
72.00
21.83
166
Average
88.29
77.18
68.13
21.95
167
71
TABLE 5
Operating characteristics of diesel load-haul-dump units at Northparkes Mine.
Load-haul-dump units
no
Availability (%)
Utilisation (%)
Effective utilisation
(%)
MTBF (hours)
MTTR (minutes)
LHD7
89.30
65.75
60.73
27.50
226
LHD13
94.57
68.01
62.18
38.02
142
Average
91.94
66.88
61.46
32.76
184
TABLE 6
Classification system used by Northparkes Mine to categorise various
types of maintenance.
Category
Description
Planned maintenance
Scheduled maintenance
Communications fault
Drive/gearbox fault
Leak
Low flow
Low pressure
Tyre failure
Roller fault
Sensor/proxy fault
Structural fault
72
between the two types of LHD for the utilisation may also be
attributed to a preference to use eLHDs over diesel LHDs due
to their lower operating costs.
The average MTBF variation between the types of LHD was
10.81 hours, with diesel LHDs having an average MTBF value
of 32.76 hours and eLHDs having an average MTBF value of
21.95 hours. This is a considerable variation and is indicative
of diesel LHDs having a lower failure frequency than eLHDs.
There is also considerable variation between the MTTR values
for both types of LHD, with electric and diesel LHDs having a
MTTR value of 167 and 184 minutes respectively. This means
that it takes on average 17 minutes less to repair an eLHD
than it does a diesel LHD. Although this variation may be due
to a number of things, there are two likely causes:
1. failures that occur in diesel LHDs are more labour
intensive
2. eLHDs have an increased number of minor failures when
compared to diesel LHDs.
Electric load-haul-dump-units
Time lost due to maintenance for the eLHDs was quantified
into the ten distinct categories used by NPM. Planned
maintenance was found to be the largest contributor to
downtime for all of the eLHDs analysed. Planned maintenance
ranged between 36.96 per cent and 49.49 per cent. Faults
associated with the drive/gearbox were the second largest
contributor of maintenance time for all of the eLHDs with the
exception of LHD14. These ranged between 14.15 per cent and
27.20per cent. LHD14 had trailing cable and electrical faults
as its second largest contributor to maintenance downtime.
The availability and utilisation of LHD14 was also higher than
all of the other eLHDs assessed. There may be a number of
reasons for this, however the mostly likely reasons are that
LHD14 is newer than the other eLHDs or it has been recently
refurbished and therefore does not have as many problems
with its drive/gearbox.
The third largest contributor to downtime for all of the
eLHDs, excluding LHD14 was trailing cable/electrical faults.
The trailing cable/electrical faults had a range between
13.04 per cent and 21.06 per cent. Structural faults were
the fourth most time consuming repairs, this was followed
by communication faults, leaks and sensor/proxy faults
which all accounted for approximately the same amount of
downtime. The downtime associated with low flow and roller
faults was insignificant. Low pressure only accounted for a
small amount of downtime on LHDs 8 and 9.
concluSIonS
acknowledgeMentS
This research project would not have been possible without
the support and assistance of several people and parties. The
73
REFERENCES
Rio Tinto Pty Ltd, 2002. Northparkes mines Lift 2 north extension
feasibility study, Rio Tinto report E26L2NPFS.
Rio Tinto Pty Ltd, 2006. E48 project feasibility study October 2006,
Rio Tinto report E48PFS.
Rio Tinto Pty Ltd, 2011. Automation at Northparkes [online].
Available from: <http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/
pdf_file/0004/353479/Automation-@-Northparkes-Rio-Tinto.
pdf> [Accessed: 1 May 2012].
Ross, I, 2008. Northparkes E26 Lift 2 block cave A case study, in
Proceedings 5th International Conference and Exhibition on Mass
Mining, pp 25-34 (Lulea University of Technology, Division of
Mining and Geotechnical Engineering: Lulea).
Sandvik Mining and Construction, 2011. Sandvik electric LHDs,
Northparkes.
deWolfe, C, 2009. Drawpoint layouts for block caves, Rio Tinto report
12733-2.
74
Introduction
Rock masses often contain discontinuities having varying
length, frequency and orientation. Discontinuities are
considered as planes of weakness, that can control and
influence the strength, deformation and failure behaviour of a
rock mass (Brady and Brown, 2004).
In the laboratory, a discontinuous rock mass can be modelled
through induced joints in intact rock samples. Laboratoryscale testing can provide an insight into the influence of
joint properties on a discontinuous rock mass and hence in
understanding rock mass behaviour.
Background
The Joint Factor method as proposed by Ramamurthy and
Arora (1994) provides a method of estimating the unconfined
compressive strength ratio (cr) of a discontinuous rock
mass. This was based on a series of confined and unconfined
strength tests using plaster and sandstone cores that contained
induced joints of different configurations.
The Joint Factor (Jf) is defined in terms of joint frequency
(Jn) expressed in units of fractures per metre (f/m), joint
orientation (n), and joint strength (r) as shown in Equation1
(Ramamurthy and Arora, 1994).
Jf =
Jn
nr
(1)
f m
c
vcr = 0.039 + 0.893e - 160.99
(2)
(3)
where and n are the shear and normal stresses acting along
a joint plane. In their original proposal, Ramamurthy and
Arora (1994) recommended direct shear testing to obtain
joint strength parameter values. If direct shear testing is not
possible then they provided suggested values for the joint
strength parameter which for clean joints varied with the
compressive strength of the intact rock as shown in Table1.
An earlier study by Byerlee (1978) found that for joints
containing no infill material, when a high normal stress is
applied, the joint strength parameter is independent of rock
type and UCS. Byerlee (1978) suggested that the joint shear
stress, t, is dependent on the applied joint normal stress, n, as
shown in Equation4.
x = 0.85 v n
(4)
75
TABLE 1
Suggested values for the Joint Strength parameter, for various strength
rock samples (after Ramamurthy and Arora, 1994).
Uniaxial compressive
strength of intact
rock (MPa)
Joint strength
parameter, r
2.5
0.30
0.45
15
0.60
25
0.70
45
0.80
65
0.90
100
1.0
Remarks
Fine-grained micaceous to
coarse-grained
via - v ja
via
(5)
where ia and ja are the intact rock and jointed rock mass
compressive strengths at some confining pressure a. The
Anisotropic Effect factor can be used in conjunction with the
Joint Factor method to predict confined compressive strength
ratios. They based their findings on tests using plaster core
specimens having an intact strength of 8.7 MPa and two
orthogonal joints at varying joint orientations.
Their results are similar to those of Ramamurthy and Arora
(1994) in Figure 1, although the results of Ghazvinian, Hadei
and Madani (2008) in Figure 2 are symmetrical at about 45, as
a result of the two orthogonal joints.
The Anisotropic Effect factor is greatest for joint orientations
which produce minimum strength. As the confining pressure
is increased, the Anisotropic Effect factor is reduced for all
joint orientations as can be seen in Figure 3.
To date, the Anisotropic Effect factor has only accounted
for joint orientation. It could be expected that joint frequency
would similarly influence rock mass strength.
76
Fig 3 - Variation in the Anisotropic Effect factor (Ae) with joint orientation (after
Ghazvinian, Hadei and Madani, 2008).
eXperIMental work
research aims
The objective of the study was to assess whether the spacing
of discontinuities in a rock or the joint frequency alters the
Anisotropic Effect factor in a jointed rock mass. To achieve
this, an experimental testing regime was undertaken,
consisting of unconfined and confined compressive strength
tests using intact rock and discontinuous rock mass samples.
Tests were undertaken using a Hawkesbury Sandstone
sample. Joints were sawn across the diameter of the diamond
cored rock specimens having a diameter of 41 mm with
length of 102 mm. These cuts were orientated perpendicular
to the axial loading direction as shown in Figure 4. The
joints were free of any infill. Due to the fine grained nature
of the sandstone, the diameter was considered sufficient for
compressive strength testing.
Fig 5 - Effect of loading platens that are stiffer than the test material
(Tang and Hudson, 2010).
Methodology
TABLE 2
Range of confining pressures (3) used in the test program.
Experimental considerations
0.5
1.5
2.5
3 (MPa)
0.1
0.25
0.5
0.8
1.2
reSultS
A summary of the results of the uniaxial and triaxial tests at
increasing levels of joint frequency and of confining pressure
is shown in Table 3.
In the unconfined state, it was found that the peak stress
reduced with joint frequency as shown in Figure 6. This is
consistent with the results of Hagan et al (2012). Similarly,
elastic modulus also decreased with joint frequency.
Considering the combined effects of the discontinuities and
confinement, it was found that the presence of discontinuities
in the rock reduced the peak strength; it was more sensitive
at the highest joint frequency of 60 f/m as shown in Figure 8.
Whereas at the lower discontinuity frequencies of 10 and
20 f/m, there was little difference between the peak strength
values at the various levels of confinement attained compared
to the intact specimens. A similar variation was observed with
Elastic Modulus as shown in Figure 9.
77
TABLE 3
Test results.
Joint
frequency
(f/m)
0 f/m
10 f/m
20 f/m
40 f/m
60 f/m
Confining
pressure
(MPa)
Peak stress
(MPa)
Elastic
modulus
(gPa)
Normal
stiffness
(MPa)
0.00
20.6
3.8
931
0.10
25.8
4.6
683
0.25
38.3
4.7
504
0.50
50.6
6.4
563
0.80
65.5
7.3
518
0.00
21.3
5.0
986
0.10
24.1
4.9
464
0.25
37.5
6.4
404
0.50
56.9
7.7
419
0.80
69.6
8.5
562
0.00
18.8
4.0
549
0.10
25.6
4.8
581
0.25
37.7
5.8
452
0.50
54.3
6.6
457
0.80
71.5
7.6
363
0.00
15.7
2.4
410
0.25
31.2
3.3
328
0.50
47.2
4.3
404
0.80
59.8
4.8
412
0.00
13.5
2.0
312
0.10
21.0
2.5
308
0.25
28.9
2.9
346
0.50
43.1
3.9
333
0.80
53.7
4.2
295
Fig 8 - Variation in peak strength with confinement pressure for varying levels
of discontinuity frequency.
pronounced change in the elastic modulus, however, which
decreased with confinement pressure and joint frequency.
Elastic properties
For the intact samples, the load fell sharply after achieving the
peak load to the residual strength level. By contrast, in those
test specimens containing discontinuities there was a more
gradual reduction in load as can be seen in Figure 10.
The discontinuous samples underwent significantly more
deformation which, as suggested by Einstein et al (1970), is
due to closing of the induced joints.
Failure observations
Fig 9 - Variation in the Elastic Modulus with confinement pressure for varying
levels of discontinuity frequency.
(6)
dIScuSSIon
anisotropic effect factor
Fig 13 - Required confining pressure for shear failure with an increase in joint
frequency.
Fig 14 - Comparison of the peak strength values between the intact and low
frequency jointed (10 and 20f/m) specimens.
For the 10 and 20 f/m specimens there was a poor correlation
between joint frequency and the Anisotropic Effect factor. At
higher joint frequencies of 40 and 60 f/m, a reduction in the
Anisotropic Effect factor was observed as confining pressure
was increased. This behaviour is similar to the observations
for joint orientation by Ghazvinian, Hadei and Madani (2008).
It can be concluded that at low joint frequencies when the
rock mass quality is still high, there is little difference in
peak strength between an intact rock and discontinuous rock
mass. However, as the rock mass quality decreased through
an increase in joint frequency, the Anisotropic Effect tends to
become more dominant.
concluSIonS
Compressive strength testing of intact rock and discontinuous
rock mass sandstone core samples was undertaken. The
discontinuous samples contained induced joints, sawn cut at
varying spacing to replicate the effects of joint frequency.
References
Brady, B H G and Brown, E T, 2004. Rock Mechanics for Underground
Mining, third edition (Kluwer Academic Publishers: Netherlands).
Byerlee, J, 1978. Friction of rocks, Pure Applied Geophysics, 116:615-626.
Einstein, H H and Hirschfeld, R C, 1974. Model studies on mechanics
of jointed rock, Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations
Division, 99(3):229-248.
Einstein, H H, Nelson, R A, Bruhn, R W and Hirschfeld, R C, 1970.
Model studies of jointed rock behaviour, in Proceedings 11th US
Rock Mechanics Symposium, California (American Rock Mechanics
Association).
Ghazvinian, A, Hadei, M R and Madani, B, 2008. Behaviour of
mechanical anisotropic specimens under triaxial testing, in
Proceedings 42nd US Rock Mechanics Symposium, San Francisco
(American Rock Mechanics Association).
Hagan, P, Zhang, L, Mitra, R and Kodama, J, 2012. The effect of
discontinuities in uniaxial compressive strength testing of rock,
in Proceedings 7th Asian Rock Mechanics Symposium, Seoul, Korea.
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82
11:00
11:20
11:20
11:40
11:40
12:40
12:40
14:00
12:40
13:00
13:00
13:20
13:20
13:40
13:40
13:50
13:50
14:00
University
Student presenter(s)
Paper title
UoA
UNSW
Paul Carmichael
McLeod McKenzie
Prediction and modelling of blast vibration and its effects at Glendell Colliery
Jafari
UQ
Vanessa Collins
2011 UQ
2010 UoA
Vadim Strukov
Weilin Wang
UoA
James Boffo
UNSW
UQ
Brendan Murphy
WASM (Curtin)
Colin Thomson
UoA
Daniel Hardea
2009 UNSW
UNSW
James Tibbett
UQ
WASM (Curtin)
Nathan Colli
Analysis of the principles for sound waste dump design and placement
UNSW
Kali Dempster
UQ
Michael Baque
WASM (Curtin)
vii
An investigation into final landform criteria required for a safe, stable, sustainable and
non-polluting landform in the Bowen Basin
Author Index
C
Carmichael, P
K
1
Karakus, M
37
45
Chalmers, D
51
Kerai, M
Chanda, E
19
Kizil, M S
7, 25
Collins, V
Knights, P
13, 67
Costello, C
13
M
McKenzie, M K
51
Golding, V
19
Chalmers, D
51
Goves, B
25
Meikle, A
57
Graham, T K C
31
Paterson, W
H
Hagan, P
75
Halim, A
45
Hebblewhite, B
Holland, A
37
R
Rajopadhyaya, B
19
S
Saydam, S
Seib, W
37
J
Jafari, D
67
I
Iles, M
31
25, 57
Sherpa, M
75
Sundquist, D
19
19
83
84