EULER

OF

LETTERS

SUBJECTS

DIFFERENT

ON

PHILOSOPHY.

NATURAL

TO

ADDRESSED

GERMAN

PRINCESS.

OF

LIFE

AND

NOTES,

WITH

IN

EULER,

BY

LOND.

F.R.S.

CONTAINING

WITH

BY

LL.D.

BREWSTER,

DAVID

OF

GLOSSARY

LL.D.

VOLUMES.

TWO

NEW

II.

YORK

"

HARPER
82

TERMS.

SCIENTIFIC

GRISCOM,

VOL.

NO.

ED.

NOTES,

ADDITIONAL

JOHN

IN

AND

BROTHERS,
CLIFF-STREET.

1835.

Entered,

according

to

Act

of

in

Congress,

the

1835,
year

By

ID

the

Clerk's

Office

HARPER

"

of

the

Southern

BROTHERS,

District

of

New-York.

V
,

CONTENTS
V?

Ft
SECOND

THE

VOLUME.

LETTER

I. CONTINUATION

of the

in the
II. First

Class

that

Subject, and

Knowledge

of

known

of Mistakes

of Truth

11

Conviction

Truths.

exist

Things

externally,corresponding
represented by the Senses.
14
Objection of the Pyrrhonists. Reply
III. Another
Objection of the Pyrrhonists against
the
Certainty of Truths
perceived by the
Senses.
and
Precautions
for attaining
Reply ;
the

to

Ideas

Assurance
IV.

Of

demonstrative, physical,
of moral

V.

sensible

of

Truths

and

particularly

Certainty

Remarks

that

the

20

contribute

Senses

to

the

Precautions
Knowledge
; and
acquiring the Certainty of historical
of

Increase

for

Truths

VI.

VIII.
IX.

23

Whether

by
VII.

The

the

of Bodies

Essence

be

XI.

known
26

us

Notion

true

of

Extension

Divisibilityof Extension

in

30

...

infinitum

Divisibilityin infinitumtakes
place in existing Bodies

Of

Monads

-.;...-

Reflections

on

in infinitum,
and
Divisibility

36

39

on

Monads

XII.

42

Reply to the Objections of the

Divisibilityin infinitum
Reason
Principle of the sufficient
Support of the Monadists

Monadists

XIII.

XIV.

Another
from

33

this

Whether

X.

17

Argument
the

Absurdities

of

the

to
-46

the
-

Monadists

strongest
-

Reason.
Principle of the sufficient
it*"
from
resulting
-

48

derived

52

CONTENTS.

XV.
XVI.
XVII.

XVIII.
XIX.

System of Monads

Continuation

XXII.

Wonders

58

61

65
68
71

Opaque Bodies

How
The

55

of Reflections on this System

Conclusion
the Nature of Colours
Elucidation
respecting
Colours
Reflections on the Analogy between
and Sounds

XX.
XXL
XXIII.

the

Reflections on
Continuation

visible

rendered

are

Voice
of the human
of the principalPhenomena

Summary

73

76

of
7ft

Electricity
XXIV.
XXV.

Principleof

true
The
founded

Nature

to Electricity
relatively

XXVI.
XXVII.

On

the

XXIX.
XXX.
XXXI.

XXXII.

are

Electricity
of

85

88

Subject

same

nation
and negative Electricity. Explapositive

Of

of Attraction

the same
Subject
On the electric Atmosphere
of Electricityto a
Communication
of a Globe of Glass
Iron,by means
and Animals
Electrization of Men

98

...

Distinctive Character

XXXIII.

How

XXXIV.
XXXV.

The

the same
the two

once

Bar
-

of
-

on

and

furnish at
of Glass may
Species of Electricity

Globe

115
of Electricity,
-

the Cause and Nature

other Means
on
proper

to

duce
pro119

of Thunder
Explanations of the
Nature
:
ancient Philosophers,and of DESCARTES.
of Thunder
of the Phenomena
Resemblance
to those

XXXIX.

of

Electricity

Thunder

XLII.

126

of preventingand of averting
The Possibility
131
the Effects of Thunder
of the Longitude.
On the celebrated Problem
the
Earth, of its
General
Descriptionof
-

Poles, and the Equator

Magnitude of the Earth; of Meridians,
-

135

Of the
and the shortest Road from Place to Place 139
sons
Of Latitude, and its Influence on the Sea143
and the Length of the Day
of
and
Of Parallels,of the First Meridian,
140
Longitude
-

XLIII.

122

128

Axis, its two

XLI.

Lightning

Continuation
-

XL.

of

Explanation of the Phenomena

and

XXXVIII.

106
109

it

XXXVII.

102

Species of

of the two

Leyden Experiment

Reflections

92
95

On

Electricity

XXXVI.

82

Bodies
-

of the Phenomenon

XXVIII.

which

on

of
all the Phenomena
Different Nature
Continuation.

CONTENTS.

X LI V.
XLV.

XLVI.

Choice

of the First Meridian

determining the

-150

of the Pole
of
the Longitude from a Calculation
Knowledge
of the Direction and of the Space
-

passed through
XLVII.
XL VIII.

Latitude, or the

Method
of
Elevation

Continuation.
Second

153

157

161

of this Method
determining the

Defects

Method

of

tude,
Longi-

of an exact
164
Timepiece
Elucidations
and
further
168
Continuation,
ing
Eclipses of the Moon a third Method of find-

by Means

XLIX.
L.

'

the Longitude
171
of the Eclipses of the Satellites
LI. Observation
of finding the
of Jupiter,a fourth Method
-

Longitude
LII.

The

Motion

175

of the Moon

fifth Method

LIII. Advantages of this last Method

179

its Degree

of Precision

LIV.
LV.

182

the Mariner's
Compass, and
of the Magnetic Needle

On

ties
Proper-185

of
of the Compass, and Manner
-189
observing it
Difference in the Declination
of the Compass

Declination

LVI.

the

at the same

LVII.

Place
192
of Declinations ; Method
of employing
it for the Discovery of the Longitude
196
in
does
the
Needle
affect,
Magnetic
Why
certain
of
the
tion,
DirecPlace
a
Earth,
every
in
and
for
differing different Places ;
Chart

LVIII.

what

LIX.

does

Reason

at the same
Elucidations

Place

it

change, with

Time,

200

respectingthe Cause

tion
and Varia-

of Magnetic Needles
of
or Dip
Magnetic Needles
Magnetic Direction ; subtile Matter

of the Declination
LX.

LXI.

203

Inclination
True
which

produces the Magnetic

Power
Matter, and

207

211

LXIII.

of its
Magnetic
Canals
214
Magnetic
Action
of Magnets upon
Magnetic Vortex.

LXIV.

each
Nature

other
of Iron and

LXV.

Action

to them
of Loadstones

LXII.

LXVI.
LXVII.

LXVIII.

of the
Current.
rapid

Nature

"-

Steel.

Method

of

Magnetic Force
Phenomena
Iron.
placing Pieces of Iron near
the

The

Method

of

A2

221

on

observable on
Loadstone
Arming of Loadstones

Action and Force

218

municating
com-

of armed

226
230

Loadstones

communicating

to

Steel

234

CONTENTS.
Letter

j^,
the

Magnetic

Needles

for

TOUCH

Force,
Compass.
and

of

magnetizing

the

; its Defects

The

; Means

of

SIMPLE

remedying

these

LXIX.

On

238
DOUBLE

the

ing the

TOUCH.

Magnetic

Means
Matter

of

in

preserv-"

magnetized

Bars

LXX.

The

241

Method

Steel

of

Means

very
Construction
of

LXXII.

On

Bars

of

which

Force,

by

it in

have

Degree

246

of artificial Magnets

Horseshoe

Dioptrics.

Bars

to

Magnetic

great

very

of other
inferior

LXXI.

Communicating

in the Form
249

------

Instruments

which

that

ence
Sci-

scopes.
supplies : of Telescopes and MicroDifferent Figures given to Glasses
Lenses

or

LXXIII.

Difference

253

of Lenses

with

of their Surfaces.
into three
LXXIV.
LXXV.

Effect
The

LXXVI.

LXXIX.
LXXX.

Distance

257

Lenses

261

Distance

Lenses

of the

Focus
264

of the

of

Image
Magnitude
Images
Burning-glasses
of

Objects

268
271

275

The

Camera

Reflections

Obscura
on

Camera
LXXXI.

of Lenses

....

Subject.

of Convex

LXXVII.
LXXVIII.

to the Curve

Classes

of Convex
same

respect

Distribution

278

...

Representation

the

Obscura

Of

the

Magic

LXXXII.

Use

and

Effect

of

simple

LXXXIII.

Use

and

Effect

of

concave

LXXXIV.

Of

in

the
283

...

Lantern, and

Solar

scope
Micro286

of

Microscopes

convex

Lens
of the

apparent Magnitude,
and

Lens
-

Visual

in

290

293

Angle,

297
general
of Objects
Magnitude
viewed
300
through the Microscope
Fundamental
for
tion
Constructhe
Proposition
of simple Microscopes. Plan of some
304
simple Microscopes

LXXXV.

Estimation

of

the

LXXXVI.

-----

LXXX
LXXX

VII.
VIII.

LXXXIX.

Limits
On
Of

XC.

XCI.

On

and

Defects

of the

simple Microscope

307

Telescopes, and their Effect

Pocket-glasses
the magnifying Power
of Pocket-glasses

311

Defects

Field

of

Pocket-glasses.

Of

314
318

the apparent
-

322

CONTENTS.
Letter

XCII.

Page

Determination

of

the

Pocket-glasses
XCIII.

Astronomical

Field

apparent

for
326

------

Telescopes, and

their

ing
magnify-

Power
XCIV.

Of

329

apparent Field, and

the

the Place

of the

Eye
XCV.

332

Determination

of the

magnifying

Power

ot

Astronomical

Telescopes, and the Conctruction of a Telescope which

shall magnify
of
Times
Number
Objectsa given
Degree of Clearness
Aperture of Object-glasses
On Distinctness
in the Expression.
On
the
occasioned
Space of Diffusion
by the
and considered
Aperture of Object-glasses,

XCVI.
XCVH.

XCVIII.

as

the first Source

336
339
343

of Distinctness

of Want

in the

347
Representation
XCIX.
Diminution
of the Aperture of Lenses, and
other
Means
of lessening the
Space of
351
Diffusion,tillit is reduced to Nothing
C. Of compound
355
Object-glasses
of simple Object-glasses
CI. Formation
358
-

CII.

Second

Source

of

Defect

to

as

ness
Distinct-

of

Representation by the Telescope.

Refrangibilityof Rays
of remedying this Defect by compound

Different

Cm.

Means

CIV.

Other

Object-glasses
CV.

Means

more

practicable

Recapitulation of the

362

366
369

...

Qualities of

good

Telescope
CVI.

CVII.

Terrestrial

Arrangement

373

Telescopes
of Lenses

with

four Lenses

in Terrestrial

376

scopes
Tele379

CVIII.

Precautions
of

to be

observed

in the Construction

Telescopes.

ing
Necessity of blackenof Tubes.
Diaphragms
In what
Manner
Telescopes represent the
Moon, the Planets, the Sun, and the fixed
Stars.
these
last appear
smaller
Why
the
the
naked
than
to
through
Telescope
Calculation
of the Distance
of the
Eye.
the Inside

CIX.

382

fixed

Stars, from
a
Comparison of their
with
that of the Sun
385
apparent Magnitude
CX.

Why
at

do the Moon

and

the Sun

appear

greater

vation?
risingand setting than at a certain EleDifficulties attending the tion
Soluof this Phenomenon

....

388

CONTENTS.

Page

Letter

CXI.

Reflections

on

Moon's

Question

the

towards

of

Solution

respecting

Magnitude.

apparent

the

Progress

Difficulty.

the

surd
Ab-

Explanation
CXII.

An

towards

Attempt
this

CXIII.

Moon

appears

Horizon

the

of

than

more

when

at

Elevation

Heavens

395

under

appear

towards

flattened

Arch

Explanation

true

the

in

when

great

The

the

Phenomenon

distant
a

391

the

of

Form

an

Zenith

the

398
-

CXIV.

assigned

Reason

of

Light
CXV.

Heavenly

respecting

Illusion
and

the

Faintness

Bodies

in

for

the

Distance

the

Diminution

the

of
Horizon
of

CXVII.

the

On

Lustre

of

405

the

What

the

of

407

the

apparent

Heavenly
The

Stars

they

are.

the

were

Air

-----

Light

of

Rays
its

be

410

transparent

Refraction

Of

would

Appearance

and

CXIX.

Heavens
-

perfectly
CXVIII.

of

Colour

Azure

401

Objects,

CXVI.

the

Of

Effects.

Rising

and

in
the

the

sphere,
Atmo-

Twilight.

Setting

of

the

Bodies
appear

Table

414
at

of

greater

Elevation

than

Refractions

-417
-

LETTERS

ON

DIFFERENT

SUBJECTS

IN

PHILOSOPHY.

NATURAL

I.

LETTER
Continuation

THE

of

three
are

Subject, and of Mistakes

Knowledge of Truth.
the

classes

of

tjje only

all

being derived
reasoning, or from

the

report

and

chiefly from
things
many
be

referred

experience
have

the
to

to
nor

conducted

Without

Eve

two

them,

the

third
their

them

of

the

must

have

God,

these

increase

the

knowledge
as

of

theirs
revealed

of which

neither

three

ledge.
of know-

derived

however,

powers
far.
so

our

of

first

source,

folded
un-

others.

which
to

now

the

knowledge
experience, from

own

determine
most

I have

all

of

sources
our

to
easy
contributes

Adam

which

from

It is not
sources

truths

in

their

reasoning

is to
own

could

are
recurring to a period so remote, we
determined
to
sufficientlyconvinced, that if we were
believe
from
hear
others, or read
nothing of what we
in their writings, we
of almost
should
be in a state
total ignorance.
It is very
from
far, however,
being
our
duty to believe
thing that is said, or that
every

12

MISTAKES

we

read.

the

third

We

by
the

cerning
ought constantly to employ our disfaculties,not only with respect to truths of

laid

in

as

belong

to

be
find

holds

with

articles of
; and

another.
may

be

by

our

the

dazzled

reasonings,that
for

Creator

the
into

ought

than
suspicion,any more
We
other two.
fore,
ought, thereour
guard againstdeception,
the notion
to which
belongs ;

the

to

the

class

many
classes

be

Each
misled

in the

as

regard to
knowledge
have

of

instances

as

it cannot

order

in

to be

frequently plunge us
very
of the third class, therefore,

equally on
be

second

and

ourselves

to fall under

reason

we

open

others.

two

truth

Notions

whatever

one

of

suffer

to mistake

and

sources

very

such

for

liable to

so

discovery
not

of the

class, but likewise

senses,

error.

THE

We

are

the

IN

the
which

third.

affirmed

surer

The

certainty of
these

in the

error

thing
particular

same

the

three

sources

the

truths

that

foundation

than

class is liable to errors,

likewise
there
are
; but

first

ply
sup-

of any
those
of

by which we
precautions
with
nearly

carefully observed, furnish us

know
I do
not
the
same
degree of conviction.
of this
whether
are
more
thoroughly convinced
you
base
truth, that two
triangles which have the same
and
the same
height are equal to one another, than
at Berlin;
have
been
Russians
of this, that the
of accurate
on
a chain
though the former is founded
the
latter depends entirelyon
reasoning, whereas
the veracity of your informer.
Respecting the truths, therefore, of each of these
such
must
rest satisfied with
proofs as
classes,we
lous
correspond to their nature ; and it would be ridicuof
to insist upon
a geometrical demonstration
of history. This
is
the truths
of experience, or
usually the fault of those who make a bad use of their
matical
penetration in intellectual truths, to require mathedemonstration
in proof of all the truths of
belongs to the third
a
religion,
great part of which
which,

class.

KNOWLEDGE

OF

determined
persons
nothing but what they see and
There

would

are

to them

prove

13

TRUTH.

to believe
touch

by reasoning,be

and

admit

; whatever

you

it ever

solid,
place it

so

disposed to suspect, unless you

before
their eyes.
ural
Chymists, anatomists, and natemploy themselves
philosophers,who
wholly
in making experiments, are
most
chargeable with
this fault.
Every thing that the one cannot melt in
his crucible,or the other
dissect with
his scalpel,
would
To no purpose
they rejectas unfounded.
you
soul
a
nd
nature
of
the
speak to them of the qualities
;
they admit nothing but what strikes the senses.
kind of studyto which
Thus, the particular
every
such
influence
his
is
addicted
has
a powerful
one
on
natural
of thinking, that the
manner
philosopher
and chymist will have
nothing but experiments, and
the
geometrician and logician nothing but arguments;
which
constitute,however, proofs entirely
attached
to the first class, the
different,the one
other to the second, which
fully
ought always to be careof the
distinguished,according to the nature
objects.
it be possiblethat persons
should
exist
But
can
in pursuitspertaining to the
who, wholly absorbed
from
that
third class, call only for proofs derived
of this description,
1 I have known
source
some
who,
totallydevoted to the study of historyand antiquity,
would
admit
nothing as true but what you could
ancient
prove by history,or the authorityof some
author.
They perfectly agree with you respecting
the truth of the propositionsof Euclid, but merely
the authorityof that author, without
on
paying any
attention
he supdemonstrations
to the
by which
ports
them
that
the
even
imagine
contrary of
; they
these propositionsmight be true, if the ancient geometricians
had thought proper
it.
to maintain
they

This

are

is

source

the

pursuit

the

learned, than among

VOL.

II."

of

of

which

error

truth; but

we

those

retards

find it rather
who

are

many

in

among

beginning to

14

OBJECTION

apply
ought
of

three

kind, we

are

I have
can

PYRRHONISTS.

We
study of the sciences.
no
predilection in favour of any one
each class requires;
species of proofs which
sufficient
in their
provided they are

to have

the

THE

to the

themselves

and

OF

bound

seen

to

admit

felt,is

or

demonstrate

proof

of the

it, is that of the

second

it is

I know

the

them.
first class.
:

we

wise
like-

Finally,/ receive it on the

testimony of persons worthy of credit, or I believe it
solid grounds, is the proof of the third class.
on
4th April,1761.
say,

so.

LETTER

II.

Conviction that Things

of known Truths.
exist externally,corresponding to the Ideas
sented
repreSenses.
the
the
Objectionof
by
Pyrrhonists.
Reply.

First Class

WE

in

include

the

first class

of

known

truths

of
acquire immediately by means
I have
the senses.
already remarked, that they not
lative
only supply the soul with certain representations reto the changes produced in a part of the brain;
there
but that they excite
conviction
of the real
a
of things external, corresponding to the
existence
those

which

ideas which
The

soul

we

the
is

senses

present

to

us.

shut up
frequentlycompared to a man
in which
the images of external
jects
oba dark
m
room,
of a glass.
are
represented on the wall by means
This comparison is tolerably
just,as far as it respects
the man
looking at the images on the wall ; for this
similar to that of the soul, contemact is sufficiently
plating
the impressions made
in the brain ; but the
to me
comparison appears
extremely defective,as
far as
it respects the
that the objects
conviction
occasion
these images reallyexist.
which
in the dark room
The man
will immediately sus-

OBJECTION

doubt

no

the

about

of

out

of these

existence

the

pect

doors,
the

knowing
nothing

15

PYRRHONISTS.

THE

OF

he

matter, it is because

and

nature

has

them

seen

of his

if he

and

objects ;

has

has
been

besides

this,

is assured

glass,he

that

ages
represented on the wall but the imthe chamber
without
of the objects which
are
with the
before
the glass. But this is not the case
to
soul ; it has never
quitted its place of residence
it knows
contemplate the objects themselves
; and
still less
and

be

can

the

terminate

which

nerves

sensitive

of the

construction

the

organs,
brain.
It is

in the

of
powerfully convinced
in the
of objects than
man
the real existence
our
I am
dark
room
apprehensive of
possiblycan be.
no
objectionon this subject,the thing being too clear
do not
know
the
of itself to admit
any, though we
much

nevertheless

of it.

foundation

true

about

doubt

more

it,except

No

certain
in

themselves

bewildered

one

entertained

ever

visionaries
their

they say that they doubt

external
objects,they entertain
they have
fact; for why would
believed

the

they wished
opinions.

to

had

they
whom

existence

who

reveries.

own

the

Though

no

existence

such

affirmed
of

of

doubt

in

it, unless

other
their

communicate

any
have

to

men,

gant
extrava-

of the
respecting the existence
images the senses
represent, appears
things whose
of
and
not
condition, but
only in men
every
age
The
barks at me
likewise
in all animals.
dog which
has no doubt of my
existence, though his soul perceives
Hence
but a slight image of my
I
person.
is essentiallyconnected
conclude, that this conviction
conviction

This

with
the
most

our

sensations, and that the truths which

well
to us
as
are
convey
undoubted
truths of geometry.

senses

this

Without

conviction

founded

as

the

human

society could
continuallyfallinginto the
no

should
be
subsist, for we
greatest absurdities,and the grossest contradictions.

Were

the

peasantry

to dream

of

doubting

about

16

OBJECTION

existence

the
of

or
bailiff,

of their

soldiers

that

about

should

confusion

what

officers,into

their

PYRRHONISTS.

THE

OF

we

be

only by
plunged ! Such absurdities are entertained
philosophers ; any other giving himself up to them
Let
be considered
would
as
having lost his reason.
of the
this conviction
as
one
then acknowledge
us
principallaws of nature, and that it is complete,
sons,
are
absolutelyignorant of its true reathough we
and very far from
being able to explain them
in an intelligible
manner.
However
important this reflection may be, it is
however, exempted from difficulties ;
by no means,
but were
they ever so great, and though it might be
impossible for us to solve them, they do not in the
tablished,
smallest
degree affect the truth which I have just eswhich
and
we
ought to consider as the
of human
solid foundation
knowledge.
most
It must
us

be

allowed

and

hence

to

depend

than

the

deduce

thing

once

on

I mistook

whom

in that

one

the
1

that

unknown

person

for

person

to whom

therefore,

I am,
I

speak

of every

ought never
perhaps oftener
in

the
I

an

and

phers
philoso-

we

acquaintance : as
instance, nothing prevents

always deceived
that

doubting

I have

senses.
an

subtile

those
on

consequence,

our

met

it is that

ceive
de-

sometimes

senses

our

themselves

value

who

that

was

my

never

is in

street,
ceived
de-

being
assured

reality the

imagine.

self
Magdeburg, and to present myto your
hensive
highness, I ought always to be appreshould
I
of grossly mistaking : nay, perhaps
of a
instances
are
be at Magdeburg, for there
not
It is
sometimes
man's
taking one city for another.
had the happiness
have
even
possible I may never
of seeing you, but was
always under the power of
I thought myself to be enjoying that
delusion when
felicity.
resultingfrom
Such are the natural
consequences
of certain philosophers
you
; and
the sentiments
Were

I to go

to

OBJECTION

THE

17

PYRRHONISTS.

be

abundantly sensible that they not only lead

manifest
solve
absurdity, but have a tendency to disof society.
all the bonds
7th April,1761.

must
to

OF

LETTER

Another

and

III.

tainty
Objectionof the Pyrrhonistsagainst the Cerof Truths perceivedby the Senses.
Reply ;
Precautions
for attainingAssurance
of Sensible

Truths.
the

THOUGH
of

objection raised

against the certainty

perceived by the senses, of which I have

tempts
speaking, may appear sufficiently
powerful, atbeen
have
made
to give it additional
support
the well-known
to
maxim, that we
ought never
him who
has once
deceived
A single exus.
ample,

truths

been
from
trust

therefore, of mistake

in

the

senses,

ficient
is suf-

destroy all their credit. If this objection is

be admitted
well founded, it must
that human
ety
sociis,of course, completely subverted.
of reply, I remark, that the two
other
By way
of knowledge are
sources
subject to difficulties of a
to

similar
How
to

perhaps still more

reasonings erroneous

nature, nay,

often

are

our

affirm, that
these

we

are

much

than

more

formidable.
!

I venture

frequently

ceived
de-

But
does
it
senses.
by our
follow that our
and
reasonings are always fallacious,
have
that we
covered
no
can
dependence on any truth disto us
by the understanding 1 It must be a
of doubt, then, whether
and
make
matter
two
two
the three
four, or whether
angles of a trianglebe
be ridiculous
equal to two right angles ; it would even
for truth.
to
pretend that this should
pass
have
soned
Though, therefore,men
frequently reamay
be almost
absurd to
inconclusively,it would

by

B2

18

ANOTHER

infer that there

which

have

we

The

are

not

the

most

human

knowledge,
subject to error.

by

groundless

which

is

How

And

certain

events

believe

all that

others

is false would

have

of

conviction.
third

of

source

been

we

false

or

who

truths

unquestionably the

often

rumour,

intellectual

many

complete
applies to the

remark

same

OF

OBJECTION

most

deceived

report, respecting

would

be

weak

so

as

to

ten
gazetteers and historians have writAt the same
?
should
think of
time, whoever
maintaining that every thing related or written by

than

absurdities

undoubtedly

the person

who

fall into

believed

greater

thing.
groundless

every

Accordingly, notwithstanding
many
and
false
testimonies,we are perfectlyassured
reports
of the truth of numberless
have
facts,of which
we
evidence
but testimony.
no
so

There

certain

are

characters

which

enable

us

to

has
distinguishtruth ; and each of the three sources
characters
peculiar to itself. When
my
eyes have
deceived
in mistaking one
for another, I
man
me,
it is evident, therefore,
error:
presently discover
my
that precautions may
be used for the prevention
of error.
If there were
be impossible
not, it would
had been deceived.
to perceive that we
ever
Those,
maintain
often
that we
deceive
so
then, who
selves
ourto
that
it
is
admit
are
obliged
possible for us
have been
to perceive we
deceived, or they must acknowledge
that they themselves
deceived
when
are
they charge us with error.
It is
that

remarkable, that

the

truth

is

so

well

established

violent

propensity to doubt of every

to this,in spiteof itself. Therefore,
thing must come
as
logic prescribes rules for just reasoning,the
most

observance

likewise
that of

men,

which

intellectual

where

The

of

will

secure

is

truth

from

us

concerned;

error,

there

are

certain

rules, as well for the first source,

for the third, that of belief
as
senses,

our

rules
the

most

of the

first

are

so

natural

to us, that all

stupid not excepted, understand

and

20

PHYSICAL,

DEMONSTRATIVE,

must
that we
employ a
by a fog ; finally,
sufficient degree of attention, and endeavour, above
or
the
same
object by two
all things, to examine
But I am
firmlyperat once.
suaded
of our
senses
more
knows, and puts in practice,
that every
one

obscured

rules

much

solid than

more

could

which

any

be prescribed

to him.

April,1761.

llth

IV,

LETTER

of Moral
Of Demonstrative, Physical,and particularly
Certainty.
THERE
which

we

are,
must

employ

we

species of knowledge
consider as equallycertain, provided
us
to secure
precautionsnecessary

therefore, three

the

result

three

likewise
And
hence
against error.
species of certainty.
I am
certainty. When
first is called physical
The
1 myself
because
of the truth of any tiling,
convinced
and
have
seen
it,I have a physical certainty of it ;
if I

give

senses

have

or

full

me

been,

an

of

assurance

eyewitness

know,

in the

been

have

manner,

same

at

Berlin, and

that

there.
great irregularities

committed

them

that my
own
I answer,
that I am,
of it,and
of it. It is thus I

reason,

that Austrians

know
some

the

asked

am

that fire

consumes

all

it,
myself have seen
of its truth.
a physical certainty
and I have
acquire by a process of
The
certainty which we
reasoning is called logicalor demonstrative certainty,
tion.
of its truth by demonstraconvinced
because
are
we
truths of geometry maylierebe produced
The
as
examples, and it is logicalcertaintywhich gives us
combustible

the

assurance

substances

; for

of them.

Finally,the certainty which

of what

we

know

only by

we

the

have

report

of

the truth

of others

is

of the
credibility
only
you have
have

persons
a moral

at Berlin

been

all historical facts.

that

there

fullyconvinced
discover
by our
must

these

three

and

moral

so

each

separately ;
explanation
species.

others.

and

shall

of moral

Thus

moral
a

certainty
Caesar,

Julius

of the

by

chain

which

truths

of fair

we
soning.
rea-

however, not to confound

certainty physical,logical,
"

of which

the

Rome

or

senses,

care,

with

at

as

species of

"

report.

testimonies
the
"c., and
are
as
authentic, that we

of them

take

from

It is to

know

We

are

the

the

on

certainty that the Russians

and the same
thing applies to

Nero,

Augustus, a
respecting these
an

make

who

formerly

was

We

it is founded

certainty,because

called moral

21

CERTAINTY.

MORAL

AND

is of

ferent
totallydif-

nature

I propose
begin with

to treat
a

each

particular

more

certainty,which

of

is the

third

attentivelyremarked, that this third

divides into two branches, according as others
source
have
or
they themselves
simply relate what
seen,
full proof of by their senses,
made
municate
or
as
they comto us, together with
these, their reflections
them.
We
and reasonings upon
might add still a
third branch, wThen they relate what
they have heard
from
As

be

others.
to this third

be very

liable

to

branch, it is generally allowed

error,

and

that

witness

is to

to
be

believed

or
only respectingwhat he himself has seen
experienced. Accordingly,in courts of justice,when
witnesses
tinguish,
is taken
to disare
examined, great care
in their declarations,what
they themselves
have
and
quently
what
seen
experienced, from
they freadd of their reflections and reasonings upon
it. Stress is laid only on what
have
they themselves
seen
or
experienced ; but their reflections,and the
conclusions
which
well founded
they draw, however
The
they may otherwise
be, are entirelyset aside.
same

maxim

is observed

with

respect to historians

22

CERTAINTY.

MORAL

AND

PHYSICAL

selves
only what they themtions
have
witnessed, without
pursuing the reflecwhich
though these
they so frequently annex,
have
to history. Thus
we
be a great ornament
may
others
a
greater dependence on the truth of what
than on what
have
experienced by their own
senses,
by pursuing their meditations.
they have discovered
judgment ;
Every one wishes to be master of his own
and

we

wish

and

unless

them

he

feels

foundation

announced

have

of

truths

the

and

the

us

the

persuaded.

is not

in vain

would

important

most

relate

himself

he

demonstration,
Euclid

to

geometry

we

to

should

never

insisted
word, but have
selves.
step by step ourprosecuting the demonstration
believed

have
on

If I

him

on

his

that

to tell you

were

I had

such

seen

would

thing, supposing my report faithful,you

hesitation
without
give credit to it; nay, I

should

be

such

or

me

if you
were
when
I inform

mortified

very much
of falsehood.

But

to

you
described

pect
sus-

that

on
right-angledtriangle,the squares
smaller sides are together equal to the square
the two
to be believed
on
of the greater side, I do not wish
convinced
of it as
much
as
word, though I am
my
it is possibleto be of any thing ; and though I could
the authority of the
allege,to the same
purpose,
conviction,
greatest geniuses who have had the same

in

rather

I should

wish

to withhold

and

the

to discredit

you

my

assertion,

prehended
yourself comreasonings on which

assent, tillyou

your

solidityof

the

is founded.

the demonstration

tainty,
physical certhe senses
that which
supply, is greater
or
on
than
reasoning; but
logical certainty, founded
it is
of this species presents itself,
whenever
a truth
should
that the mind
give close application
proper

It

to

This
and

does

it, and
is the
of

not

follow, however,

become
best

carrying

of

master

method
them

of

that

the

demonstration.

cultivatingthe sciences,

to the

highest degree

of perfection.

INCREASE

The

truths

multiply
reflection
We

or

follow
our

own

by

the

we

at

facts

the

them

of

history,greatly
knowledge ; but
put in action only by

human

are

reasoning.
stop

or

mind

of the

never

senses,

and

senses,

particularsof

the

faculties

the

of the

23

KNOWLEDGE.

OF

of the
simple evidence
related
by others ; but always
blend

and

up

the

them

with

insensiblysupply what

addition

of

and

causes

of consequences.
for this reason,
in courts

reflections

of

deficient,

seems

motives, and

the

duction
de-

It is
of

extremely difficult,
ple
simjustice,to procure

unblended

the
testimony, such as contains what
and felt,and no
more
actually saw
; for
will be mingling their own
ever
reflections,
perceiving that they are doing so.

witnesses
witnesses
without
Uth

April,1761.

LETTER
Remarks

that

the

Senses

V.

contribute

Knowledge; and Precautions

of Historical Truths.
THE

knowledge

our

senses

is

of
tainty
Cer-

doubtedly
un-

acquire ; and upon

this the
reflections
soul founds
the thoughts and
which
discover
to it a great variety of intellectual
truths.
how
the
In order the better to comprehend
of knowledge,
contribute
to the advancement
senses
I begin with remarking, that the senses
act only on
individual things,which
stances
actuallyexist under circumthe

determined

or

which

Increase

for acquiringthe

supplied by

earliest

to the

limited

we

on

all sides.

suddenly placed in the

titute
world, possessed of all his faculties,but entirelydesof experience ; let a stone
be put in his hand,
let him then
that the
that hand, and
observe
open
falls. This
is an
stone
experiment limited on all
sides, which
gives him no information, except that
Let

us

suppose

man

24
this

were

he

with

his

that

taken

been
alone

gives

The

the

right

hand
with

observes
that

dropped, or
Here

then

the

is

same

the

that which

when

an

would
had

This

takes

and

have

stones

ensue

stone,
whether

fallen

have

sooner.

the

third

same

circumstances,

another

likewise, whether

from

or

the

or

it would

question

that it falls

observes

means

no

experiment
light respecting these particulars.

no

in

man

stone,

hour

an

up
him

by

effect would

same

same

whether

again fall,or

is

he

It is still uncertain

hand.

right

stone, under

this

the

another

take

to

ground;

the

TO

hand, for example, and

left

stone, being in the

dropped, falls to
absolutely certain

the

CONTRIBUTE

SENSES

THE

left
a

he

fourth
effect.

stone,

ana

dropped from
periment
repeats the exstone, and
He

hence

formly
unicludes
con-

property of fallingwhen
drawn.
supports them is with-

article of knowledge

which

the

experiments which he has

trial of
made.
is very far from
He
having made
done
to have
stone, or, supposing him
so,
every
what
thing would
certainty has he that the same
nothing as to this,
happen at all times T He knows
moments
when
the particular
concerns
except what
has
he made
the experiments ; and what
assurance
take
effect would
he
that the same
place in the
man?
hands
of another
Might he not think that
attached
fall was
this qualityof making
to
stones
other
doubts
his hands
exclusively ^ A thousand
might stillbe formed on the subject.
trial of the stones
for example, made
I have
never,
of Magdeburg,
the cathedral church
which
compose
that all of them,
and yet I have
not the least doubt
without
exception, are heavy, and that each of them
detached
would
from
the building.
fall as soon
as
I even
imagine that experience has suppliedme with
tried any one
this knowledge, though I have
never
man

has

of those

derived

stones.

from

the

This

made
mankind

to the

other

which

be admitted

it would
if

understanding and

difficult

in

manner

clearly to

fold
un-

to be

over-scrupulous
in science
progress

no

could

stopped short

be

step.

It must
this

the

circumstance,
every
should
be made, for we

about
at every

that

determined

were

ments
experi-

led
objects only
universal
propositions;

extremely

be

we

how

of the soul interfere

faculties

; and

of

knowledge

show

to

have

individual

on

but it must
the

is sufficient

example

25

KNOWLEDGE.

OF

INCREASE

THE

be

the

allowed, that

respect much

good

more

who

philosophers

vulgar

those

than

sense

in

discover

pulous
scru-

obstinatelydetermined

are

to doubt

thing. It is necessary, at the same

into the
time,
our
guard against falling
opposite extreme,
by neglecting to employ the
precautions.
necessary
three sources
which
The
from
our
knowledge is
derived
certain
require all of them
precautions,
which
be carefullyobserved, in order
to acmust
quire
in
of the truth ; but it is possible,
assurance
too far,and it is always proper
each, to carry matters
of every
to be
on

to steer

The

middle

third

clearlyproves this. It would

extreme
follyto believe every thing

source

undoubtedly be
that is told

course.

us

but

less
of

blameworthy.
every thing will

man
an

writes

or

says

action, we

that

the

distrust

excessive
He

is determined

who

want

never

that

he

has

may
say at once
takes
amusement

man

be

would

to

such

that it is not
in

doubt

; when

pretence
seen

no

or

such

true, and

relatingthings

surprise; and if his veracity is

beyond suspicion, it might be said that he did not
which

may

excite

dazzled
his eyes were
ples
; and examdeceiving
to be found
in abundance
of persons
are
what
themselves, falsely imagining they saw

clearly,that

see

did not.

they
lose

The

all their

weight

wrangler.
VOL

II."

rules

when

prescribedin
you

have

this
to

do

respect
with

26

order

recital

history, it

or

been

have

should

that he

and

should

more

the

confirmation.

Sometimes,

carried

to

two

certain

discern
several

an

first

the

suspicious.
will

one

which

the

other
in two
lishes
estab-

of it.

truth

extremely difficult to
principlesof our knowledge, and
the

it

always

the

always

explanation of

see

rather

event

same

strong

slight difference

invalidates

it is

But
the

of

accounts

than

the

little circumstances

overlooked.

have

must

same

incident

same

or

coincidence

becomes

observing the
persons
in different points of view ; and
For

the

as

however,

minuteness

extreme

two

thing, with

justly considered

it is

lates,
re-

relating

If afterward

same

circumstances,

he

in

interest

no

truth.

the

relate

persons

have

author

of what

witness

the

that

required

himself

differentlyfrom

it

is

truth of

of the

ascertained

to be

Usually, in

OF

ESSENCE

THE

WHETHER

mechanism

reason

to

of the

and

on

attempt
moving
be glorious

employs. It would
in such
an
to succeed
attempt, as it would
elucidate a great variety of important points respecting
its operations. But
of the soul and
the nature
which

powers

we

destined

seem

than
18th

the

to trace

soul

to make

rather

their nature

of

use

through

our

ties,
facul-

all its depths.

April, 1761.

VI.

LETTER

of

the Essence

Whether

reflections
many
will
of the soul, you

AFTER

so

faculties
to

return

to

the

be known

Bodies

on

the

not

consideration

by
nature

perhaps

us.

and
be displeased

body, the
deavoured
already en-

of

I have
principal properties of which
to explain.
of body necessarily
I have
remarked, that the nature
three things,extension,impenetrability,
contains
these three propand inertia ; so that a being in which

28

WHETHER

ESSENCE

THE

undoubtedly

know

words,

perfectly knows

the

God
and

one

essence

is

The

same

difference

the
other

discern

who

me,

the

of these

observation

thing
knowledge
one

of mistake

of

impress

It

both

the

which

put

to

this is, if I may

Creator
the
on
will

knowledge.

us

use

all

remain

ever

fix

tained,
mainor

on

could

we

other

essence

impossible to

were

perfect as

which

of

nature

of

know

can

reallyexisting of
so

essence

applicableto all
be confidently

it may

alone

each.

of

other

two

my

is

individual things ; and

nature

; in

pens : but as to
difference, it is certain that the

no

God

of them

the

altogether beyond

that

OF

any
have
a

beyond the reach

the expression,the
created things, the
a
mystery to us.

do not
undoubtedly certain, then, that we
all the
of individual things, or
know
the
essence
characters
whereby each is distinguishedfrom every
the
is different with
other ; but
case
respect to
these
and species
are
:
general notions which
genera
include at once
infinite number
of individual
an
things. They are not beings actually existing,but
It is

which

notions

arrange

we

ourselves

we

great

according

genus,
which

it

denominate

we

number

the

as

comprehends

of

is

greater

minds

when

things

in the

our

individual

many

class, which

same

in

form

species or
things

individual
less.

or

example of the pen, as there

I
of things to each of which
infinite number
an
are
though they all differ one from
name,
give the same
another, the notion of pen is a general idea, of which
And

to return

ourselves

we

in

only
the

general
be well

must

notion

known

from

those

which

of

to us,

distinguish all

to

we

constitute

which

characters

common

of the

which
and
exists
creators,
minds.
This notion contains but
the

are

own

our

the

to

the
do

pen
as

we

things
not

and
are

the
this

in

which

we

comprehend

essence
essence

condition
call pens
under
that

appellation.
As

soon

as

we

remark

in any

thing

certain

char

BE

BODIES

acters,

certain

or

KNOWN

BY

qualities,we

29

US.

it is

say

pen

and

distinguish it from all other

far
not
are
are
things which
though we
pens,
very
from
being able to distinguish it from other pens.
The
more
general a notion is,the fewer it contains
we

in

are

of the
it is

condition

to

which

characters

constitute
also

easier

accordingly

its

essence

discover

to

this

and

essence.

is meant
more
easily what
by a
comprehend
in general than
tree
by the term
cherry-tree, peardescend
to the
we
tree, or apple-tree; that is,when
We

species. When
the
garden is
but

that

was

of

the

species ;

with

in

follows, then,
of

essence

as

see

taken;
being mismight be wrong

I should

stone

of

It

cherry-tree.
better

the

tree

little risk

run

which

object

an

extremely possible I

much

than

confound
a

it

I know

general

tree, I

it is

if I affirmed

such

I say

tree

in

easily
cherry-tree with
not

so

plum-tree.

ther;
general extends
infinitelyfurits essence
accordingly comprehends
only
which
all
to
the characters
ing
common
are
beings bearof bodies.
It is reduced, therefore, to
the name
exclude
from
few
it
must
a very
particulars, as we
which
all the
characters
distinguish one
body from
Now

notion

in

another.
It is

ridiculous, then,
that

unknown

in

to

the

condition

thing

is

to

pretend
of

essence

If it

us.

to

were

affirm
it is

with

with

bodies

so,

certain
in

should

we

never

that

assurance

; and

philosophe
general is

it is

such

be
a

impossible
should
in this respect, it necessarily
be mistaken
we
follows
that we
know
or
sence
essufficientlythe nature
of body in general.
Now
this knowledge
is
reduced
articles : extension, impenetrability,
to three
and

body,

or

not

inertia.

21st

April, 1761.
C2

as

30

NOTION

TRUE

OF

EXTENSION.

LETTER
The

VII.

Notion

True

of Extension.

the
that
general
already demonstrated
these three
notion of body necessarilycomprehends
and
inertia,
qualities, exterasion, impenetrability,
in
class
be
ranked
the
which
without
no
being can
Even
the most
allow
of bodies.
scrupulous must
three
the necessity of these
qualities in order to
constitute
a
is,Are
body ; but the doubt with some
these
sufficient?
characters
three
Perhaps, say
other
which
be
characters
several
they, there may
of body.
to the essence
are
equally necessary
of
God
to create
But I ask, were
a being divested
unknown
other
these
characters, and that it possessed
they
only the three above mentioned, would
of
such
the
hesitate to give
a
name
body to
being ?
No, assuredly; for if they had the least doubt on the
subject,they could not say with certaintythat the
in the street are
stones
bodies, because
they are not
the pretended unknown
characters
whether
are
sure
I

HAVE

to be

found

Some

in them

imagine

of all bodies,
but were
God

therefore

cease

as

or

that

not.

gravityis

all those

to divest
to

be

which

essential

an

know

property

them

of

heavy;
gravity,would
they

bodies

Let

we

are

them

consider

do not
fall downward
heavenly bodies, which
;
if they were
be the case
must
as
heavy as the bodies
which
name.
we
touch, yet they give them the same
And
the supposition that all bodies
were
on
even
heavy, it would not follow that gravityis a property
still remain
to them, for a body would
essential
a
to be destroyed by a
body, though its gravitywere
the

miracle.
But

reasoning does
properties above

this

not

apply

mentioned.

to the three
Were

God

sential
es-

to

NOTION

TRUE

be

longer

no

of

extension

the

annihilate

body;

no
impenetrability would
would
be a spectre, a phantom

of

31

EXTENSION.

OF

it would

body,
and

tainly
cer-

body divested
longer be lody ; it

the

holds

same

as

inertia.

to

You

and

considers

which

geometry,

they

extension

that

know

is the proper
bodies
only in

object of
far

so

as

extended, abstractedlyfrom impenetrability

inertia ; the object of geometry, therefore, is a
are

general than that of body, as it

comprehends, not only bodies, but all things simply
if any such there
extended, without
impenetrability,
be.
it follows that all the properties deduced
Hence
notion

In

much

geometry
take

more

from

place

the

in

; for whatever

notion,

to that

of

notion

of extension

bodies, inasmuch
is

as

must

they

applicableto a more
tree, for example, must

are

wise
liketended
ex-

general
likewise

be

applicable to the notion of an oak, an ash, an

the foundation
elm, "c. ; and this principleis even
of all the reasonings in virtue of which
we
always
of
the
of
affirm and deny
species, and
individuals,
thing that we affirm and deny of the genus.
every
however

philosophers, particularly
our
contemporaries, who
boldly deny that
among
in general,
the
properties applicable to extension
consider
that is,according as we
them
in geometry,
take place in bodies
really existing. They allege
that geometrical extension
is an abstract being, from
the properties of which
it is impossible to draw
any
conclusion
real
to
with
when
objects ; thus,
respect
I have
demonstrated
that the three angles of a triangle
are
together equal to two right anglesj this is
a
property belonging only to an abstract triangle,
and not at all to one
reallyexisting.
But these philosophers are
of the pernot aware
plexing
which
naturallyresult from
consequences
the difference which
they establish between
objects
formed
abstraction
real objects ; and
and
if it
by
frota the first to the
not permitted to conclude
were
There

are

32

NOTION

TRUE

last,
could

and

conclusion,

no

subsist,

notions

whatever,

reasoning

no

conclude

always

we

as

EXTENSION.

OF

general

from

particular.
much
Now
abstract
notions
all general
are
as
and
in
tree
extension;
a
beings
geometrical
as
is formed
the
of trees,
general notion
general, or
out
of our
exists
more
only by abstraction, and no
notion
than
The
mind
does.
geometrical extension
in
of man
in general is of the
kind, and
man
same
dividual
inexist
exists
all men
who
are
general nowhere
:
notions.
beings, and correspond to individual
The
all is formed
comprehends
general idea which
only by abstraction.
The
ing
findfault which
these
philosophers are ever
themselves
with
for
geometricians,
employing
abstractions
about
merely, is therefore
groundless,
all other
sciences
as
tions,
principally turn on general nothan
which
real
the
are
more
objects of
no
the
The
sician
phygeometry.
patient, in general, whom
to

has

in

view,

and

patients really existing,

all
nay,

the

very

greater,
is to
I

merit

as

say,
shall

tendency

endeavour
of

are

the

contains

whom

abstract

an

science

notions

to

by

is

idea

much

so

the

general,

more

applicable

next

point out
by these

to

post

pronounced
geometricians ; and the
censures

unwilling
beings,

that
to

extension.

25th

only

is

each

of

that

abstract.

more

upon

they

of

it extends

idea

the

principles
April, 1761.

should

reasons

ascribe

to

is, t.o existing bodies,

the

that

we

extension

They
should

in
are

general,

afraid

suffer

in

lest
the

or

their

cause.

real

me

philosopher
why
tended
ex-

ties
properto

stracted
ab-

physical
meta-

VIII.

LETTER

and

philosophers

modern

between

controversy

infinitum.

in

of Extension
Divisibility
THE

33

EXTENSION.

OF

DIVISIBILITY

geometricians,to which I
This
of body.
divisibility

alluded,

have

turns

on

edly
property is undoubtextension ; and it is only in so far
founded
on
that they are
extended
bodies
divisible,and
as
are
capable of being reduced to parts.
the

You
in

that

will recollect
it is

geometry

always

Fig.
A

38.
F

"J_H

possibleto divide a line,

however
small, into two
are
equal parts. We
likewise by that science
instructed

in the method

of

dividinga small line,

as
a i, Fig. 38, into
any
number
of equal parts at
struction
pleasure: and the conof this division
is

there

demonstrated

of
beyond the possibility
doubting its accuracy.
You
have only to draw
to a i
I parallel
a line A
of any length,and at any
distance you please,and
to divide

it into

as

many

equal parts AB, BC, CD,

DE,
line

"c.

as

given

is to

small

the

have

divisions,say

afterward, through the extremities

straightlines A a 0, 1 i O, tillthey
O ; and

from

B, C, D, E,

0 draw
"c.

the

towards

the

straightlines

A
meet

Draw

eight.
a, and

in the

i,the

point

points of division
OB, OC, OD, OE,

DIVISIBILITY

34

"c., which
into

likewise

shall

divide

parts

which

into

that in

to divide

not

are

we

lines which

draw

we

breadth, whereby
be

in

seen

they are at
the figure near
what

question is,not
but what
lines

division

same

thousand,

possiblein

it.

itself.

Now,

in geometry

consequently

it follows

Hence

It is true

permitted to go too
have
always some
length confounded, as
the point O ; but the
cute,
possiblefor us to exe-

breadth, and

no

that

can

such

is illimitable.

admitted

once

thousand

it will be

be

may

confounded.

If it is
a

is

have

be

never

the

line

be

propose

you

execution

far ; the

into

small

small
performed, however
of
however
great the number

operation may
given line a i,and

may

the

eight equal parts.

This
the

o*

parts, by

divisible

without

ever

thousand

parts, and for

four thousand, and into eight
arriving at parts indivisible.

into two
into

reason

line may
be divided
dividing each part into two
that

be supposed, it is still
may
each half again into two,
divisible into halves, and
and
and each of these again in like manner,
so
on
However

to

to

line

infinity.
What

small

I have

said of

surface, and, with

a

solid

endowed

breadth, and

line is

easily applicableto
greater strength of reasoning,
three dimensions,"
with
length,

thickness.

Hence

it is affirmed

that all

infinity; and this property is

denominated
in infinilum.
divisibility
is disposed to deny this property of exWhoever
tension
the necessity of maintaining that it
is under
to
is possible to arrive at last at parts so minute
as
extension

is divisible to

unsusceptible of any further division, because

have
Nevertheless,
to
they cease
any extension.
taken together must
all these particles
reproduce the
whole, by the division of which
acquired them ;
you
be a nothing or
and as the quantity of each would
of ciphers would
produce
cipher 0, a combination
absurd.
which
For you know
is manifestly
quantity,
be

36

WHETHER

perform.

to

limited.
into

escape

DIVISIBILITY

THIS

After

thousand
our

senses

doubt

be

having, for example,

parts,these parts are
-r

and

extremely

is indeed

execution

Our

TAKES

further

divided

small

so

inch

an

as

division would

to
to

impossible.
But you have
only to look at this thousandth
part
of an inch through a good microscope, which
nifies,
magfor example, a thousand
times, and each particle
inch
naked
will appear
the
to
as
as
an
large
convinced
and
will
of the possibility
be
eye ;
you
of these particles
of dividing each
sand
again into a thouried
reasoning may always be carparts : the same
no

us

forward

without

It is therefore

an

is divisible in

limit and

without

indubitable

truth

infinitum;

and

end.
that

that this

all

magnitude
takes place

is the
respect to extension, which
only with
with
object of geometry, but likewise
respect to

not

species of quantity,such

other
every
number.
28th

time

and

April,1761.

LETTER
Whether

as

this

IX.

takes placein
in infinitum
Divisibility

isting
ex-

Bodies.

completely established truth,that extension

and
divisible
that
is
it
is
to infinity,
ble
impossito conceive
parts so small as to be unsusceptible
of further division.
Philosophers accordingly do not
impugn this truth itself,but deny that it takes place
in existing bodies.
They allege that extension, the
strated,
demonto
divisibilityof which
infinityhas been
is merely a chimerical
straction
object,formed
by absimple extension, as considered
; and that
in geometry, can
have no real existence.
Here
is undoubtedly
they are in the right ; and extension
in the same
a general idea, formed
manIt is then

PLACE

EXISTING

IN

37

BODIES.

in

stractio
general,by abtree in general does not
man
or
as
; and
in general exist.
does extension
You
exist,no more
are
perfectlysensible that individual beings alone
exist, and that general notions are to be found only
tier

as

that

in the mind
that

these

contain,

on

of

of

or

man,

but it cannot

tree

maintained
chimerical ; they

therefore

general notions
the contrary, the

are

be

foundation

of

all

our

knowledge.
general notion, and all the
propertiesattached to it,of necessity takes place in
all the individuals comprehended under that general
notion.
When
it is affirmed that the general notion
of man
contains an understanding and a will,it
individual man
is
is undoubtedly meant
that every
applies to

Whatever

endowed

with
do

those

these

demonstrated

as

faculties.

And

how

many

philosophersboast
belonging to substance

erties
prop-

of

very

in

having
general,

sion
surely an idea as abstract as that of extenthat all these proper; and yet they maintain
ties
apply to all individual substances, which are all
extended.
had
not
If,in effect,such a substance
be false that they belonged
these properties,it would
in general.
to substance
extended
ings,
beIf then bodies, which
are
infallibly

which

is

or

endowed

with

extension,

were

not

divisible

it would
be likewise false that divisibility
infinity,
Now
those
is a property of extension.
in infinitum
philosophersreadilyadmit that this property belongs
take place
to extension,but they insist that it cannot
in extended
thing with
beings. This is the same
affirmingthat the understanding and will are indeed
attributes of the notion of man
in general,but that
have
no
actually
they can
place in individual men
existing.
Hence
this conclusion : If
you will readilydraw
in infinitum is a property of extension
in
divisibility
of necessity likewise
general, it must
belong to all
extended, beings; or if real extended
individual
to

VOL.

II."

38

DIVISIBILITY

BODIES.

divisible to infinity,
sibility
it is false that diviin infinitura can
be a property of extension

beino-s
in

EXISTING

OF

not

are

general.
It is impossibleto deny

the

one

the

or

,,

other

subverting the must

solid principlesof all knowledge ; and the philosophers
admit
refuse
who
infimtum
to
divisibility
m
m
real extended
beings ought as little to admit it with
in general; but as
they grant
respect to extension
these

without

consequences

this last, they fall into a glaringcontradiction.

need
not be surprisedat this ; it is a
You
from

which

what

is

order

to

perceivedin bodies,
belongs

means

You

cavil

which

bv

similar

the

philosophers, who
exists

in the

they

as

it

They

say,

which

is

by

extension

merely

is

principaland

no

the

that

wretched

evident

most

extravagance
the

maintained

Epicurean
thing which

that every
is material, without

universe

saw

existence

even

admitted.

they

corporealgods

these

cepting
ex-

would

be

greatest difficulties,
they invented
subterfuge similar to that of our modern
phers,
philosoalleging,that the gods had not bodies .but as
and
bodies
that they had not
were
(quasicorpora),

subjected to
a

this

gods, whose

the

But

real

It is an
body is denied.
that formerly imputed to

to

thought

extension

of

property

have

to them.

clearly that

see

that

but

of

But

philosophers,m

is extended.

deny that body

only an appearance

failing

exempt.

not

get rid of their embarrassment,

it is

that

are
greatest men
surprising,these

rather

to

proper

the

but

senses,

members.

equal

senses

The

as

other

corpora

and

extension

this term

quasi extension

our

appearance

in reality.

and

ol

so

all

sects
philosophical

times

; and

to

merry

seems

they would
laugh at the
to

well
perfectly

of extension, without

me

oi

with

philosophersascribe

which

that

were

quasisensus

in modern

reason

it

abundantly

themselves

made
quasi

the

quity
anti-

these

have
".quasi

body
to

press
ex-

being

so

OF

if

Geometricians,
have

only

in infinitum

only

it

as

say

they

have

But

resolve

rather

than

3d

it

as

in infinitum.

they

the

demonstrated
and

the

1761.

we

iects,the

X.

Monads.

Of

as

talk

in company
on
philosophicalsub
conversation
usually turns on such arti
excited

have

violent

of body
divisibility

The

sentiments

the

which
divided.

likewise

were

mistake.

LETTER

cles

divisibility

accordingly all
necessarilydivisible
be gained with them
;
greatest absurdities

is to

maintain

them,

that

were

were

acknowledge

May,

WHEN

whose

objects

nothing

to

confound

to

meant

extended,

were

extended

bodies

they

that

to

39

MONADS.

of

to

at

particles so

small

division.

of

one

the
that

phers.
philoso-

them, respecting

learned

greatly

are

this

divisibility
goes
the possibility
of ever
arriving
be
of
to
ther
furas
no
susceptible

without
infinity,

on

is

maintain

Some

disputes among

insist

others

But

that

this

division

only to a certain point,and that you may

minute
at length to particlesso
come
that, having
These
no
longer divisible.
no
magnitude, they are
into the composi
enter
ultimate
particles,which
tion of bodies, they denominate
simple beings and

extends

monads.
There
monads

into

with

so

guard-room
lady at court

of monads

warmth,
every

excepted.

not

who
or

did

dispute respecting

general attention,

much
of

company

the

when

such

employed

conducted
way

time

was

not

that

and

it forced

was

its

description,that of the
There
was
scarcely a
take

against them.

decided
In

vour
part in fa-

word, all

con-

OF

40
versation

MONADS.

engrossed by

was

monads

other

no

"

ject
sub-

find admission.

could

of Berlin
took
troversy,
Royal Academy
up the conand being accustomed
annually to propose
to bestow
a question for discussion, and
a gold medal,
of the value
of fifty
ducats, on the person who, in
the judgment of the Academy,
has given the most
ino-enious solution, the question respecting monads
selected for the year 1748.
A great variety of
was
the subject were
on
accordingly produced.
essays
The
a
mittee
compresident,Mr. de Maupertuis, named
The

to examine

late

the direction
of the
them, under
to the queen
great chamberlain
;

Dohna,

Count

with
all
impartial judge, examined
both
imaginable attention the arguments adduced
of monads.
for and againstthe existence
Upon the

who,

being

whole, it

an

found

was

establishment

of their

that

which

those

existence

principlesof

all the

piecewas
monad

You

subversion

of

The
of the

in favour

question
opposite

the

ists.

may
of the

easily imagine
Academy must

of monads,

at. the

head

how

violently this

have

irritated

and

numerous

exclaimed

more

who

the

stood

of whom

Wolff. His followers,

Mr.
more

to the

prize adjudged to Mr, Justi,whose

deemed
the most
complete refutation of

opinion, and
the

and

so

knowledge.

determined

therefore

was

human

feeble

were

chimerical, that they tended

so

to the

went

formidable

than

sans
parti-

the celebrated

then

were

cision
de-

much

at present,

against the partiality

high terms
and
injusticeof the Academy ; and their chief had
of a phivvellnigh proceeded to launch the thunder
losophi
do
it.
not
lect
recol1
anathema
now
against
to

in

whom

are

we

indebted

for the

care

of averting

this disaster.
As
you

this

will not

little upon

great deal of noise,

displeased,undoubtedly, if I dwell a
whole
The
is reduced
to this simple

controversy has made

be

it.

question,Is body divisible

to

?
infinity

or, in other

41

MONADS.

OF

of bodies
divisibility
I have already remarked
has it not 1
extension, geometricallyconsidered,

words,

Has

allowed

the

small

in

magnitude

may

the half
and

so

This

on

to

infmitum

divisible

be

to

of

it,and

any
as

is
;

to
on

bound,

this,that
all hands

because

ever
how-

be, it is possibleto

again

half

the

or

of that

ceive
con-

half,

infinity.

notion

of

is very abstract, as are

of horse, of
that of man,
vidual
indito an
not applied

extension

of all genera, such as

tree, "c., as far as they are
and determinate
being.
those

certain

principleof

all

Again, it is the most

knowledge, that whatever

our

be true of
must
trulyaffirmed of the genus
all the individuals comprehended under
it. If therefore
longing
all bodies
are
extended, all the propertiesbemust
to extension
belong to each body in
all bodies
tension
are
extended, and exparticular. Now
is divisible to infinity;
therefore
every body
be so
likewise.
This
must
is a syllogism of the
best form ; and as the first propositionis indubitable,

be

can

all that

remains

true, that

is to be

is,whether

assured

it be

true

that the second

or

not

that

is

bodies

extended.

are

The

partisans of monads, in maintaining theif

tended,
opinion,are obligedto affirm that bodies are not exbut have
of
extension.
only an appearance
They imagine that by this they have subverted the
in support of the divisibility
in
argument adduced
infinitum.
But if body is not extended, I should be
from
whence
the idea of
derived
we
glad to know
extension
extended, nothing in
; for if body is not
the world
still less so.
Our idea of
are
is,as spirits
extension, therefore, would be altogether imaginary
and

chimerical.

Geometry
any
if no

would

tirely
accordinglybe a speculationenuseless and illusory,
and never
could admit of
applicationto things reallyexisting. In effect,
gate
investione
thing is extended, to "what purpose
the propertiesof extension
?
But as geometry

D2

42

is

beyond

the

DIVISIBILITY,

ON

REFLECTIONS

contradiction

of

one

sciences, its object

the

most

useful

possibly be

cannot

of

mere

chimera.

admitting, that the

tension
least the same
apparent exobject of
those
which
philosophersallow to body ; but
isting
ex: therefore
this very object is divisible to infinity
with this apparent extension
beings endowed
must
necessarily be extended.
There

then

necessity
geometry is at

is

of

philosophers turn themselves

nads,
which
soever
they will in support of their moway
and minute
ultimate
particlesdivested
or those
of all magnitude, of which, according to them, all
ties,
bodies
composed, they still plunge into difficulare
extricate themselves.
out of which
they cannot
They are right in saying that it is a proof of dultrine
docto be incapable of relishing their sublime
ness
Finally,let

those

greatest stupidityis
bth

May,

remarked,

be

however

it may

the

most

here

that

the

successful.

1761.

XL

LETTER

and
in infinitum,
Divisibility
on
Reflections

on

Monads.

must
of body, we
speaking of the divisibility
from
is in our
power,
carefully distinguishwhat
not
In the first sense, it canis possiblein itself.
what
are
that such a division of body as we
be denied
capable of must be very limited.
easily reduce it to
can
we
By pounding a stone
all the
possible to reckon
powder ; and if it were
that powder, their number
form
little grains which
be
would
undoubtedly be so great, that it would
into so
the stone
of surprise to have divided
matter
parts. But these very grains will be almost
many
IN

indivisible with
could

employ

instrument
no
us, as
able to lay hold of them.

respect

will be

to

wo

But

44

ON

REFLECTIONS

DIVISIBILITY,

scarcely visible
and legs
all their members,
have
the naked
eye
Hence
which
they walk with amazing velocity

The
lo
on
we

insects,such

smallest

that

see

and

nerves

fluid

through their
viewing with

flows
On
,

water,
thousands

they

still much
whole

of

composed
have

veins

and

which

subtile

more

extent.

microscope

good

the

it has

of

are

its muscles

has

fibres; that

of

number

great

limb

each

as

of

appearance

single drop

see

we

sea;

livingcreatures
swimming in it,each
of an infinite num)f which
ber
is necessarilycomposed
lous
marveland
of muscular
fibres,whose
nervous
And
structure
ought to excite our admiration
perhaps be the smallest
though these creatures
may
which
are
we
capable of discoveringby the help of
ie microscope
undoubtedly they are not the smallof

exist

probably

smallest, but
classes,each

the
new

and

in this to

ought

which

the

by

followed

ought
and

us

inspire

with

the

omnipotence
in objects of

to

impression

on

of which

minute,
minds

our

ma?nitude, called medusas,

S,uperior
itself'
the
"Cean
Captain
"
dU,C-OlOIlr
?"
nTm"hUS
be immense.
to
nmh
ollv8ea
1
e
ollve-green
"f

found"^T

Sd
d
the

"f

animal8

'

"

of

the

has

been

ideas

sublime

the

that

me

species, each

most

in-

preceding

inconceivablymore

another

the liveliest

make

to

infinity of

the

Creator, as

minute

of these

consideration

yet

not

creatures

the

It appears

greatest magnitude.

the

they

as

are

an

of

acknowledge

of

infinite wisdom

by

contains

those

than

smaller
"amsparablv
We

be followed

may
of

them

after all

these

And

us.

Animalcules

produced.

relativelyto

small

as

to
relatively

are

has

Creator

the

ist which

Scoresby
esy

,-

cubic

*"
21
mile
contain
would
23,888inrh
VhndC"nSeqUentlyacubic
OOOOOOoSnS
persok
naviSator remarks, that if
CmTnt k WOUld
?
mJ
"o2
that
have
80,000
required
dayS'
could
'

rnn

one

*ame

S"2nT"hnnl^
J

'"

SeVTat the
re StartKd

^
epn"meratlon

*n,

at

Present

creation

of

time.-See

the

w"rld

to

have

com-

Scoresby'sAccount
"-

Mt

of

AND

works

45

MONADS.

ON

whose
knows
Almighty,
no
power
to great objects or
small.
as
bounds, whether
To
a
imagine, that after having divided
body into
of parts, we
arrive
at length at parnumber
a great
ticles
small
to
all
further
is
fore
theredivision,
as
so
defy
of

the

the

it

possible
be, in their

supposing
to

as

in the

as

coming

only

certain

could
Let
some

inch,

suppose

extension,

may

part.

together
and

what

would

from
to

monads

they

therefore

nor

any

the

monads.

two

of

of

first

of the
force

of monads

of

this

has

of

an

portance
im-

no

of

an

smaller

inch, then, is

an

consequently
thousandth
part
nothing a whole
sight.

system

it

part

every

and

times

posed
com-

monads

two

of

inch,

an

inch

; the

accordingly
and

argument,

are

duced
re-

when

allow
monads
two

number

Completely
QthMay,

part of

the

at

truth

equal

it

asked
how
nonplus
many
constitute
extension.
to
an
requisite
would
apprehend,
insufficient,
appear

they

of

these

particle, as
thousandth
part

the

terrible

are

if two

otherwise

"

be

the

Two,

each

this

monads,

two

absurdity strikes
The
partisans

But

that
be

posed
particle comparticle will be

extension,
into

ble,
divisi-

this

divisible

nute
mi-

so

; before

if you
will
for it is
of the
I say
thousandth

thousand

two

shrink

and

or

with
be said
may
This
thousandth
of

monads

have

still smaller

or

inch

shall

we

magnitude
been

But

longer

no

supposed

monads,

two

further

us

nature,

own

the

point,

have

not

contracted
mind.
very
descend
to
to
particles
a

of

case

this

to

of
of

of

indication

has

none,

whatever
the

more

must

be

constitute

cannot

subverts
1761.

that

neither
will

system

extension,
three,

produce
of

necessary.

nor

it ; and

monads.

as

four,
this

46

TO

REPLY

XII.

LETTER

Reply

to

the

OF

OBJECTIONS

THE

Objectionsof the Monadists

in infinitum.
of monads

to

Divisibility

far from

submitting
adduced
to establish the divisibility
to the arguments
of body to infinity.Without
attacking them directly,
in infinitum
mera
is a chithey allege that divisibility
in conof geometricians, and that it is involved
tradiction.
For if each body is divisible to infinity,
partisans

THE

it would

contain

well

bodies

of

particlesto

these

would

infinite

an

smallest

as

lead, that is

are

the

as

which

to say, the

number

of

greatest

; the

in
divisibility
most

minute

parts, the
number
infinitum
of which

composed, will then be as great in the

smallest
body as in the largest,this number
being
the
of
hence
in
and
monads
partisans
infinite both;
For if the
triumph in their reasoning as invincible.
bodies
of ultimate
two
number
particlesof which
in both, it must
is the same
are
follow,
composed
are
perfectlyequal to each
say they, that the bodies
bodies

are

other.
this

Now

on

goes

all

particlesare
for if

some

greater than

greater

were

surprising-that

mate
supposition that the ultiperfectlyequal to each other ;

the

one

the

than

of the two
other.

But

others, it would
bodies
it is

should

not

be

be much

sary,
absolutelynecesparticles of all
they, that the ultimate
say
bodies
should
be equal to each
other, as they no
lutely
longer have any extension, and their magnitude absonothing. They even
vanishes, or becomes
form
new
a
objection, by alleging that all bodies
of nothings,
be composed
of an infinite number
would
is a still greater absurdity.
which
this ; but I remark, at the
I readily admit
same
them
to raise such
oban
time, that it illbecomes

THE

TO

MONADISTS

47

DIVISIBILITY.

that all bodies

are
jection, seeing they maintain
of monads,
composed of a certain number
though,
relativelyto magnitude, they are absolutely nothings:
that by their own
confession
several nothings are
so
are
They
right in
capable of producing a body.
not
are
saying their monads
nothings, but beings
the naendowed
with an excellent
ture
quality,on which
is founded.
of the bodies
which
they compose
Now, the only question here is respecting extension
;
and as they are
the necessity of admitting that
under
the monads
several
have
nothings, according
none,
to them, would
always be something.
But
I shall push this argument
against the system
of monads
farther ; my
a
no
object being to make
direct reply to the objection founded
the ultimate
on
in supparticles of bodies, raised by the monadists
port
of their system, by which
they flatter themselves
in the
the
confidence
of a complete
victory over
in infinitum.
partisans of divisibility
I should
be glad to know, in the first place, what
In
they mean
by the ultimate
particlesof bodies.
their system, according to which
posed
body is comevery
I clearly comof a certain number
of monads,
prehend
that the ultimate
particlesof a body are the
monads

themselves

constitute

which

it ; but

in infinitum, the
system of divisibility
particle is absolutely unintelligible.
They are right in saying, that these
tides

at which

after

having

just the
a

division
in

same

we

thing

with

never

infinitum

the

are

the division

of

infinity. But
saying, after having

comes

to

an

end.

the

ultimate

term

it to

continued

which

from

arrive

in

For

pai

bodies,
this

is

finished
bility
divisi-

nothing else but the possibility

of always carrying on
the division, without
be
it would
ever
sary
necesarriving at the point where
to stop.
in infinitum
He
maintains
who
divisibility
of the
boldly denies, therefore, the existence
ultimate
particlesof body; and it is a manifest conmeans

STRONGEST

tradiction

to suppose
at
in infinitum.
divisibility

SUPPORT

once

particlesand

ultimate

reply, then, to the partisans of the system of

of
monads, that their objection to the divisibility
be a very solid one, did that
would
body to infinity
of ultimate
pressly
particles;but being exsystem admit
from it,all this reasoning of course
excluded
falls to the ground.
It is false,therefore,that in the system of divisibility
bodies are composed
of an infinity
in infinitum
these two
of particles. However
closely connected
propositions may appear to the partisansof monads,
they manifestlycontradict each other ; for whoever
that body is divisible in infinitum,
maintains
out
or withend, absolutelydenies the existence of ultimate
in the
particles,and consequently has no concern
The term can only mean
such particlesas
question.
are
no
longer divisible" an idea totallyinconsistent
of divisibility
in infinitum.
the system
This
with
formidable
attack, then, is completely repelled

XIII,

LETTER

of the Sufficient
Reason,the strongestSupport
Principle
of the Monadists.
You

must

which

systems

perfectlysensible
have
undergone

necessarily true, and

is

they

be

are

the

one

such

the

other

of the two

sion
ample discusfalse,seeing

contradictory.

It is admitted
;

that

on

both

sides that bodies

only question is, Whether

this

are

ble
divisi-

divisibility

it may
limited ? or, Whether
always be carried
the possibilityof ever
arriving- at
further, without

is

indivisible particles 1
The
case,

system of monads
since

after

is established

having divided

body

in the former
into indivisi-

THE

OF

these
particles,

ble

be

would

there

reason

composed

of

number.

Whoever

49

MONADISTS.

monads,
very particlesare
for saying that all bodies
of

them, and each

the

denies

certain

system

likewise, then, deny that

and
are

determinate
of

monads

the

of
divisibility
the necessity of
He
is under
bodies is limited.
maintaining that it is always possibleto carry this
ever
further, without
being obliged to
divisibility
in infinitum,
of divisibility
stop ; and this is the case
which
on
system we absolutelydeny the existence
of ultimate
particles
; consequently the difficulties
fall to the ground
resultingfrom their infinite number
of themselves.
In denying monads, it is impossible
and still less
to talk any longer of ultimate
particles,
must

of

of 'them

the number
of each
You

must

produced

in

have

enters

into the

position
com-

body.
remarked

support of

of

which

that what

t have

hitherto

is
system of monads
proceed to inform you,

the

titute
des-

that
solidity. I now
its supporters rest their cause
chieflyon the great
which
principleof the sufficient
they know
reason,
how
to employ so dexterously that by means
of it
whatever
they are in a condition to demonstrate
suits their purpose,
whatever
and to demolish
The
against them.
great discovery made,

this, That

makes

then, is
:
reason
sufficient

nothingcan be without a
and to modern
philosophers we stand indebted for it.
In order to give you an idea of this principle,
you
have only to consider, that in every thing presented
to you, it may
always be asked, Why is it such?
And
the answer
is,what they call the sufficient
son,
reawith
it
the
supposing reallyto correspond
tion
questhe why can
take place,
proposed. Wherever
the possibility
of a satisfactory
is taken for
answer
granted,which shall,of course, contain the sufficient
of the thing.
reason
This
is very far,however, from
being a mystery
of modern
discovery. Men in every age have asked
why" an incontestable proof of their conviction that
VOL.

II." E

STRONGEST

50

of its exsatisfyingreason
istence.
that nothing is without a cause,
principle,
known
to ancient
philosophers; but

thing must

every

This
was

well

very

unhappily

this

from

To

us.

SUPPORT

have

is for the

cause

little purpose

to assign the
qualified

is
of

doubt

that

hardly

far

thus

may
who

make

things, and
be

but in this

such

its

name

one

no

matter

; but

cause

and

gress
pro-

so

long

advanced

have

not

that

modern

in

boast

condition

of the

proposed

them

to

summit

the very

respect they

are

to
;

phers,
philoso-

principleof

actuallydiscovered

have

are

be

can

we

why

It is not
the

knowledge.
perhaps imagine

sufficient reason,
that

ask

we

in real

single step
You

has

deserves

concealed,

it remains

as

do

reason.

thing

every

part concealed

most

answer

which

that

of all

every
would

why
doubtedly
un-

knowledge :
ignorant as their

of human

just as

to no
more
neighbours ; their whole merit amounts
demonstrated, that wherever
than a pretensionto have
the question why, there
it is possible to ask
to it,though concealed
must
be a satisfactoryanswer

from

us.

ledge
readilyadmit that the ancients had a knowbut a knowledge
scure
obof this principle,
very
they pretend to have placed it in its
; whereas
the truth ot
clearest light,and to have demonstrated
how
it
to turn
it and therefore it is that they know
and that this principleputs
most
to their account,

They

"

in

them

condition

to prove

that

bodies

are

posed
com-

of monads.
have

Bodies, say they, must

somewhere
such

reason

if

; but

could

conclude, with

an

they

they
place ; and hence
that
air altogetherphilosophical,
it ts
have its sufficient
reason,
le composed
that all bodies should
not

thing must
absolutelynecessary
which
was
of monads"

as

every

must
It

admit, is
were

were

their sufficient reason

divisible to infinity,

take

demonstrated.
1 his, 1
demonstration
not to be resisted.

greatly to

to be

be

wished

that

reasoning

so

ANOTHER

52

ARGUMENT

LETTER

XIV.

Argument of the Monadists,

Reason.
Principleof the Sufficient
from it.

Another

derived

from

Absurdities

the
sulting
re-

likewise
derive
their
partisansof monads
grand argument from the principleof the sufficient
prehend
comreason,
by alleging that they could not even
the possibility
of bodies, if they were
ble
divisiTHE

there would
be
as
infinity,
nothing in
capable of checking imagination ; they must
to

particlesor

ultimate
which

must

serve

to

elements, the

explain

the

them
have

composition
composition

of

of

bodies.
the possibility
they pretend to understand
exist ?
This would
of all the things which
savour
of pride ; nothing is more
too much
common
among
this
kind
than
of
I
cannot
reasoning
philosophers
But

do

"

of this, unless
it is such
comprehend the possibility
it necessarilymust
I imagine it to be : therefore
as
be

such.

clearlycomprehend the frivolousness of such

search
reasoning ; and that in order to arrive at truth,remuch
more
profound must be employed. Ignoranc
become
an
can
never
argument to conduct
in question
of truth, and the one
to the knowledge
us
is evidently founded
on
ignorance of the different
which
render
the thing possible.
manners
may
But on the supposition that nothing exists but that
whose
possibility
they are able to comprehend,is it
would
be
bodies
to explain how
possible for them
sion,
!
Monads, having no extencomposed of monads
must
be considered
as
points in geometry, or
Now
as
we
represent to ourselves spiritsand souls.
known
that many
it is well
geometrical points,let
be supposed ever
the number
can
so
great, never
You

OF

53

MONADISTS.

THE

produce a line,and consequently still less a surface,

sufficient to
If a thousand
a body.
pointswere
or
the thousandth

constitute
these

must

taken

part

necessarily have

thousand

times

part of

thousandth

would

truth,that take

inch,

an

each

of

extension, which

an

become

equal

to the

is

testable
incon-

Finally,it

inch.

an

of

an

of

number

points you
speak here
will,they can never
produce
conceive
in geometry, without
of points such as we
in that
any length,breadth, or thickness, and which
respect are absolutelynothing.
any

extension.

tension
philosophers accordingly admit that no exbe produced by geometrical points,and
can
ought not
they solemnly protest that their monads
with
these points. They have no
to be confounded
extension
than points, say they ; but they are
more
with
such as representadmirable
invested
qualities,
ing
universe
the whole
to them
tremely
by ideas, though exthese qualitiesrender
obscure
them
; and
of extension, or
to produce the phenomenon
proper
extension
which
I formerly
that
rather
apparent
The
mentioned.
same
idea, then, ought to be
of spirits
and souls, with this
of monads
formed
as

Our

difference, that the

faculties

imperfect.
difficulty
appears

more

The

to

of

monads

by

me

this

are

much

creased
greatlyin-

myself you will be of my

spiritscannot
possiblybe
opinion that two or more
Several
spiritsmay
joined so as to form extension.
assembly or a council, but never
very well form an
of the body of each
made
extension
an
; abstraction
contributes
ration
counsellor, which
nothing to the delibegoing forward, for this is the production of
bly
spiritsonly ; a council is nothing else but an assemof spiritsor souls : but could such
an
assembly
;

and

I flatter

an

extension]

represent
monads
than
The

are

still less

Hence

proper

to

it follows

produce

extension

geometricalpoints are.
partisansof the system, accordingly,are
E2

that

not

54

OF

ARGUMENT

MONADISTS.

THE

allege, that monads

actual
are
parts of bodies ; and that after having
then
arrive at
far as possible,you
divided
as
a body

agreed

point.

Some

it.

constitute

which

monads

the

this

to

as

be concan
sidered
absolutely deny that monads
constituent
as
parts of bodies ; according to
: while
them, they contain only the sufficient reason
monads
do not
stir,but
the body is in motion, the
of motion.
Finally,
they contain the sufficient reason
hand
each
other ; thus, when
touch
my
they cannot
monad
of my
hand
touches
touches
one
a body, no
of the body.
monad
a
in this
is it then, you will ask, that touches
What
Others

case,

and

if it is not

body

the

each

touch
that

is

there

The

which

the hand
compose
must
things
nobe, that two

monads

the

answer

other,

real

or

rather

it must

It is

contact.

mere

be

denied

illusion,

cessity
They are under the nesame
of affirming the
thing of all bodies,
philosophers, are only
which, according to these
by the imagination, representing
phantoms formed
which
contain
confusedly the monads
to itself very
denominate
of all that we
the sufficient reason
body.
thing is spirit,phantom,
In this philosophy every
cannot
these
we
comprehend
and illusion ; and when
ment
mysteries, it is our stupiditythat keeps up an attachof the vulgar.
notions
to the gross
is, that these
The
greatest singularityin the case
philosophers,with a design to investigateand explain

the

to

of bodies

nature

and

of

extension,
This

are

at last

duced
re-

is

undoubtedly
in explaining the
succeed
to
surest
nomena
pheway
have
of nature
only to deny them, and
; you
son.
allege in proof the principleof the sufficient reato

the

all foundation.

of

destitute

deny

Into

rather
19th

such

than

May,

their

existence.

extravagances

acknowledge
1761.-

their

will

philosophersrun
ignorance.

XV.

LETTER
the

on
Reflections

IT would

be

It has
too

made

permitted

that this

and

nious
inge-

into ruins.
its

cost

partisans

to be
profound speculations,

into

sink

crumble

noise, it has

much

too

to

should

monads

sublime

many

System of Monads.

great pity,however,

of

system

55

MONADS.

OF

SYSTEM

oblivion.

total

It will

evei

of the extijavagance
striking monument
It
into which
of philosophizingmay
the spirit
run.
is well worth
while, then, to present you with a more
of it.
particularaccount
from the mind
to banish
It is necessary,
first of all,
thing corporeal all extension, all motion, all
every
illusion.
time
and
mere
space"for all these are
Nothing exists in the world but monads, the number
of which
undoubtedly is prodigious. No one monad

remain

"

is to

demonstrated

each

These
have
their

a
own

all other
and
other
very
in

in

They

no

and

it is

sufficient

the

son
rea-

whatever

manner

indeed

are

invested

act

with

only within themselves,

having the least influence externally.
is endowed,
with which
each monad
powers,
tendency only to be continuallychanging
state, and consist in the representationof
monads.
nad,
My soul, for example, is a moare

monads.
obscure

exerted

in itself ideas

contains

ideas

These
; but

employed
carrying them

Other

and

other.

others

with

principleof

can

but these

powers,
without

the

by

monads

that
upon

in connexion

found

be

are

of

the

for

state

the

most

of

all

part

soul are
of my
the powers
tinually
conin their further elucidation,and
to

higher degree

of

clearness.

monads

semblance
have, in this respect, a sufficient reto my
soul; each is replete with a prodigious
of
quantity obscure ideas of all other monads,

of their state ; and

they

are

continuallyexerting

REFLECTIONS

themselves

with

ofcle

more

ln

and

'

ON

THE

less

or

in

success

carrying them

to

unfolding-

hi"her degree

Such
one

monads

have

as

perfect; but the greater part

of stagnation, in the greatest

spirits more

are

11 remain

state

in

better than I have

succeeded

their ideas ; and when

ject
they are the obof the ideas of my
soul, they produce in it the
idea of extension
of
and
illusory and chimerical

obscurityof

often

As

soul thinks of bodies and of

my
that a great quantity of other
ration,this proves
still buried in their obscurity; it is likemonads
wise
are

body.

when
the

I think

but

obscurityof
the

with

dazzled

that my

forms

soul

there

in the

plunged
their ideas, the more
of

quently
conse-

illusion.

mere

idea

within

is

extension, which

some

monads

more

of the

are

; but

extension

is my
when

abyss
soul

they

seems
up their obscure ideas,extension
this produces in my
soul the
to dimmish, and

to clear

come
;o

of them

of

idea

nothing
The

as

me

of motion.

idea
illusory

ask'
n,TOUuWi11
that

other

monads

no

succeed

there

ideas, seeing

doubt' how
is

no

in

mY

soul

perceives

developingtheir

obscure

between

them

connexion

The

partisans of the system of monads

ably
are
ready with this reply,that it takes place conformthe Creator (who
to the perfect harmony which
s himself
only a monad) has established between
in a
each
as
perceives in itself,
monads, by which
out
mirror, every development produced in others, withand

me

between

of connexion

any manner
t is to be

them.

at
hoped, then, that all monads
may
so
happy as to clear up their obscure
length become
should lose all ideas of body and
ideas, and then we
of motion
the illusion,
arisingmerely from the
; and
obscurityof ideas, would entirelycease.
*

But
blessed
the

there
state

capacity

is little appearance
; most

of

after

arrival of this

having acquired
their obscure ideas,sud-

monads,

clearingup

of the

SYSTEM

denly relapse. When

perceive myself but
soon

of

is

that

but

were

place

of

or

into

motion;

approaching

am

or

rather

excite

in

me

the

obscure, it appears

very

to me,

idea

to

panse
ex-

all

almost
merely: my soul remains
same
place,just as all other monads.
ideas
which
some
begins to unfold

it

when

before

are

of

change

no

in the

always

of

contemplate the vast

all have
relapsed

as

is illusion

that
But

but

of dulness.

state

There

must

my

their ideas

unfolded

then

chamber,
extension, because

up
small

of

they

heaven,

in

shut

abroad, and

I walk

as

their

have

monads

several

57

MONADS.

OF

the

object

that which

; and

this

when

phenomenon,

to

which

they

represent
of such

monads

the

real

is the

it appears

then

me

explanation

to

that

us

we

approaching to certain objects.

tions
It happens but too
frequently that the elucidahad acquired are
we
again lost ; then it appears
that we
us
are
removing from the same
object.

And

here

look

must

we

for the

solution

true

of

our

journeyings. My idea, for example, of the city of

Magdeburg is produced by certain monads, of which
at

I have

present

is the
from

ideas
very obscure
I consider
myself as at

but

why
Magdeburg.
reason

Last

clear,

became

year these
and
then
I

and

distance

this

ideas

same

imagined

denly
sud-

was

there
travellingto Magdeburg, and that I remained
sion
illuThis
several days.
an
journey, however, was
its place.
stirs from
merely, for my soul never
illusion when
It is likewise
an
you imagine yourself
the
confused
because
absent
from
Berlin,
sentation
repreof certain

Berlin, which

of

instant

are

so

much

expend
the

real

You
been

we

plan

will

persons

excites

an

obscure

have

illusion.
is mere
money,
of the system of monads.

ask, Is it possible there

of

idea

only to clear up, and that

is necesat Berlin.
sary.
Nothing more
which
call journeys, and
we
on.

you

you
What

monads

good

sense

who

ever

Such

should

is

have

seriouslymaintained

58

REFLECTIONS

these
too
are

May,

of them,

Berlin,nay, perhaps

at

some

been

have

reply,there

several

that I know

many,

23d

extravagances

THE

ON

that

but

there

Magdeburg.

at

1761.

LETTER

XVI.

Continuation.

system of monads,

THE

it, is

principle
beings.

moment

are

the

other

this

naturally
however

which

consequences,
that

it is

absurd

and

I have

compounded
principleis

obliged to acknowledge

you

as

consequence

necessary
bodies
are

that

The

such

the

been

scribing
de-

from

the

of

simple

admitted,

justness of

result

from

all

it

impossibleto reject any

so

one,

contradictory.

simple beings, which must enter into

composition of bodies, being monads which have
their compounds, that is
extension, neither can

First, these
the
no

bodies, have
illusion and

any;

chimera,

of extension
extension

and

; it can

are

be

all these
it

extensions

being certain

become

that

titute
parts des-

incapableof producing a

real

c
most
an
appearance
extenphantom, which dazzles by a fallacious idea of sion.
illusion ; and
In a word, every thing becomes
the system of pre-established
this is founded
upon

the

harmony,

at

difficulties of which

P"lfis
$ecessary

then

to

take

care

I have
that

we

already
be

not

If you
entangled in this labyrinthof absurdities
the threshold, you are
single false step over
of escaping.
involved
Iwery
beyond the power
thing depends on the first ideas formed of extension :
the partisansof the system
and the manner
in which

makel

of

monads

-i nese

endeavour

pnuusupu"

of

to

establish it

extremely

tension
speak of the exthey clearlyforesee that

do not like to

bodies, because

is

REFLECTIONS

QO
was

fallacious argument, in my

refuted

this

than

has

opinion,more
The'

been

pletely
com-

question

And, after a little

and
winding, it is answered, Because
they
has
I to be asked, Why
Were
a triangle

Why

was,

THE

ON

turning

extended?

bodies

are

a""o?so.

I should

sides ! and

three

such
It

therefore

is

reply be

deemed

certain

that

simple beings,"leads
founded

well

monads,
axioms

even

first

or

to

it may

who

satisfactory
this

rank

pretend to
principlesof

ficient to overturn

it

it among

question.
compound being

no

ol

of
tn"

knowledge

human

there

up
however

partisans

immediately

it,were

proposition,

the

to

appear

sion"woul
illu-

mere

false conclusion

absurdity in which

The

it is

being- is necessarily made

compound

"Every

reply that

issues

other

is

sut-

reasc

for calling it in
But

thing

as

extended

an

as

here

being, it

is

the

same

it it

were

means

just

as

compounded of
the
And this is precisely
beings which are not so."
on
dividing a body
question. It is asked, Whether
arrive at length at parts unsusceptible oi any
you
affirmed,

further

"

extended

Every

division,for want

being

is

of extension

; or, Whether

such as that the divis]

arrive at particles
'
bilityshould be unbounded
this important question,lo
In order to determine
you

never

the

sake

of

argument

compounded

let it be

supposed

that

every

extension.
parts without
Certain specious reasonings may easilybe employed,

body
drawn

is

from
and

which

it will be

the

it; which

compose

being
very

were

point
is

son
principleof the sufficient reasaid that a compound being can
reason
only in the simple beings

noted

the

its sufficient

have

of

in

might

be

true

if the

pound
com-

up of simple beings,
this comand whenever
position

in fact made

question;

denied,

the

sufficient

reason

totally inapplicable.
But it is dangerous to enter the lists with
that
who
believe in monads
; for, besides

becomes

persons
there

SYSTEM

OF

61

MONADS.

nothing to be gained,they loudly exclaim that you

are
attacking the principleof the sufficient reason,
of the exwhich
is the basis of all certainty,even
istence
of God.
refuses
According to them, whoever
to admit
monads, and rejects the magnificent fabric,
in which
every thing is illusion,is an infidel and an
Sure I am
that such a frivolous imputation
atheist.
will not make
the slightest
impression on your mind,
will perceive the wild extravagances
but that you
the
driven when
into which
men
are
they embrace
a
system of monads
system too absurd to need a
refutation in detail ; their foundation
being absolutely
reduced
abuse of the principleof the
to a wretched
"

sufficient
2Gth

reason.

May,

1761.

XVII.

LETTER

on
of Reflections

Conclusion
WE

under

are

the

of bodies
divisibility

system
from
which

of

this

System.

necessity of acknowledging the

in infinitum,or of admitting the

ing
monads, with all the extravagances result-

it ; there

is

no

other

choice

"

an

alternative

partisans of that system with

formidable
another
argument in support of it.
in infinitum we
They pretend, that by divisibility
are
obliged to ascribe to bodies an infinite quality,

whereas

suppliesthe

it is certain

that God

alone

is infinite.

are
partisansof the system of monads
very
accused
of
us
atheism, and
dangerous persons ; they
now
they charge us with polytheism,allegingthat
ascribe to all bodies
infinite perfections. Thus
we
should
be much
than pagans,
who
we
worse
only
certain
of
accused
we
are
idols,whereas
worship
divinities.
paying homage to all bodies, as so many
it well
dreadful
A
imputation, no
doubt, were
founded; and I should certainly prefer embracing

The

VOL.

II."

62

REFLECTIONS

the

of

system

illusions

ON

with

monads,

which

from

flow

THE

it,to

and

chimeras

all the

declaration

in favour

in infinitum,if it involved
a conclusion
divisibility
so
impious.
You
will allow, that to reproach one's adversaries
with atheism
of
or
idolatryis a very strange mode
do they find us
ascribing to
arguing; but where
bodies
this divine
infinity'? Are
they infinitely
powerful, wise, good, or happy1? By no means:
we
only affirm, that on dividing bodies, though the
division be carried on ever
so
far, it will always be
it further, and
that you
never
possible to continue
arrive at indivisible
ingly
accordcan
particles. It may
of bodies
is
be affirmed, that the
divisibility
it is improper to use
without
limits ; and
the term
which
is applicableto God
alone.
infinity,
remark
at the
I must
same
time, that the word
infinity"is not so dangerous as these philosophers
insinuate.
In saying, for example, infinitely
wicked,
from
the perfections of
remote
nothing is more
of

"

God.
admit

They
and
the

the
ask
are

souls will

our

have

never

an

end,

of
Acknowledge an infinityin the duration
soul, without
marking the least disrespect to
infinite perfections of God.
Again, when
you
of the universe
if the extent
them
is bounded,
1
Some
of
they very indecisive in their answer
thus

them

very
may

frankly allow that the extent

probably be infinite
very
however

being able,
determine

its

which

more

For

ought
one

Being,

far

limits.

they

do

Here

not

infinityis

could
and

ever

does

of

the

without

verse
uniour

carried, to

are

then

deem

still stronger reason,

the
not to give them
to

ideas

our

divisible
any

that

is

one

infinity

heretical.
in infinitum
divisibility
least

offence.

To

be

surely an attribute which

think of ascribing to the Supreme
confer
not
bodies a degree of
on
not

perfectionwhich would not

these
philosophers allow

be
them

far from
in

that

which

compounding

SYSTEM

them

of

on
monads, which
with qualitiesso

endowed
hesitate

give

to

God

to

63

MONADS.

OF

their

system
that

eminent

himself

the

being?

are

do

they

not

denomination

of

monad.
In

truth, the idea

tinued

without

of

contains
any bounds
the Deity that it rather

character

of

in

far inferior

rank

souls

all the

bodies

in the

body,
every
of
vast
number

which

world.

monads,
of

that

to

it may
well
be
is infinitely
more

occupy
; for
in its essence

soul

which

division

But
the

even

so

places bodies
spirits and our

affirmed

also

ideas

what

assurance

Is it not

to

be

of

have

apprehended

How
soul ?
can
my
I ought to be ashamed

whose

I be
to

of

that

the

our

employ

reason

you
should
the
of
the
soul

its

pen commit

this difference
monads

the

the

which

contrary

pen in
monads

conveying
of

which

sublimely ;

more

be

to

thoughts

own

"?

have
may
than those
of

of

and

to

satisfied,
paper

stead
in-

mine.
that is not
system of monads
necessary
;
inrepresents to itself beforehand, by its herent
all the

powers,

ideas

What

manner.

suggest

contributes

information.

slightestinfluence
from

of my

each

itself what

but

in

very

now

partisansof
simple beings
on

pen,

taking the liberty

absolutely nothing to your
am

The
that

derives

monad

easily as

clearer

much

to

Each

writing

am

assured

conceptions, while
possibly conceive
might have greater

obscure

has

nature

they

feeble
my
it consists

the

system of
compounded

it.

the pen wherewith

the
universe
much

compose
ideas
of

In

than

scure,
but, say they, their ideas of it are very obhave
though we
already clear,and sometimes

distinct

But

the

on

vilest,is

monads,

that

valuable

souls.
to that of our
great resemblance
world
as
represents to itself the whole

souls

be con
may
little of the

this

system

cannot

other

; and

I have

been

have

exercise
your

own

monstrat
dethe
soul

endeavouring

64

SYSTEM

to

without

convey,

MONADS.

OF

having

my

in the

concern

any

matter.

Conversation, reading,and writing, therefore,are

and deceptive formalities,which
merely chimerical
illusion would
of acquiring
impose upon us as the means
and extending knowledge. But I have already
had the honour
of pointing out to you the wonderful
resulting from the system of the preconsequences
established
these

; and

harmony

reveries

have

may

apprehensive

am

become

too

severe

that

trial

of

of superior
patience, though many
your
persons
illumination
lime
subconsider
this system
the most
as
of

production

understanding, and

human

incapable of mentioning
respect.*
30tk May, 1761.
It is

consolation

divested

itself of
has

author

our

former,

conception

of

the

and

powers

limitation

faculties

small,

division

of

reveals

the

of

as

sense

beyond

extent

mucli

so

established

to us

in

in the

the

respect
has

been

to

the

as

in

several

the

to

and

organic

diffusion

question

of

infinite

sorts

and

simple

that

these

further

or

different

elementary

atoms

possess

it may

atoms,
infinite

enable
propositionswhich
are
chymical changes which

us

to

seem

in nature

be

prevailing
of

the

chymist
divisibility

of

different

qualitiesor affinities,

and

hardness,

an
can

it is the

in the

constituted

are

having different

divided, are
for

of nature

to

divisibility,about

appear

That

of

just

ries
car-

odours)
employed, no one

means

of the process
of matter
kinds

nature

of

to

of

inorganic
(as
of animalculae,

actual

matter.

pre-

and

world

by geometrical reasoning, yet

opinion of the present day that there is a limitation
atoms
or
divisibility. The
elementary particlesof

of

the

minuteness

in the

to the

That

reach.

our

said, although in the abstract

the ultimatum

of

of

want

in the affirmative

furnish

times
of which

has
assigned to
whether
in the
Infinity,

astonishing

smelling determines

those

Providence

mind.

human

comprehension

our

with

but

doubt;
which

both

owing

Divine

which
the

been

modern

in
as

found
pro-

disputes
of monads,

existence

and

most

about

The

account.

absolutely beyond

matter

microscope

and

is

of

has

disputations
of this,and

idle

such

preceding Letters

the

the

in the

or

the
the

of

given us so full an
harmonies, and the nature
of things appear
10 have

essences

great

in

the

that philosophy
reflect,

to

lumber

volume

established
the

the

it but with

are

cannot
to

account

therefore
more

be
factorily
satis-

constantly taking place

stabilityof the laws
those
We
to which
changes are subservient.
know, indeed, little or
of corpuscular action, but the theory of atomic
nothing of the real nature
tary
saluin stable
and
combinations
definite proportions has diffused a most
be
the
will
surface
of
whole
It
a
science.
over
fication
gratilight
chymical
Christian
reader to observe
which
the abilitywith
Euler
to every
combats
which

the

the whole

throughout

domain

of nature,

the

and

for the

skepticalphilosophy which resulted

he has so ably confuted.
Am.
Ed.
"

from

the

ries
visionarytheo-

LETTER

I
the

ideas

taken

the

to which

This

them.

carry

I could

have

subject has hitherto

philosophers,and I must

stumbling-blockto
myself with the belief that I am
every difficulty.I hope, at the
elucidations
which
I am
going
examination

of Colours.

the

of evidence

degree

Nature

necessityof acknowledging, that

I have
respecting colour which
already
far short of that
libertyto suggest* come

under

AM

XVIII.

respectingthe

Elucidation

65

COLOURS.

OF

NATURE

may
go
part of them.

far towards

able

to

proved

not

flatter

clear

it of

time, that

same

to

to

wished

submit

to

removing

the

your
siderable
con-

colours
philosophers ranked
among
the bodies of which
know
the
When
we
names.
only
asked, for example, why such a body was
they were
in virtue of a qualitywhich
red, they answered, it was
The

made
an

ancient

it appear

answer

have

red.
no

conveys

quite as
ignorance.
been

Descartes,who

You

must

be sensible

information, and

much

to the

first had

purpose

that such

that it would
to

confess

the

to plunge into
courage
the mysteries of nature, ascribes colours to a certain
mixture
of lightand shade, which
last,being nothing
else but

the

want

of

light,as it is always found where

be incapable of
penetrate, must

lightdoes not
producing the different colours we* observe.
that the sensations
of the organ
Having remarked
of sight are produced by the rays which
strike that
excite
organ, it necessarilyfollows that those which
in it the sensation of red must
be of quite a different
from those which
nature
of
produce the sensation
the other colours ; hence
it is easilycomprehended
*

See

Letters XXVII.,

XXVIII., and XXXI.,

F3

in vol. i.

66

ELUCIDATION

each

that
the

strike

which

to
appears
of a nature

that

is attached

colour

rays

RESPECTING

red

us

certain

qualityof
vision.
A body

the

when

excite

to

to

of
organ
the rays which

it emits

the

sensation

in

our

eyes

are

of

colour.

difference

rays which
difference
must

particularsensations
it consist

can

some

be doubted

our

But

eyes.

stronger

that those

wherein

great question, towards

between

are

an

present research

our

first difference

itself is that

in

is the

This

of which

the solution
The

in

of the

This
many

inquiry into the

variety of colours produces.
be great to produce so

then, results

whole,

The

which

rays
than

of the

is directed.

presents

others.
or

sun,

It

of any

not
can-

other

or
very
very brilliant,
be much
stronger than

powerfully illuminated,
those of a body feebly
must
with
slender
a
illuminated, or endowed
degree of
ent
light; our eyes are assuredly struck in a very differmanner
by the one and by the other.
colours
Hence
it might be inferred,that different
result from the force of the rays of light; so that the
most
produce, for example,
powerful rays should
which
less so, yellow ; and
in prored ; those
are
gression,
body

But
this

green, and blue.

there is nothing more

same

be

it less

be

strong

or

from

appears

experience

to be

illuminated,

more

to

of the

that

feeble.

or

in the

and

sun,

faint.
of the

cause

its rays

by

serves

very

It is

We

must

the

not, then,

of colour

in the

rays
look

are

tremely
ex-

for

the

different

grees
de-

faint

rays.
to

light,it being possible

as well
by very forcible
The
feeblest
glimmering

discover

to

us

difference

of

the

brightesteffulgence.
therefore, that
absolutely necessary,
as

appears
of

of rays of
colour
the same
force

equally well

colours,

red

shade, where

difference

of the
to represent

the

colour,

same

whether

or

overturn

body, for example,

equally red, exposed to the brightestlustre

the

as

know

system, as we
body always

than

easy

there

08

ANALOGY

THE

BETWEEN

LETTER

the

on
Reflections

You

will be

offered

to

XIX.

pleased

to

system

of

the

Colours

between

Analogy

recollect
the

the

emanation

and

Sounds

objections I
of light.*

completely to
I have accordinglysucceeded
natural
in my
certain
endeavours
to convince
losophe
phiembraced
of distinction,and they have
my
of singuof the subject with expressions
sentiments
lar
They

to me
appear
that system.
overturn

powerful

so

as

satisfaction.
of

Rays
the

light,then,

and

other

not

are

emanation

an

from

luminous

sist
bodies, and do not conof a subtile matter
emitted
forciblyby the sun,
well
to us with a rapiditywhich
and transmitted
may
astonishment.
fillyou
with
If the rays employed
in their course
from
the sun
to
only eight minutes
be terrible,!
would
and the mass
of
us, the torrent
sun

that

luminary, however

speedily be

vast, must

hausted.
ex-

system, the rays of the sun, of

which
have
we
a sensible
perception,do not proceed
immediately from that luminary; they are only particles
of ether floatingaround
which
the
to
sun
us,
According

to my

communicates

and

nearer

nearer

motion

of vibration,

and

consequently they do not greatly change

their place in this motion.
This propagation of light is performed m a manner
similar

hear, by
your
to be
!

See

of sound.

to that
no

ears.

assured
Letters

emits

means

You

have

bell,whose

A
the

only

XVT1.

and

XVIIf.

particleswhich

to touch

that all its parts

sound

are

in

it when
a

very

you
enter

struck
sensible

in vol. i.

t The rapidityof the progress

light,if it be objectionableon the
be equally so on
that of undulation
theory of emanation, must
; for the
velocity is a fact derived from observation,and is independent of theory,
of

"

"Am,

Ed.

COLOURS

This

agitation.

itself to the

AND

69

SOUNDS.

agitationimmediately communicates
remote
particlesof air,so that

more

all

of vibration,
successively a similar motion
which, reaching the ear, excite in it the sensation
The
ment
instruof sound.
strings of a musical
beyond all doubt ; you see them
put the matter
It is even
tremble, go and come.
possible to deterhow
often
in a second
each
termine
by calculation
cated
being communistring vibrates ; and this agitation,
to the particlesof air adjacent to the
organ
is struck by it precisely as
often
of hearing, the ear
in a second.
It is the perception of this tremulous
constitutes
the nature
of sound.
agitation which
of vibrations
The
produced by
greater the number
the
higher or sharper is
string in a second, the
the sound.
Vibrations
less frequent produce lower
from

receive

it

notes.

circumstances

find the

We

hearing,in a
of sight.
medium
only and

sensation
in that
The

of

differ.

of

with

But

than

respect

often, then,
sentiment

nothing

but

small

be

as

this
of

similar

nervous

or

less

vibrations

less.

Hence

to that which

is

at

wherever

the

the

eye, it excites
is in that case

sensation

this tremulous

according

in

second

the

as

is

must

takes

place in sounds, when

eye
must

agitationis

there

result

whereby

of the

bottom
the

of

state

motion,

that

or

dium
me-

elastic

more

put into
the

to

tremulous

frequent;
performed

that

ether,or

vision,which

fibres

which

interstices.

ether

agitated.
You
easily comprehend
different,according as

more

of

leave

tions
vibra-

transmitted.

are

is the

is transmitted

in it the

are

bodies

light,it

bodies

grosser

vibration, and

the

to

rapidity of the
the air through

subtile and
incomparably more
is universallydiffused
air,which

air and
As

the

sonorous

the

accompany

perfectlyanalogous,

manner

sound, it is

In

vibrations

the

which

number

greater

difference

or

similar
the vibra-

70

ANALOGY

THE

tions

are

clearlyperceptible
by
You

will

note

depends

of sounds
in

the

they

vibrate

1200

is

sound

but

it is

so

always

of

of difference
of

each

in

in the

determine

the

colour,
it

which

must

we

; and

to

we

must

an

notes

antecedent

of the

space.
in a condition

look

with

for the
that

number
are
a

of

struck

condition

to each

respect

particular
to sounds.

been

employed before
the numbers
ing
correspondharpsichord, though there

have

ascertain

did

distinguish

certain

do

can

be

it is certain

corresponding

research

to all the
was

as

these

constitute

to

power
the less.

colour

same

number

possibleto

was

formed
per-

sensation

is not

our

corresponds

them

Much

150,

When

vibrations, by which the fibres of our eyes

not as yet in
in a second, though we
are
to

great, still less than the

greater and
In this difference,therefore,

cause

ond,
sec-

it would

what

vibrations

the

the

between

the nature

second, the

of vision

organ
numbers

reckon

to

in

fibres of the

less.

or

times

1500

or

reckon

to

in the

of

sense

nervous

from

different

it is that the

True

ear

1000

quite

the

of

is greater
in a
times

eye

fibres vibrate
be

of vibrations

number

that the

vibrations

of

must

Thus

it.

on

133, note

200.

of

seeing may
differentlyaffected, according as the

of

bottom

doubted

be

likewise

number

is

second.

It cannot
be

vibrations

100

125, note

the

on

character

marked

note

187, and

difference

sharp depends

the

112, note

166, note

the

as

ear,

about

harpsichord performs
D

the

that

recollect

note

This

flat and

respect of

in

sounds

frequent.

less

or

more

BETWEEN

conviction

that

their

difference

Our
diversityof those numbers.
knowledge respecting these objects is nevertheless
considerably advanced, from our being assured that
the
so
there prevails a harmony
delightfulbetween
of the harpsichord and
the different
different notes
was

founded

colours

and

to elucidate

on

the

that the circumstances

those

of the

other.

of the
This

one

serve

analogy

ao*.

COLOURS

the

eordingly furnishes
of

support

solid to

more

adduce,

convincing proofs

most

I have

But

system.

my

71

SOUNDS.

AND

will

which

still

reasons

it from

secure

in

every

attack.

bthJune,

1761,

xxk

LETTER

Continuation.

NOTHING

adapted to the communication

of vision
Of knowledge
than
respecting the nature
in every particular,
the analogy discoverable, almost
between
Colours
it and the hearing.
to the eye
are
what
to the ear.
sounds
are
They differ from each
differ.
other as flat and sharp notes
know
]N"ow we
that flat and sharp in sounds
depends on the number
of vibrations
whereby the organ of hearing is struck
in a given time, and that the nature
of each is determined
marks
the vibrations
by a certain number, which
From
this I conclude
performed in a second.
that
of

is

each

more

colour

vibrations

is likewise

which

act

vision

on

that the vibrations

in gross air,whereas
transmitted
through

restricted

which

to

number

this difference,

with

produce

sound

reside

of

light and colours are

medium
a
incomparably more
subtile and elastic.
The
same
thing holds as to the
of hearing are
Those
all
objects of both senses.
of them
bodies adapted to the transmission
of sound,
that is,susceptible of a motion
of vibration,or
of a
tremulous
agitation,which, communicating itself to
the

air,excites in the organ

corresponding
Such

are

to

the

struck.
so

Thus,
on.

one

sensation

the

rapidityof

all musical

myself principallyto
each
string a certain
and

those

the

instruments
the

string

stringis

which

it

is named

named

sound

vibrations.
and

harpsichord, we

sound

of

when

to

confine

ascribe

to

produces when
C, another D,
its structure

72

ANALOGY

and

BETWEEN

tension

about

vibrations

100

less

or

in

more

of

name

that,being struck,

such

are

in

the

different

SOUNDS,

AND

COLOURS

second

and

it

if it

time, it would

same

note, higher

produces
produced
have

the

lower.

or

of a
please to recollect that the sound
ness,
stringdepends on three things its length, its thickit is
the
and
degree of tension ; the more
the sharper its sound
becomes
stretched
as
; and
the same
it emits
disposition,
long as it preserves
sound
the
that changes as soon
the same
as
; but
other undergoes any variation.
which
the objects
Let us apply this to bodies
are
The
of vision.
minuter
particleswhich
compose
will

You

"

the

of

tissue

their
in

strings distended,
with

surface

degree of
being struck, they acquire
which

theywill

and

this

on

ascribe
of

finish

number

to such

as

have

the

second

sensation

as

would

produce

would

excite

that

would

We

have
to

be

its

which

the

brations
vimany
to excite in us

vibrations
different

the

essence

green,

more

or

has not

only

to

colours

certain

rapid

then

the

of

do not

that

vibrations
much

so

colour.

been

to

that
of

not

or

less

mined
yet deter-

high
each

know

as

require a greater

know

number

which

or

low

colour

vibrations,though

is
it

that you have

of the parto change the tension
of elasticity
ticles
the surface
it
which
form
of a body, to make

change

hitherto

less

colour, and
or
blue, "c.

number

; we

It is sufficient

attached

particles
that,

tension

preciselyso

rapidityof vibration, or rather, it is

what
colours
correspond with
notes.

we

ing
yet acquired the abilityof assign-

colour

constitute
are

as

of

which

necessary
colour.
A degree of tension

yellow,

not

each

of

the

when

degree

vibration, of
in a second;

colour

are

of that

which

body

the

It is red

being agitated,they perform

in

number

certain

such

of

motion

depends

body.

its surface

as

they are endowed

elasticityand bulk, so that,

much

as

certain

considered

be

may

ascertained

; and

BODIES

OPAQUE

We

that

see

RENDERED

beautiful

the most

73

VISIBLE.

colours

in flowers

quickly change and disappear,from a failure of the

their particleslose
because
nutritive juices ; and
their vigour or their tension.
ble
This, too, is observain every other change of colour.
that
To place this in a clearer light,let us suppose
of red requires such a rapidity
the sensation
of vibration,
1000
that
are
performed in a second
; that
requires 1125, yellow 1250, green 1333, blue
orange
are
1500, and violet 1666.
Though these numbers
only supposed, this does not affect the object I have
in view.
will apply
What
I say as to these numbers
in like manner
to the reallycorresponding numbers,
if ever
they are discovered.
the particlesof its
A body, then, will be red when
surface, put in vibration,complete 1000 in a second ;
another
disposed so as to
body will be orange when
Hence
it is
complete 1 125 in a second, and so on.
obvious
that there must
be an endless varietyof intermediat
colours between
the six principalwhich
I have mentioned
it is likewise
evident,if the
; and
particlesof a body, being agitated,should perform
1400

vibrations
colour

in

second, it would

between

to number

QthJune,

have

been

mediate
interresponding
cor-

1761.

Opaque

will

You

an

and blue ; green

green
1333, and blue to 1500.

XXI.

LETTER
How

be of

find

Bodies

no

giving of

are

rendered

in
difficulty
coloured

bodies.

the

visible.

definition
The

particles

with a certain
always endowed
renders
them
degree of elasticity,which
tible
suscepof vibration,as a string is always
of a motion
susceptibleof a certain sound ; and it is the number
which
these
of vibrations
particlesare capable of
of their surface

VOL.

II."

are

74

in

making

RENDERED

BODIES

OPAQUE

which

second

VISIBLE.

determines

the

species

of colour.

particlesof

If the
sufficient

black, this colour

be

transmitted

are

our

eyes

some

very
doubts

asked, What

is the

to

come

now

which
be
may
vibration

which
the

Into

soon

as

put in motion, the

be

will

continued
I

rest,

were

is the

similar

of

of bodies

agitation,which,

no

with

state

same

bodies

rendered

which

emit

And

as

some

visible

must

may

be

bodies

visible

become

soon

luminous

other

the

same

their

excite
in

to

external

some

in the

dark

certain

that

proof
particlesare at rest.
bodies

sound;

no

in the

are

instrument

compared

as

soon

as

the

that

is

whereas
to

strings

body,

which

cause

particlesinto

appears
hands
our

state
at

the

are

sun,

them,

it

illuminates

particles to generate
the

our

they

as

rays of
fall upon

sensation

produce
eyes
of
light,then, fallingupon
rays

This

at

ever

sound.

follow, that

them

emit

which

illuminated, that is, as

of

that their

night
stringsof an

the

and

touched,

not

by

power,

for

all bodies

it is

not,

and

rays,

of

remain

not

are

external

an

words, during the

In other

The

motion

is
this,indeed, the whole
the particlesof bodies
shall
as
ether
diffused through the air

case

them

see

we

It

our

Such
emit

they

and

colours

by an internal,but
would
string distended
it not
put in motion

for, as

must

the

specting
re-

entertained.
of the

cause

motion

force.

or

be

may

that the particlesof bodies

remark, first,

put in
just as

rays

there
that which
eyes, constitutes
vision proceeds.
from which

to

call rays,

we

no

of

receive

immediately

which

appearing black.
important question,

constitutes

discovery

; for

resolved

else

from

elasticity
body must
but a deprivation

not

agitation,the

all bodies

to

have

being nothing

light,and

of

surface

of such

admit

to

the

rays,
of vision.

body, put

its

of vibration.
first

to the

because
surprising,
strongest lightno

on

posing
ex-

sensible

76

WONDERS

which

falls

noise

to which

the

OF

the

thus

will

put in vibration

shall render

the

exposed,

that
and

produce

noise
these

the

acts

on

acts

on

particles
which

rays

to

seems

sufficient

me

to

pate
dissi-

theory of colours.
my
established
the
at least, that I have
relating to

doubt

every

to the

visible.

body

elucidation

This

is

harpsichord

as
particlesof their surface
strings of the harpsichord ;

the

VOICE.

bodies, being analogous

these

on

HUMAN

THE

I flatter

myself,
true
principle of all colours, as well as explained
visible to us
how
only by the light
they become
whereby bodies are illuminated,unless such doubts
turn
other
I have
not
some
point which
upon
touched
13^

upon.

June,

1761.

XXII.

LETTER

of

Wonders

The

the Human

Voice.

explaining the theory of sounds, I considered

sounds
could differ : the
only two respects in which
one
regarded the force of sound, and I remarked
that it is greater in proportion as the vibrations
cited
exviolent.
in the air are
more
Thus, the noise
the ringing of a bell,
of a discharge of cannon,
or
has
that of a string,or of the huforce than
man
more
IN

voice.
The

difference

other
of

this, and

to which

we

say

of

refers
some

sounds

is

pendent
totally indeing
to flat and sharp, accordlow and others high.
are

it to
My remark
relativelyto this difference made
of vibrations
completed in a
depend on the number
certain given time, say a second
; so that the greater
such number
is,the "higheror sharper is the sound;
and

the

You
may

smaller
can

be

it

is,the sound

easilycomprehend

either

strong

or

faint ;

is lower
how

the

or

flatter.

same

accordingly,we

note
see

WONDERS

the

that

THE

OF

forte and

HUMAN

77

VOICE.

piano employed

by

musicians

change in no respect the nature of sounds.

Among
the good qualitiesof a harpsichord, it is required
that

all the
of

great
to

strength ;

fault when

flat and

the

some

; and

sounds

are

which

produced

at once,
order must

certain

follow

in music

we

denominated

sounds,

compound

than

referable

sharp are

equal intervals
are

of force

vibrations

whose

sounds,

have

nearly the same

it is always considered
of the strings are
wound

and

greater degree

the

should

notes

the

or

the

among

the

rest.

gree
deas

up
Now

only to the simple

regularly,and at
employ only those
Accords
simple.

concourse

vibrations

predominate, which

of several

of which
is the

ation
found-

But when
relation
no
harmony.
among
the vibrations
is perceptible,it is a confused
noise,
with which
it is impossible to say what
of
the
note
non
harpsichord is in tune, such as the report of a canof

or

There

musket.
remarkable

is stillanother

difference

among

to have
seems
simple sounds, which
escaped
the attention of philosophers. Two
sounds
be
may
with the same
of equal force, and in accord
of
note
the harpsichord, and yet very different to the ear.
The
sound
of a flute is totallydifferent from that of
the French
horn, though both may be in tune with
the same
note of the harpsichord, and equallystrong;
certain
derives
each
sound
a
peculiarityfrom the
emits
instrument
which
it,but it is impossible to
this consists ; the same
describe
wherein
stringtoo
emits
it is struck,
different sounds, according as
touched, or pinched. You can easilydistinguishthe

the

sound

of the

horn, the

most

wonderful

Creator.

Reflect

flute,and other

musical

struments
in-

to say nothing of
diversity,
in speech, is observable
the varietyof articulation
in the human
voice, that astonishing masterpiece of

The

the

vowels

which

but
the

for
mouth

G2

moment

on

the

ferent
dif-

simply pronounces

78

WONDERS

OF

HUMAN

THE

the vowel

When

is

or

sings.

the

quite different from

pronounced or sung, though

ai

sound

We

VOICE.

pronounced

is

must

then

not

look

for the

that

of

sung1,

i, o,

e,

the

on

or

or

u,

tone.

same

of this difference

reason

rapidityor order of the vibrations ; no

investigationof philosophers has hitherto unfolded
this mystery.
be perfectlysensible,that in order to
You
must
utter these different vowels, a different conformation
be given to the cavity of the mouth
must
that
; and
in man
the organization of this part is much
better
mals.
adapted to produce these effects than that of aniWe
birds
find, accordingly, that certain
in the

learn

which

capable

of

contains

only

the

imitate

to

human

voice

are

never

distinctly pronouncing the different

vowels
is at best extremely imperfect.
; the imitation
is a stop which
there
In many
bears
the
organs
voice ; it usually, however,
of the human
name
the

I have

sounds

ai

or

change

it

might

other

vocal

would

not

the

ae.

be

sounds

a,

; for

the

consonants,

however

the

vowels

We

can

are
are

and

some

likewise

this

even

combine

we

so

practice,it
explain the real

of

them

tions
modifica-

many

conformed,

so

the

singleword

the

common

to trace

how

vocal

with

; but

ou

w,

imitate

to

which
?

"',
o,

e,

sufficient

be

voice

of

no

the

express
doubt, that

possibleto produce

human

with

which

notes

is almost

that

sible
impos-

mechanism.

distinctlyobserve three organs

employed in
expressing the consonants, the lips,the tongue, and
likewise
the palate ; but the nose
concurs.
essentially
become
On stopping it,we
incapable of pronouncing
of b and d only is
the
letters m and n; the sound
A strikingproof of the marvelthen to be heard.
lous
for the pronunciation of
of our
mouth
structure
the letters undoubtedly is,that all the skill of man
has not hitherto been capable of producing a piece
We

of

mechanism

""een

that could

exactly imitated,but

imitate

without

it.

The

any

song

has

articulation

PHENOMENA

and

sounds,

of

distinction

without

79

ELECTRICITY.

OF

of the

different

vowels.
construction

The

of

sounds, with
doubt

be
to

execute

such

all

words, by

an

organ

all the

capableof

perfection that
of certain

means

harpsichord, every
justly, to hear a

or

and

ing
express-

articulations, would

no

it posimportant discovery. Were

sible
of
such
a
mechanism, and
piece

very

bring1it to

machine

it could

pronounce
like
those of
stops,
would

one

machine

be

prised,
sur-

pronounce

together, with
Preachers
graceful accompaniments.

whole

discourses

most

or

voice

orators, whose

other

the

sermons

is either

too

and

weak

or

orations
or
might play their sermons
disagreeable,
such a machine, as organists do pieces of music.
on
The
to me
impossible.*
thing does not seem
IQth

June,

1761.

XXIII.

LETTER

Summary of the principalPhenomena

subjectwhich

THE

attention

to your

it

rather

terrifies

almost

to recommend

The

me.

variety
of facts

and the enumeration

presents is immense,

serves

going

now

am

of Electricity.

to confound

than

to inform.

The

sub-

have
of such
forms, by Kratzenactually been constructed
Kempelen, as to imitate very accurately the different vowel
this first attempt
sounds
From
voice.
produced by the human
Kempelen
of speech, and
he succeeded
in constructing
proceeded to analyze the mechanism
uttered, not only words, but entire
a speaking machine, which
The
four letters D, G, K, T, however, baffled all his ingesentences.
nuity
lie
the letter P, which
and
for them
was
was
obliged to substitute
;

Pipes

stein and

so

managed

at

least,
ACOUSTICS,
as

article
a

full account
The

resemblance
to bear a considerable
to them, so much
so,
deceive the auditory. See the Edinburgh, Encyclopaedia,

as

to

ingenuity

birds, dogs, and

those
have
towns.

"

vol. i. p.
of this machine
of

other

the

126;

Swiss

animals

is

and

AUTOMATON,
given." Ed.
in

mechanicians
which

emit

sounds

vol. iii.p.

153, where

constructing artificial
so
nearly resembling

of their prototypes
to those who
as to deceive
many
ears, is known
of Geneva, Locle, Chande-lbnds
visited the workshops
and other
See

on

this subject Brewster's

Ed.

Family Library." Am.

Natural

Magic,

No.

L. Harper's

80

SUMMARY

ject I
has

is

mean

become
that

with

PRINCIPAL

THE

OF

which
time past
for some
electricity,
an
object of such importance in physics
is supposed to be acquainted
every one

its effects.

You

undoubtedly have

must

mentioned

frequentlyheard

; but I know

in conversation

have
witnessed
ever
you
any
Natural
of
modern
philosophers

of

here

And
bear

should

it is I

think

have

never

experiments.
prosecute the
almost
every day
the
description of
times

of letters ; nay,

done.

embarrassed.

am

whether

the

study of it with ardour, and are

discovering; new
phenomena,
would employ many
which
hundreds

perhapsI

not

it

I could

not

of

unacquainted
lettingyou remain
with
of
natural
branch
a
philosophy so essential ;
but I would
willinglysave
you the fatigueof wading
through a diffuse detail of the phenomena, which
to

after all would

I flatter

furnish

myself,
which

the

necessary
however, that I

will

lead

tion.
informanave

covered
dis-

directlyto the
object,that you shall attain a knowledge of it much
more
perfectthan that of most natural philosophers,
who
devote
night and day to the investigationof
these mysteries of nature.
Without
stopping to explainthe various appearances
which
and effects of electricity,
would
engage
in a long and tedious detail,without
me
extending
of
the
which
causes
produce these
your knowledge
effects,I shall pursue quite a different course, and
begin with unfolding the true principleof nature on
which
all these
are
founded, however
phenomena
various
they may appear, and from which
they are
all easilydeducible.
It is sufficient to remark, in general, that electricity
is excited by the friction
of a glass tube. It
electrical : and then it alternately
thereby becomes
and repels lightbodies which
attracts
are
applied to
it ; and on the applicationof other bodies, sparks of
in
fire are
mutually extracted, which, increased
of wine and other combustible
strength,kindle spirits
a

road

not

so

PHENOMENA

produce
of

Instead

globe
like

with

of

tube

with

spark, a puncture
be

rendered

the

which
acute

so

this motion

cushion

globe becomes
phenomena as the

axis

an

it is rubbed

applied to it ; then
produces the same

electric,and

the

round

to turn

During

with

or

through the whole body.

likewise
glass,we
employ a

is made

glass,which
turning-wheel.
hand,

tube

commotion

of

the

such

circumstances

in certain
to

as

the

feel,besides

finger,you

81

ELECTRICITY.

touching

On

substances.

may

OF

tube.

glass,resinous bodies, such as Spanish

and sulphur,likewise
the property of
wax,
possess
becoming electric by friction; but certain species
of bodies
only have this quality,of which
glass,
and
the
sealing-wax,
sulphur are
principal.
Other
bodies
undergo friction without producing
any such effect ; no sign of electricity
appears : but
when
rendered
tric,
elecon
applying them to the first,
they immediately acquire the same
property.
become
as
electric,
then,
communication,
by
They
they touch ; and frequently the approximation only
Besides

of electric bodies
All

renders

them

divisible into two

bodies, therefore,are

in the

one

included

are

those

friction,in the other

those

by communication,

whereas

of

manner

that bodies
from

of

bodies

electrical

The

author's

friction

when

the

two

; the

one

by
no

to

lead

of

tube

glasses

or
or

electric,this touch
them.

The

bodies

is

tion
distinc-

worthy

of

being disposed to become

tion
only, and not by communicathe
munication.*
contrary, only by com-

class

distinction between
remark

renders

classes

by friction
other, on

would

such

produces

apply

you

to
electricity

no

these

attention

the

friction

communicates

"

rendered

are

other
glass stronglyelectrified,

which
of

which

electric

them.

on

communication

globe

that become

classes

It is very remarkable
first class receive no
electricity

effect
of

such.

these
the

proper precaution,convertible

two

student

into each

classes

is not
The

to infer.

other."

Am.

so

absolute

classes
Ed.

as

the

are, with

82

PRINCIPLE

TRUE

All metals

belong
extends

to
so

NATURE,

OF

this

last

class, and

far, that

the

munication
com-

presenting one
body, the other

on

extremity of a wire to an electric

so
so
likewise, be the wire ever
extremity becomes
ther
long ; and on applying still another wire to the faris conveyed
extremity of the first,the electricity
thread
of that second
extent
through the whole
be transmitted
and thus electricity
to the most
may
"

distances.

remote

is

Water

substance

communication.

which

receives

Large pools

have

electricity
by

been

electrified

degree that the applicationof the finger

has elicited sparks and excited pain.
The
is,that lightning
prevailing persuasion now
to such

and

thunder

the clouds

are

on

great

the

same

scale, which

philosophers do
20th

effect

acquire,from

exhibits
the

the

whatever
the

cause.

storm
thunder-

of

electricity,
experiments of natural

in miniature.

June, 1761.

true

XXIV.

Principleof Nature
the Phenomena

THE

electricitywhich

phenomena

LETTER
The

of the

summary
phenomena of

I have

which

founded
of Electricity.
on

exhibited

electricityhas

no

of

are

the

doubt

all

principal
excited

of nature
what
occult powers
to know
are
cu-riosity
capable of producing effects so surprising.
The
ledge
greatest part of natural philosophers acknowtheir ignorance in this respect.
They appear
to be so dazzled
by the endless varietyof phenomena
which
every day present themselves, and by the sin-r
circumstances
which
gularlymarvellous
accompany
these
that
are
phenomena,
discouraged from
they
of
cause
attempting an investigationof the true
them.
They readilyadmit the existence of a subtile

84

PHENOMENA

OF

vacuum,

but

all space

matter,

and

that

dreadful

agitation.
I think

But

lightare

no

It is much
subtile

in

transmitted

by

by

that

properties. We
properties of air,which
and

is its

has
that

power
it does

removed.

of
or

And

the

as

and

most

bodies.

thing
light are noagitationof a

of

sound

similar
is produced

air, light is produced

ether, which

of rays of light: and

condition
to extend
our

cause

subtile

matter, incomparably

space between
then, is a medium

and

sonorous

consists

air.

the

immense

constant

that rays
motion

sound

as

in the

subtile,denominated
Ether,

of

is from

tremulous

matter, just

transmitted

the

sound
certain

agitation excited
and

filled with

clearlyproved that rays of

emanations
nous
projected from lumi-

than

but

and

state

be

I have

more

else

would

in

more

bodies

ELECTRICITY.

more

consequently

heavenly
for the

proper
this same

fills

bodies.
sion
transmis-

quality puts us
nature
knowledge of "its
have
only to reflect on the
render
it adapted to the reception
of

transmission

sound.

The

You

know

rest

but

principal

that air
or
spring.
elasticity
of expanding itself in all directions,and
are
expand the instant that obstacles
The

air is

never

at

when

its

the same
is everywhere
it is
elasticity
; whenever
the
air immediately
greater in one
place than another
ment
expands. We likewise discover
by experiis
air
the
the
the
that
more
more
compressed,
the force of air-guns,
its elasticity
increases
: hence
in which
the air,being very
strongly compressed, is
locity.
capable of discharging the ball with astonishingveThe
the air is
contrary takes place when
less in proportion
becomes
rarefied : its elasticity
it is more
as
rarefied,or diffused over a larger spac^.
On
the elasticityof the air, then, relative
to its
density, depends the velocity of sound, which makes
of 1 142 feet in a second.
If the elasticity
a progress
of the air were
increased, its density remaining the
the velocityof sound
would
increase ; and the
same,

NATURE

DIFFERENT

same

thing would

take

place

less dense

than

it

or

rare

general,the

In

same.

the

rapidlywill

more

And

transmitted.

times

thousand

as

more

clearly follow that

agitations constitute
thousand

times

if the

Such

the

are

ether, that

more

similar

many
at the

or

thousand
air

dense,

time, many
subtile,both of

lead

air,in

the propagation

as

conclude

to

us

elastic and

more

its nature

times

same

accelerate

times

whose

thousand

more

which

that of

to

medium

light,is

reasons

is many
subtile than

lar
simi-

agitationsexcited in it be
so
light is transmitted
many
rapidly than sound, it must

rare

that ether

more

the

the

more

were

that any medium,

time less
at the same

contributingto
qualities
of light.

these

air

is, its elasticity

being the

air,and,

elastic than

more

85

BODIES.

mere

air,is elastic,and

to

OF

being

in other

much

as

spects
re-

it is likewise

fluid matter, and susceptible of compression

It is this quality which
of rarefaction.
will
a

and

conduct
of

explanationof

to the

us

all the

phenomena

electricity.
23d

June,

1761.

LETTER

DifferentNature of Bodies
to Electricity.

Continuation.

ETHER

being

but

subtile

thousand
many
be
elastic,it cannot

the

force with

XXV.

which

and

matter

times

more

it tends

to

similar

rare

at rest, unless

relatively

and

to

air,

more

its

or
elasticity,
expand, be the same

everywhere.
As

soon

as

elastic than

the

ether

in

one

in

place shall

be

more

when
another, which is the case
more
compressed there, it will expand itself into
parts adjacent,compressing what it finds there
the whole
VOL.

is reduced

II."

to the

same

it is
the
till

degree of elasticity.

86

DIFFERENT

It is then

in

NATURE

OF

BODIES

the equilibrium being nothing

equilibrio,

else but the state

a

of rest,when
the powers
to disturb it counterbalance

tendency

therefore, the ether

When,

is not

which
each

have
other.

in

equilibriothe
its equisame
thing must take place as in air, when
librium
it
is disturbed
itself
must
from
the
expand
;
its elasticityis greater towards
that
place where
where

it is less

but, consideringits greater elasticity

motion

subtilty,this

and
than

that

air.

of

The

be

must

much

of

want

rapid

more

equilibrium

in the

air

of that fluid from

produces wind, or the motion
There
therefore
be promust
one
place to another.
duced
of
but
wind,
a
species
incomparably more
subtile than that of air, when
the equilibrium of the
this last fluid will pass
ether is disturbed, by which
from
it was
more
places where
compressed and
elastic to those

more

where

it

was

less

being laid down, I with confidence

of electricity
are
a
phenomena

This
all the

so.

affirm that
natural

sequence
con-

of

equilibriumin the ether, so that

ether is disturbed
wherever
the equilibriumof the
take place ; conmust
the phenomena
of electricity
sequently,
electricityis nothing else but a derangement
of the equilibriumof the ether.
In order to unfold all the effects of electricity,
we
of want

attend

must

and

enveloped

Ether,

in these

small

and

of other

to

all the

lower

smallest

air,and

recollect

even

much

which

less

is blended

surround
found

than

that the

us.

only

the

ether, from

elasticity,should

in

air
can

its extreme

insinuate

itself into

which
of bodies
are
impervious
pores
into those of the air itself.
You
will

that

all

bodies, however

are

more

which

regions, is to be

full of pores
contestably demonstrate
appear,

bodies

ether

particlesof the
leave unoccupied.
Nothing

bodies

subtilityand
the

with

natural

more

in which

manner

interstices

the
be

to the

space

ponderous

than

and

solid

they may
experiments in-

many
that these interstices

the

body is,the

solid
more

parts

it must

occupy
the
finally,
be filled

RELATIVELY

with

these

smallest

the

through

in very
vicinity of the earth.
found

be

however

ether

the

though

that

clear, therefore,

contain

which

pores,

87

ELECTRICITY.

TO

ether

only.
he

pores

of

great

abundance

thus

It is
fused
dif-

bodies, it must
in the

easilycomprehend that the difference of

be very great,both as to magnitude
these pores must
of the
and
figure,according to the different nature
bodies, as their diversity probably depends on the
There
must
be, therefore,
diversity of their pores.
have
less
close, and which
undoubtedly, pores more
will

You

communication

with

others

that the ether

; so

which

more
confined, and cannot
they contain is likewise
though its
disengage itself but with great difficulty,
be much
greater than that of the
elasticity may
is lodged in the adjoining pores.
There
ether which

the

abundantly open,
with
the adjacent pores ;
and of easy communication
that the ether
it is evident
in this case
lodged in
with
less difficulty
them
can
disengage itself than
less elastic in
in the preceding ; and if it is more
or

must

be,

these

on

in

than

contrary, pores

the

others, it will

soon

recover

its

equilibrium.
In order

shall

open.

to

distinguishthese

denominate
Most

bodies

the
must

species,which
by the terms
less open.
This
being laid
bodies

had

first

or

more

down,

dose, and

contain
it will

classes

two

of pores,
the others

of an
mediate
interpores
be sufficient to distinguish

less

close,and

more

remark, first,that

or

if all

perfectlyclose, it would be impossible

of the air contained
to change the elasticity
in
them
of these
even
though the ether in some
; and
should
have
acquired, from whatever
a
cause,
pores
than the others, it would
higher degree of elasticity
in that state, and
its
never
recover
always remain
of communication.
equilibrium,from a total want
In this case
no
change could take place in bodies ;
all would

pores

remain

in the

same

state

as

if the

ether

88

NATURE

DIFFERENT

in

and
equilibrio,
be produced.

were

could
This

all bodies
ether

be

the

be

might

or

more

electricity

if the

case

; for

perfectlyopen

were

of

phenomenon

no

likewise

would

BODIES

OF

of

pores

then, though the

less elastic in

some

pores
in others, the equilibrium would
be instantly
of communication
restored, from the entire freedom

than
"and

that

condition

so

to

remark

equilibrium of
often
be

the

it would

reason

same

that

rapidly

the

ether

should

we

contained

would
The

be

discoverable.

of

all bodies

in

the
the

in such

pores ; as
disturbed, it would

equilibriummight be
instantaneouslyrestored, and

as

be

slightestchange. For
be impossible to disturb

the

as

not

sign of

no

tricity
elec-

neither

perfectly
nor
always
possible
perfectlyopen,
the equilibrium of the ether which
to disturb
they
this happens, from
and
when
whatever
contain
:
fail to
the
re-establish
equilibrium cannot
cause,
will require some
itself;but this re-establishment
and
time, and this produces certain phenomena;
will presently see, much
to your
satisfaction,
you
which
electrical
that they are
precisely the same
It will then appear
experiments have discovered.
which
I am
that the principleson
going to establish
the theory of electricity
are
extremely simple, and
time
at the same
absolutelyincontrovertible.
pores

close

it will

27th

June,

On
I have

HOPE

difficulties
of

theory
the idea

which

be

1761.

XXVI.

LETTER

being

the

same

now

which

electricity.

of ether

is, that

which

Subject.

surmounted

present
You

been

subtile

most

themselves

have

I have

extremely

the

dable
formiin

the

only to preserve
explaining ; and

and

elastic matter

TO

RELATIVELY

89

ELECTRICITY.

diffused,not only through all the void

universe, but through the minutest
it is sometimes

in which

bodies

engaged, according

less

consideration

This

close.

close, and

more

pores

to two

us

the
more

less

or

cipal
prin-

has

one

pores

open.
the ether

that

tained
con-

in the pores of bodies has not throughout the

and that it is more
less
or
degree of elasticity,

same

in

compressed
effort

to

from

its

that

in

than

some

recover

this

their

the

others, it will make

and

equilibrium;

phenomena

the

in which

pores

various, and grant it

less free with

This

it is

will

be varied

the ether

is

communication

an

precisely
electricitytake

of

rise,which, of consequence,

proportion as
are

other

which

happen, therefore,

it

Should

the

more

are

conducts

of

species of bodies,

of all
pores
and sometimes

more

they

as

of the

spaces

in

lodged

more

or

the others.
in the

difference

of bodies

perfectly
first phenomena
of
corresponds to
in them, by which
to remark
have made
us
electricity
electrical by communication, or
some
easily become
others
the proximity of an electrical body, whereas
mediately
scarcelyundergo any change. Hence
you will imreceive electricity
infer that bodies which
alone
those whose
are
so
easilyby communication
pores
almost

pores
that which
the

are

open ;
insensible

and

that

the

others, which
have

must
electricity,

to

are

theirs

close, either entirelyor to a very great degree.

of electricity
selves
themIt is,then, by the phenomena
that
the bodies
which

we

whose

permit

First, the

enabled

are

pores
me

close

are

to

to

suggest

air which

conclude
or

the

breathe

we

what

are

Respecting
cidations.
following elu-

open.

has

its pores
which
it

entirelyclose ; so that the ether

contains
cannot
disengage itself but with difficulty,
find equal difficulty
in attempting to peneand must
trate
it.
diffused
into
Thus, though the ether
through the air is not in equilibriowith that which
almost

90

DIFFERENT

NATURE

is contained

in other

compressed,

the

is not

to

this is to
of

bodies

without

be

understood

of

we

close

it is

re-establishment

produced

Further,

BODIES

where

be

different

OF

nature,

as

of its

or

equilibrium

difficulty;
dry air,humidity being
shall presently remark.
of bodies

their

close
that it is with
so
pores
very
the ether can
either escape
from
difficulty
into them.

open,

totallydifferent

is

enter

this
be

must

from

trate
pene-

of

those

bodies, such
an
earths, occupy

as

of air.

For

this

it

totallychanges
electricity,and the ether

without
escape
with
class of bodies
referred

that

humid

or

Other
and

or

class, that of bodies whose

are
pores
and other liquors,whose
contains, first,water

air becomes
when
reason,
its nature
with
respect to
To

extreme

other

nature

can

with

glass,pitch,resinous bodies,sealing-wax,
silk. These
substances
have
particularly

pores,
sulphur,and

The

less

extreme

in this class

rank

must

more

almost
open

animals,

difficulty.

likewise
pores
and all metals.

wood, several

intermediate

any

sorts

state

of stones

between

the

I have just mentioned

principalspecies which
;
is capable of entering or
and
the ether
escaping
with
less facility,
or
more
according to the nature
of each species.
two

After

these

of bodies
you
the

with
will

phenomena
as

from

so

elucidations

respect
see

of

with

on

to the

much

the
ether

different
which

satisfaction

which
electricity,
prodigies,flow
many

have
very

nature

they
how
been

tain,
con-

all
sidered
con-

naturally

them.

fused
depends, then, on the state of the ether difor
dispersed through the pores of all bodies,
in as
far as
it has not throughout the same
degree
less compressed
of elasticity,
it is more
in
or
as
or
than in others : for the ether not being then in
some
effort to recover
it. It will
an
equilibriowill make
endeavour
to disengage itself as far as the openness
it is too
of the pores will permit from places where
All

92

OF

POSITIVE

AND

with
detail,which will furnish me
subject for some
following Letters.
30th June, 1761.

LETTER

agreeable

very

XXVII.

Of Positive and Negative Electricity.Explanation of

the Phenomenon
You

will

easily comprehend,
advanced, that a body must

above

whenever
more

the
less

or

adjacent
quantity

body, or
forced

the

cases

what

takes

place

when

In the former
and

is external

consequently
longer

no

and

and
in

in

lodged
a

greater
of such

it contained

the

case,

rarer,

becomes

into the pores

part of the ether which

it is

I have

electrical

become

in its pores
that which
is

is introduced

other, it becomes

which

ether

loses

becomes
elastic

more

is
in

its

elasticity.
with
that
equilibrio

the efforts which

it makes

to

equilibrium produce all the phenomena

electricity.
You
become
electric
see, then, that a body may
different ways,
two
tained
according as the ether con-

recover

in

when

than

This

of ether

from

contained

elastic

bodies.

out.

In both

of

ether

compressed,

more

of Attraction.

that

its

in its pores becomes

less elastic than
more
or
is external ; hence
result two
which
species of

:
electricity

the one,

by

which

the

ether

is rendered

compressed, is denominated
increased
or
other, in which
positiveelectricity
; me
inated
the ether is less elastic,or more
rarefied,is denomdiminished
or
nomena
negativeelectricity.The pheof both are
differa slight
nearly the same;
I shall mention.
once
only is observable, which
Bodies
ticity
not
the elasare
as
naturally electrical
it in
of the ether has a tendency to maintain
it must
always requirea violent operation
equilibrio,
this equilibrium,and
to render
bodies
to disturb
more

elastic,or

more

"

93

ELECTRICITY.

NEGATIVE

act on
bodies
operations must
once
with close pores, that the equilibrium,
deranged,
We
not be instantlyrestored.
accordinglyfind
may
that glass, amber, sealing-wax, or
sulphur are the
bodies
employed to excite electricity.
time past,
easiest
The
operation and for some
ing-wax
the most
universallyknown, is to rub a stick of sealwith a piece of woollen
cloth, in order to
of attracting
the power
communicate
to that wax
ber,
Amsmall slipsof paper and of other lightbodies.
of friction,produces the same
nomena;
pheby means
to this body the
and
the ancients
as
gave
excited
tained,
of electrum, the power
name
by friction obof electricitynatural
the name
and preserves,
philosophersof the remotest
ages having remarked
that this substance
acquired by friction the faculty
of attractinglightbodies.
the derangeThis effect undoubtedly arises from
ment
of
of the equilibrium of the ether by means
I must
friction.
begin, therefore, with explaining
this well-known
Amber
and sealingexperiment.
have their pores
wax
abundantly close,and those of
wool
are
abundantly open ; during the friction,the

such

electrical ; and

"

of both

pores

and
reduced
as

to

the

one

the ether
a

the pores

the

of

it must

the

from

wool

the amber

of

those

that

into the

into the

elasticity.According
pression
susceptibleof a com-

are

less than

happen

the wool

selves,
themcompress
in them
is contained
is

which

higher degree

greater or
pass
from

the other

and

or

portion of ether

amber,

wool.

of amber

or,

In the

ing-wax,
sealshall

reciprocally,
former

case,

positivelyelectric,and in the
other
being close, it will
negatively and its pores
remain
in this state for some
the
time; whereas
wool, though it has undergone a similar change, will
amber

becomes
"

its natural state.

presentlyrecover
the experiments which
electric sealing-wax
From
that its electricity
is negative,
furnishes,we conclude
and
that a part of its ether has
passed during the

94

POSITIVE

OF

into

friction

the

AXD

Hence

wool.

perceive

you

how

sealing-wax is,by friction on woollen cloth,

deprived of part of the ether which it contained,
Let us now
and
must
electric.
see
thereby become
what
effects must
result, from
this, and how far they
and experience.
correspond with observation
Let A B, Fig. 39, be a stick of sealing-wax,
from which, by friction,part of the
Fig. 39.
stick

of

ether

in

contained

forced

out

its pores
has
which
remains,

that

less

will therefore

compressed,
force to expand itself,
or,

will

have

less

air
closer

than

the

will

take

not

interval
Let
whose

pores
the stick

contained

itself than
shut

up

force

air

sealing-wax,
least
a

to

this

able
consider-

of time.
and

are

of

light body C,
presented
open, be now
sealing-wax, the ether
very

them, findinga free

force

more

to it

opposed

in the

stick
for

passage
distance
is not

the

in the

equilibrium: at
place till after

it has
is

the

into

in

because

tained
con-

bient
circumam-

contained

ether

small

words,

that

in the

the pores of air are

still
of sealing-wax, this
those

passing

restore

to

bodies

less

as

the

prevents
from

but

in other

being

have

elasticitythan

in other

been

by

age,
pass-

expand

to

the

ether

at c, will

itself
too

suddenly escape, will

through the air,provided

great, and

will enter

into

the

This

sealing-wax.

however, will not be

passage,
effected without
considerable
the
very
difficulty,
as
of
the
have
sealing-wax
pores
only a very small
and
aperture,
consequently it will not be accompanied
with a vehemence
of
capable
putting the ether
in

motion

faint

of

agitation,to

glimmering only

excite

will

be

sensible

perceptible
is sufficiently
dark, if the electricity
strong.

light.
in the

NEGATIVE

another

But

is

less

no

towards

explain
that

pressed
but

on

as

by

present

state

small

will be

impelling

by

body

air which

the

the ether

this

on

it.

To

side

surrounds

than

powerful
the

it towards

it ;

makes

its escape
direction
C c, it is

violently
other,
any

so

press
on

as

communicated

pressure

more

by

spring

this, you have only to consider

body C, in its natural state, is equally

all sides

that the

and

which

will

if attracted

through the air in the

passes
evident
that this last fluid will not
the

body

and

on

observable

of

cause

in its

as

small

"

small

the

will be

phenomenon

surprising the
the sealing-wax

the

95

ELECTRICITY.

to

in any

it towards

other

sealing-wax

as

direction,
if attracted

it.
Thus

explained, in

ligible,
perfectlyintelobservable
in the phenomena
the attractions
of electricity. In this experiment, the electricity
is
feeble
too
to produce more
I
surprising effects.
of presenting you with a more
shall have
the honour
ample detail in the following Letters.
Uh July, 1761.
are

SUCH

the

were

phenomena
carried

with

but

the

cloth, and

not

naked

to

Subject.

same

faint

was

similar
of

the

farther.

much,

employed,
made,

it

manner

XXVIII.

LETTER

On

beginnings of the electrical

till lately that they were
At first a tube of glass was

that

of

which

larger diameter,
hand, or with

electrical

phenomena

barometers

which
a

more

rubbed

was

piece

are

of

woollen

strikingwere

observed.
will

You
tube

of

readily comprehend, that

glass,part of the ether must

on

pass,

rubbing

in virtue

96

OF

POSITIVE

AND

of the

compression of the pores of the glass,and of

the rubbing body, either from
into the glass,
the hand
from
the glass into the hand, according as
the
or
of the other are
or
more
susceptible
pores of the one
of compression
in the friction.
The
ether, after
this operation, easily recovers
its equilibrium in the
hand,

because

its pores

glass being abundantly

its state

in

it, whether

those
of the
; but
open
close, this fluid will preserve
the glass is surcharged or
are

consequently will be electric, and

will produce phenomena
similar to those of sealingbut undoubtedly much
city
wax,
stronger, as its electriis carried
from
the
to a higher degree, as well
of the tube as from the very nature
greater diameter
of glass.
to conclude
that the
Experiments give us reason
tube of glass becomes,
by these means,
surcharged
with
of it ;
ether, whereas
sealing-wax is exhausted
the phenomena
however
are
nearly the same.
be observed
It must
that the glass tube retains its
only with air,
electricityas long as it is surrounded
of the glass and those
of the air
because
the pores
communication
too close to allow
are
a
sufficiently
the glass of what
free to the ether, and to exhaust
state ; superfluityof
it has more
than
in its natural
ether always increasing elasticity. But the air must
in that state are
its pores
be very dry, for only when
loaded
it is humid
with
or
sufficientlyclose ; when
gree
deexperiments do not succeed, whatever
vapours,
the glass. The
of friction you bestow
on
reason
renders
the air humid,
is obvious
; for water, which
instant
having its pores very open, receives
every
which
in the glass,and
the superfluous ether
was
exhausted,

which

of

and

course

remains

in

its natural

succeed, then, in only very

now
case

dry

phenomena a glass tube

produce, after having undergone
see

friction.

what

periments
Ex-

state.

air

will

let

us

in that

considerable

97

ELECTRICITY.

NEGATIVE

presentingto it a small
Fig. 40, with open pores,

It is clear that

on

light body C.
such as gold leaf,the

tube,
parts, D, E,

in the

ether

elastic at the nearest

more

will not

Fig. 40.

charge
ineffectual efforts to dis-

make

pass into the pores of

It will force a path through

itself and
the

body C.
the air,provided the distance
great ; and you will even
between

the

by

tube

be not too
see

the

and

body,

agitation excited

the

light

sioned
occa-

in the

ether, which

from
difficulty

the

When,

passes with
into the body.

tube

instead

body C, the fingeris applied to

by
it,you feel a pricking,occasioned
of the ether ; and if
the rapid entrance
of

the

you

expose

you
excited
air,

tance,
disyour face to it at some
feel a certain agitation
in the

by

circumstances

the transition

of

the

J3

ether.

These

likewise

accompanied sometimes
with a slightcrackling,produced undoubtedly by the
agitationof the air,which the ether traverses with
such

are

rapidity.

keep in mind, that an agitation

in the air always produces a sound, and that
the
the motion
of ether produces light; and then
dantly
abunexplanation of these phenomena will become
I must

entreat

easy.
the small

Let

you

to

light body

be

replaced in the
long as the ether is

vicinityof our electric tube ; as

escaping from the tube,to enter into the pores of the
body C, the air will be in part expelled from it,and
consequently will not press so stronglyon the body
side

that

on

as

in

other

every

direction

it will

happen, then, as in the preceding case, that the body

C will be impelled towards
the tube, and being light,
will

close

come

apparent
ether
VOL.

up
attraction

in the
II." I

tube

to it.

We

equally takes

be

too

much

see,

then, that this

the
place,whether
too little elastic,
or

98

ON

whether

or

the

stops the

ATMOSPHERE.

of
elasticity
both

In

negative.

ELECTRIC

THE

air, and

the

be

tube

positiveor

the

of the ether
passage
its pressure
hinders
it from

cases,

by

acting.
But

the

while

tube, the passage

the

body

ether

will

the

as

and

body

of the

ether

be

soon

tube

from

body

the

is

approaching the
becomes
stronger,and
much
surcharged with

as

itself.

arises

ether, which
ceases,

small

Then
its

the

action

of

the

elasticityonly, entirely

will sustain

on

all sides

an

The
attraction
will cease,
and
the
equal pressure.
from the tube, as nothing detains
body C will remove
it,and its own
Now, as
gravity puts it in motion.
its pores
it removes,
as
soon
being open, its superfluous
in the air, and
ether
it
presently escapes
The
state.
to its natural
returns
body will then act
it again approach
at the beginning, and you will see
as
the tube, so that it will appear
alternatelyattracted
and repelledby it ; and this play will go on till the
has
lost its electricity.For
tube
as, on
every
of
its
it
some
portion
attraction, discharges
fluous
super-

ether, besides the insensible

be
it in the air,the tube will soon
its natural
much

the
C

body
will

state, and

in its

speedily as

more

light;

then

all the

equilibrium;
the

tube

is

phenomena

and

this

so

small, and the

of

electricity

cease.

1th

July, 1761.

LETTER
On

of part of
escape
re-established
in

the Electric

XXIX.

Atmosphere.

most
a
bring forward
tric
essential circumstance, which
accompanies all elecor
such, and
bodies, whether
positively
negatively
which
supplies some
very striking elucidations for
explainingthe phenomena of electricity.
HAD

almost

forgotten

to

100

ON

and

THE

thence

distance
round

ELECTRIC

into

particlesmore

this will form

the

ATMOSPHERE.

another

tube, in which
and

compressed,

to

remote,
electric

the

ether

consequently

certain

atmosphere

will

be

more

elastic

more

than

elsewhere.
It is evident
such
of

bodies

them,

the

electric
this
are

portion of

ether

from

electric

body,

from

This

bodies
much

so

passes

the

air.

the

there

issues

case,

into

graduallydiminish

must

small

air into

which

atmosphere

in the firstcase

as
a

other

that this

and

the electric
is likewise

at

length

the

sooner,

lose
as

electricity
almost

tinually
con-

the surrounding

which,

body
the

their

surrounds

in

and

the

passes

why

reason

electricity
; and

the

pores
air,whose

of

the

air

In a humid
are
open.
pores
all electricity
is almost
guished
instantlyextinopen,
in very dry air it continues
erable
consida
; but

more

very

time.
This

electric

sensible

atmosphere

becomes
face

abundantly

electrified
an
applying your
body ; you have a feeling similar to the application
of a spider's
web, occasioned
by the gentle transition
of the ether from
the face into the electric body, or
from this last into the face, according
reciprocally,
it is negative or positive,to use
the common
as
expression.
electric
likewise
The
more
atmosphere serves
attraction
and
clearly to explain that alternate
to
electric
placed near
repulsion of light bodies
in the preceding Letter ;
bodies which
I mentioned
have remarked, that the explanain which
tion
you must
of repulsionthere given is incomplete ; but the
electric atmosphere will supply the defect.
Let A B, Pig. 93, represent

of

on

an

electric

glass surcharged

ether, and let C be

lightbody, with

to

tube
with
small

ficiently
pores sufin its natural

open,
Let the atmostate.

1,,
!i

,,,,!^'

iiii^oi

ON

extend

sphere
the

ELECTRIC

THE

far

as

vicinityof

the

as

101

ATMOSPHERE.

distance

contains

already

E.

ether

an

elastic, this will discharge itself into

the
tube
and

C ; there

body
a

will

it is the

will

atmosphere

the

from

pass

C would

but

while

the

ether

is

equally

in

all

towards

proportion
and

more

electric

as

too

way

directions;
D, as if attracted

the

the

tube

the

tube

will

ether, and

therefore
it.

by

ished,
dimin-

pressed
be

pelled
imin

Now,

consequently the
longer act upon it.

no

to

E.

tendency to escape,
The
atmosphere in

of

the

ether

continues

this passage,
the
will be smaller

pressure
that
on

arrived

now

more

will facilitate this passage,

will in effect flow from the

and

be

C,

the

itself,and

corpuscle,being

much
a

to

tube

approaches, it will be likewise more

surcharged with ether, and will become

as

will have

the

will be

longer

air

it

as

of
electricity
But.

it will

C,

tube, the

vicinityof
passing from D

of the air between

C and
pressure
and the corpuscle C will no

into

in the

feel the

not

more

facilitates

chieflywhich

For if the ether contained

this passage.
had
that in the
communication
with
no

corpuscle

as

pores of
from
the

issue

immediately

ether, which

new

Now,

than

in order
which

to diminish
and

the

atD,

tains
con-

air at

E, it

make

its

to

the

compression
from D to E

the

superfluous ether
E.
corpuscle towards
By
of the air on the corpuscle
side than everywhere else,

corpuscle will be carried

towards
D, as if the tube repelledit. But as soon
it arrives at E, it discharges the superfluous ether,
as
its natural state ; it will then be again
and recovers
attracted
towards
the tube, and having reached
it,
will be again repelled,for the reason
which
I have
just been explaining.
It is the electric atmosphere
then
chieflywhich
we
see
produces these singular phenomena, when
electrified bodies alternately
and repel small
attract
lightbodies, such as littleslipsof paper, or particles
consequently

the

12

102

COMMUNICATION

of

metal, with

as

the
You

OF

which

substances

this

have

will see, moreover,

ELECTRICITY

experiment

best

very open
pores.
that what
I have

succeeds,
just now

said

must
respectingpositive
electricity
equallytake
transition
of the ether is
place in negative. The
only reversed, by which the natural pressure of the
air must
always be diminished.
llth July, 1761.

XXX.

LETTER

of Electricityto a Bar
means
of a Globe of Glass.

Communication

of Iron, ly

experiments made with glass tubes, we

have proceeded to carry electricityto a higher degree
of a tube, a globe or
of strength. Instead
is
ball of glass has been
round
employed, which
with
made
to turn
great velocityround an axis, and
of some
on
applying the hand to it,or a cushion
with open
matter
pores, a friction is produced which
renders
the globe completely electric.
Fig. 94 represents this globe,
Fig. 94.
the

AFTER

which
an

axis A

to

B, by

turns

cushion

move

round
lar
simi-

mechanism

that

The

round.

being, in
in it is

into the pores

accumulate,

of

pores

this

than

more

are

to

employed by turners.
is the cushion
strongly applied
it rubs as it
the globe, on which
to

be made

may

pressed
friction,com-

those

of the

expelled,and
of the

because

the

glass,the

forced

glass, where

ether

to insinuate

they

tained
con-

itself

continue

to

the

open
pores of the cushion
continually supplying it with more
ether, which

it is extracting,at least in part, from

surrounding
bodies ; and thus the globe may be surcharged with
ether

to

much

higher degree

than

glass

tubes.

TO

effects

The
much
with

of

BAR

OF

103

IRON.

electricityare

accordingly rendered

nature
considerable, but of the same
which
I have
tracting
described, alternatelyat-

more

those
and

which
much

repellinglight bodies ; and

on
see
touching the electric
lively.

we

more

naturalists

But

discovery

the

of

globe

phenomena
the

its axis A

round

the electrical

employed

Having constructed

B,

much

machine
a

bar

sparks
globe are

satisfied with

rested

not

but have

experiments,
in

have

the

of

such

globe

more

prising.
sur-

for
iron

turning the
F G, Fig. 95,

Fig. 95.

suspended above, or on one side of the globe,and

of iron or other
towards
the globe is directed
a chain
E D, terminating at D, in metallic
metal
filaments,
touch the globe. It is sufficient that this chain
which
is

be

attached
or

round,

to the

but

and

touch

in

of

bar
it.

turning

iron

When

made

ever,
whatany manner
the
globe is turned

in

to rub

on

the

cushion

at

104

COMMUNICATION

OF

ELECTRICITY

C, in order that the glass may become

with
will consequently be
ether, which
it will

surcharged

elastic,
into the filaments
D,

thence

more

easilypass from
for,being of metal, their pores are very open ; and
from
thence, again, it will discharge itself by the
chain D E, into the bar of iron F G.
Thus, by means
of the globe, the ether
extracted
from
the cushion
C will successively accumulate
in the bar of iron
F G, which
becomes
tric
eleclikewise,of consequence,
in proportion as
; and its electricityincreases
continue
to turn the globe.
you
If this bar had
bodies

whose
its

further

communication

the
electricity;

ether

cushion

would

had

intercommunication,

an

be

would

pression

supported
whose

be

more

its

fatal
prove
the bar must
electricity,

or

pores

suspended by
are

very

close

thereby

props
; such

the

which

greatest

perceptible.

would

charge
dis-

soon

all the bodies

and

other

from

extracted

dispersedover

not

this, which
of

with

open, it would
pores too are
them
its superfluous ether, and

into
lose

com-

To

vent
pre-

to

all the

of

necessitybe

of

nomena
phe-

substance

glass,pitch,

as

sulphur,sealing-wax,and silk. It would be proper,

then, to support the bar on props of glass or pitch,
of silk.
The
bar is thus
to suspend it by cords
or
of its accumulated
secured
against the transmission
all sides only by bodies
on
ether, as it is surrounded
with close pores, which
permit hardly any admission
to the

ether

in the bar.

The

bar

is then

said to

be

insulated,that is,deprived of all contact which could

and
communicate,
thereby diminish, its electricity.
You must be sensible,however, that it is not possible
absolutelyto prevent all waste ; for this reason, the
of
electricity

such

continually diminish,
if it were
of the globe.
not kept up by the motion
In this manner
electricitymay be communicated
could
be done by the
to a bar of iron, which
never
violent and persevering friction,because
of the
most
openness

bar

of its pores.

must

And,

for

the

same

reason,

TO

BAR

by communication
duces
promuch
more
surprising1. On prephenomena
senting
of
the
to it a finger,or any other
part
body,
brilliant
from
dart
it,which,
a
see
spark
you
very
times
entering into the body, excites a pungent and someI recollect
having once
painful sensation.
with
peruke
presented to it my head, covered
my
and hat, and the stroke
penetrated it so acutely that
I felt the pain next
day.*
These
sparks,which escape from every part of the
bar on presenting to it a body with
set
open
pores,
fire at once
on
spirit of wine, and kill small birds
whose
On
heads
are
exposed to them.
plunging
such

bar rendered

105

IRON.

OF

the

end

of

the

electric

chain

into

basin

filled with

close
supported by bodies with
pores,
such
becomes
water
as
glass,pitch,silk,the whole
electric ; and some
that they have
authors
us
assure

water, and

considerable

seen

that

lakes

applying

on

very pungent
it appears
to

even

But

very long time

ether into a mass

every
The

sparks
me

that

in this manner,
might have

you
emitted
the

from

globe

of water

so

the

enormous

of

bed

turned

it would

the

it, should

seen

portion

so

water.

be

must

such

to convey

that the
necessary
with
thing in contact

close.

pores

hand

the

indeed,

likewise

electrified

of
be

lake, and
have

their

f
of

body are, the

more
a
higher degree of
You
and to produce prodigious effects.
electricity,
admit
that all this is perfectly conformable
must
to
the principleswhich
I at first established.
Uth
July, 1761.
*

open, then, the pores

disposed it is to receive
more

In

the

early period
and

so

were

highly wrought

that

new

would

he

not

of the

science, the
(hat

were

surprising
by them.
upon

take

second

the

results

imaginations

Musehenbroeck

shock

for the

kingdom

of
of

electric
many

action,
persons

asserted, it is said,
of France.

"

Am.

Ed.

t Such
Am.

an

effect
Ed.

as

the author

alludes

to is not

in the least

degree probable."

106

ELECTRIZATION

OF

LETTER
Electrization

bar

body; for
property in common
their
the

subject
with

contact

all these

or

chair

substances

prevent the escape

of the

man

likewise

from
which

be

bodies

of

becomes

the

whose

glass to

forms

conveyed
animals

metals

bodies

other

this purpose,
pitch, or seated

columns,

Animals.

chain

with

open.
For
of

and

and

that

into the

have

this
that

water,

very open ; but the man

of the
experiment must

are

pores

of

the

hunaan

Men

be communicated

it may

communication,

be

of

electricity
may
of iron, by means

As

XXXI.

who
not
are

pores

is to
in

be

likewise

is

placed on a large lump

chair
a
on
supported by glass
suspended by cords of silk,as
man

have

close to
pores sufficiently
of the ether with which
the body

surcharged by electricity.

for were
precaution is absolutelynecessary,
the man
placed on the ground, the pores of which
the ether was
as
veyed
conare
abundantly open, as soon
into his body to a higher degree of compression,
it would
itself
into the
immediately discharge
be in a condition
must
to surcharge it
earth ; and we
could
become
entirely with ether before the man
This

electric.

by

which

Now

you

the

globe

supply such
that

were

itself,you
take

the

away
other.

be sensible

must

as

glass is rubbed could not possibly

of
prodigious quantity
ether, and

on

it

even

out

of the

the

one

it turns,

earth

for you
would
hand
as
you gave

ground,

Having then placed the man

which
electrifyin the manner
him
touch
have
only to make

globe of glass while

the cushion

of

to extract
you
could gain no

much

that

whom
I have

and

with
the

you

just

mean

on

to

indicated, you
his
ether

hand
aeeumU'

the

108

ELECTRIZATION

highly

beneficial

raised

to

the

ANIMALS.

blood

and

humours

tions,
lively circulation ; certain obstructhreaten
dangerous consequences,
might
other
occasions
prevented ; but on
an
violent might prove
injurious to health.

be

agitation

have

to

AND

more

which

thereby

MEN

OF

too

the attention
of
subject certainlywell deserves
We
have
heard
medical
of many
gentlemen.
prising
surbut we
not
cures
are
performed by electricity,
sufficientlyto. distinguish the occasions
yet enabled
which
we
success.
on
promise ourselves
may
to our
To
return
eleqtrifiedman
markable,
re; it is very
The

in

that
with

obvious

some

man

this

surcharged,
from
a

the close

the

had

The

is

reason

with

much

meets

of the

to
a

in this state

throw

painters

with

honour

surrounded

abundantly
always escaping from the body

fluid

of

which

part of the ether

pores

Phenomena

him

see

that

to

air

which

he

is

resistance

it is

thereby put into

origin of light,as I

is the

agitation,which

certain

have

is

there

; as

we

of saints.

the heads

of that

dark

light similar

round

the

demonstrate.

surprising nature
very
electrified.
of a man
On

him, you not only see

the part which
from
you

very

brilliant

are

marked
re-

ing
touch-

sparks

issue

feels
touch, but the man
besides
a very
pungent pain. Further, if the person
touches
him
who
be
in his natural
state, or not
electrified,both sensibly feel this pain, which
might
have

fatal consequences,

especiallyif he

touched

were

part of the body of acute

any other
sensibility. You will readily comprehend, then, how

in the

head,

or

it is to

little indifferent

us, that

part of the ether

from
it,or
body escape
this is
is introduced, especiallyas
ether
such
amazing rapidity.
we
see
Moreover, the light with which

contained

surrounded
of

my
which

in

our

in

remarks

the

dark

is

an

respecting

is diffused

round

admirable
the

electric

all bodies

; and

that
done

the

new

with

man

confirmation

atmosphere
you

will

no

THE

TWO

find

longer

in
difficulty
phenomena, however

electrical

any

109

ELECTRICITY.

OF

SPECIES

the

of
greater number
inexplicablethey may

at first appear.
18th July, 1761.

XXXII.

LETTER
Distinctive

You

Character

will

becomes

please

electric
such

property, in

close

; so

to

two

Speciesof Electricity.

recollect,that

much

as

as

that whether
for

continue

only glass
stances,
sub-

time

some

or

extract

in that

the

likewise

their pores are

into
introduce

you
of
ether,
extraordinaryquantity

it,they

not

by friction,but that other

sealing-wax and sulphur, have

as

same

of the

them
a

state

an

part of
; nor

is

the

restored.
equilibriumso soon
Accordingly, instead of a globe of glass,globes of
are
sealing-wax and sulphur are employed, which
likewise
made
to revolve
round
an
axis, rubbing at
the same
time against a cushion, in the same
manne?
which
I described
respectinga globe of glass. Such
globes are thus rendered
equally electric ; and on
applying to them a bar of iron, which touches them
pable
only by slender filaments or fringes of metal, incaof injuring
the globe,electricity
is immediately
communicated
afterward

Here,

to
transmit

however,

observable.

that

bar, from

it to other
a

very
globe of

which

bodies

remarkable

at

you

may

pleasure.
difference

is

electric in
glass rendered
this manner
becomes
surcharged with ether ; and
the bar of iron,or other bodies
nication
brought into commuwith
of the same
it,acquire an electricity
A

This

is denominated
or
positive
electricity
a globe of sealingaugmented electricity.But when
or
wax
an
sulphur is treated in the same
manner,
is
electricitydirectlyopposite is the result,which
denominated
electricity,as
negative or diminished

nature.

VOL.

II."

110

CHARACTER

*t is

perceived

by

You

capable

but this

of

on

the

TWO

these

in their pores.

the

that

see

de-

globes are

contained

effects

producing

depends

THE

friction

of part of the ether

will be surprised to

Drived
is

that

OF

friction

same

altogether opposite;
bodies

of the

nature

which

by communicating or
undergo the friction,whether
receiving it,and of the rigidityof their particles
the
contain
which
pores. In order to explain the
of this difference, it is evident, at first
possibility
bodies
rubbed
two
are
violently
sight, that when
the
of
the
in
must
one
against each other,
pores
most
cases
undergo a greater compression than
those
in

other, and that then the ether contained

is extruded, and
forced
to insinuate
pores

of the

the

itself into

of

those

bodies

the

which

are

less

pressed.
com-

It follows, then, that in this friction of glass against

cushion, the pores of the cushion undergo a greater
than

of the

glass,and consequently
of the cushion
must
the ether
pass into the glass,
and produce in it a positive or increased
electricity,
But
I have
on
as
already shown.
substitutinga
globe of sealing-wax or of sulphur in place of the
being susceptible of a greater
glass,these substances
stance
degree of compression in their pores than the subcompression

of the
a

those

cushion

with

which

the friction

part of the ether contained

will be

forced

cushion

; the

out, and

globe

of

constrained

sealing-wax

in these
to pass
or

is performed,

globes
into the

sulphur

will

deprived of part of its ether, and of course

receive a negative or diminished
electricity.
of
w
hich
bar
The
a
iron,or of any other
electricity
from
communication
with
a
metal, receives
globe
of sealing-wax or sulphur, is of the same
nature
; as
is
which
communicated
to a man
is also that
placed
of pitch, or
a lump
on
suspended by cords of silk.
such
When
other
or
a
body with open
man,
any

thereby

pores

be

electrified

nearly the

same

in

the

same

php-nomena

is touched,
observable
in the
as

manner,
are

OF

SPECIES

of

positive electricity.The
accompanied with a spark,

case

both

sides.

which

in

The

Ill

ELECTRICITY.

and

is obvious

reason

is here

touch

puncture

wise
like-

for

the

on

ether

from
in their
bodies
escapes
natural
into electrified
bodies, being
state, to enter
under
constraint,must be under an agitationwhich
this

case

produces light.
to be

difference

is,however,

figure of the spark, according

the electricityis positive or negative.
See that
positive electricity,Fig. 96.

as

of

remarked

sensible

in the

and the
positiveelectricity,
issues out
it,the lightwhich
the form
of the bar appears
under
of rays diverging
from the bar towards
the finger m n, and the luminous
the finger.
next
point is seen
But if the bar A B, Fig. 97, is negatively electric,

If the bar A B possesses

fingerC is presented to

Fig. 97.
c

and
m

the

ringerC
diverge from
point p next

This

is

presented to it,the
the finger,and
you

the

luminous

rays

the

nous
lumi-

see

bar.

positive
principalcharacter by which
is distinguished from
negative electricity. From
whencesoever
the ether escapes, the spark is emitted
in the figure of rays diverging from that point ; but
the
when
ether enters
into a body, the spark is a
luminous
the recipientbody.*
point towards
QlstJuly, 1761.
"

is the

Professor

Hildebrand

has

lately found

that

the

size

and

luminous-

we'll as upon
the form of
ness
nature
as
spark depend upon
the metal
metal
which
from
which
the sparks are taken.
The
pieces of
he used were
of a conical form.
shape and dimeUThey had all the same
of

the

the

112

THE

TWO

SPECIES

OF

LETTER
How

the

Globe

same

two

You

XXXIII.

furnish at
of Glass may
Speciesof Electricity.

be enabled

the

once

clearlythe
difference
between
positive and negative electricity,
after I have
explained how it is possibleto produce
globe of glass both the species;
by one and the same
and

will

ELECTRICITY.

this will
these

wonderful

fixed in the

were

The

more

time

same

further

cidate
to elu-

phenomena of nature.
the globe of glass turning

Fig.

eions, and

still

see

at the

serve

B, Fig. 98, be

Let

to

at the end of an
manner,
in extent, as shown
much

same

sparks differed very

list ; those
at the top of the
bottom
the least.

98,

list

giving

the greatest

insulated

ductor.
con-

in the following

sparks, and

those

the

at

Regulus

of

Sulphuret of

Antimony.

A
with

cone
an

Gold.

Tin.

Silver.

Zinc.

Brass.

Iron.

with

angle

an

angle

of 36".

Steel.

Copper.

of 52"
The

Steel.

L"ad.

luminous spark than one

parabolic rounding of the summit, or slight

inequalitiesof surface, were

production of a strong light.
"

Tempered

gave

found
Ed.

much

to

be

more

particularlyfavourable

to

tUe

THE

round
in

its axis

SPECIES

C, and

the

metallic

G, which

iron

OF

to

it may

pores.
This

being laid down,

nowhere

the

cushion

into the

attached

cushion

D,

touch

which

consequently more
therefore, from
thence, by

pass,

F, into the bar of iron

with

that

by

elastic

F G

for

and

friction
the
more

it will

metallic

the

of

open

from
passes
it becomes

and

compressed,

bar

of silk H

bodies

know
you
the ether

glass,from

the

to

cords

suspended by

I, that

against

against the cushion D,

which
the globe is touched
F

filaments
is

113

ELECTRICITY.

rubbed

opposite direction

an

by

TWO

ments
fila-

though

the

abundantly close, as the ether in

pores of glass are
the globe is continually
accumulating by the friction,
it

becomes

soon

overcharged that
filaments, and discharges

the metallic

bar, by which

equally electric.
perceive that all this superfluityof
you
supplied by the cushion, which would speedily

Hence
ether

is

this last becomes

be exhausted

with

the

thereby

frame

with

unless

it had

which

supports the machine, and

is every instant
earth, which

the whole

free communication

supplying the cushion with new

long as the friction continues,
further

sufficient
and

globe
is made

if it is
may

it escapes
by
itself into the

so

in the

ether
there

is

that which
compress
bar.
But if the whole

have

on

are
pores
open, which
of ether, it would
soon

could

with

communication

no

might

is in the

machinery
and

bodies

supply

the

be

into the

N,

or

cushion

the

whose

deficiency

exhausted, and

be

conveyed
certain degree,

not

as

quantity

to

pillarsof glass,as
suspended by cords of silk,that
to rest

that

so

the

globe

and

tricity
electhe

scarcely
be of a prodigious
perceptible unless the cushion
size.
To
supply this defect, the cushion D is put
of metal
in communication
with a large mass
E, the
is sufficient to supply the globe and
ether of which
the bar, and to carry it to such a high degree of
compression
bar

beyond

s^-

which

will be

114

THE

You

TWO

SPECIES

will thus

OF

ELECTRICITY.

the

globe and to the bar

has been
as
a positive
electricity,
already explained.
But
in proportion as they become
surcharged with
E will lose
ether,the cushion and the metallic mass
the same
quantity,and thereby acquire a negative
have
here at once
that we
the two
: so
electricity
positive in the bar, and
species of electricity
; the
the negative in the metallic
Each
mass.
produces
its effect conformably to its nature.
On presenting
a finger to the bar, a spark with
divergent rays wiS
issue from
the luminous
the bar, and
point will be
towards
the finger; but if you present the finger
seen
the spark with divergent rays
to the metallic
mass,
will issue from the finger,and
the luminous
you will see
the mass.
point towards
Let us suppose
two
men
placed on lumps of pitch,
to

bodies
and

all communication

off

cut

between

open
pores ; let the
the metallic
other
mass,

with

the

is put
become

in motion

whereas

the

it is evident

them

touch

one

while
that

he

other,

acquire

bar,

machine

former

the

with

the

touches

who

and

the

the

positivelyelectric,or surcharged
will

mass,

to

procure

will
ether

metallic

and
negative electricity,

lose

his ether.

Here, then,

two

are

electric

machine.

Both

will

atmosphere,
the

which

of the

The
one

air ; and
contained

is,that

reason

insensiblyescapes
that, with
in the

his

body. This
be accompanied
produces light.

respect

will

dark

in the

manner

the
an

same

tric
eleclike

appear

figures of
superfluous ether

about

the

in

by
by

surrounded

be

light that painters throw

saints.

such

rendered

totallydifferent,though

but

men,

the

into the circumambient

to

the

other, the

ether

insensibly insinuates itself into

transition, though insensible, will

air

with

an

agitationof ether, which

species of electricity
are
directlyopposite ; but in order to have a thorough
of it,let these two
conviction
join hands, or only
It is evident

that these

two

116

THE

LEYDEN

EXPERIMENT.

Fig. 99.

in

experiment
chain

of metal

introduced
the
with

too

water.

in the

basin

extremity of

one

other
an-

which

I is

glass bottle K K, filled with water ;

filled
is placed in a basin L L, likewise
You
plunge at pleasure into the water

into

bottle

H,

is attached

bar

the

question,to
a

chain

another

A,

end

one

of which

drags

for

time,

the floor.

on

the

machine

may
if the

become

Having put
that

the

know

bar

that

extremity

of

would
it.

But

he

were

the

whole
This

shock

at

the

each

first

be

may

other,

puts

of

tricity
elecof

spark issuing out

any part of his body

in that water, he would
receive a

They

once.

stroke

with

pUnged
incomparably more
would
frame
undergo

stroke

usual

time
at the same
to
person
in the basin at A,
into the water

to touch

chain

touch

the

to the

presented

same

hand

but

to be

at a, the

felt from

the

put the other

or

bar

some

sufficiently electric,you

finger were

the
be

were

in motion

were

his hand

violent, by
a

it
into

only
but by

his

agitation.

severe

communicated
have

which

to

sons
per-

many

join hands,

to

the

the water

clothes
in the

or

to

then

basin,or

THE

the

touches

into it ; and
finger to the
much

is the

much

so

the

how

see

last

person

famous

To

electricity.

and

the

in the

water

whole

solve

very

which

basin

is

tribute
con-

of

considerably the effect

this .difficulty,
permit

so

it

it is difficult to

following reflections.
1. While
by the action of the machine
compressed in the bar, it passes
by

is

the

body.
experiment,

surprising,that

bottle

the

from

instant,a

same

Leyden

more

plunged
applies his

usual, and

whole

their

is

dart

spark

feel,at the

to increase

make

of which

5^ou will see

vehement
than

persons
shock
over

Such

end

bar

of

violent

the

as

soon

as

more

chain

only,one

chain

117

EXPERIMENT.

LEYDEN

the
to

me

the

into

the water

meeting
bottle

contained

body

will

with

become

the bottle

in

pores,

open
much

as

ether

the

I, and

the

there
in the

water

surcharged

chain

the

with

ether

the bar itself.

as

and

bottle, being glass, has

The

2.

therefore

within

does

its pores
close,
the ether compressed

permit
pierce through the substance
in the
discharge itself into the water
not

it to

glass,to

consequently, the

water

natural

will not

state, and

in the

basin

become

of

basin

remains

electric

the
;

in its

; or

even

suppositionthat a little of the ether might

force its way
through the glass,it would presently
be lost in the basin and pedestal,the pores of which
the

on

are

open.
3. Let

one

hand

in the water

with

the

immersed
hand

to the

the

over

4.

bar
with

ether
and

man

chain

in

A,

in that water

effect,that
bar

consider

now

us

open
it.

will

the

one

; let

at a, the

the

the

which

be

tact
con-

which
the

as

issues

in

is

other

the

first

from

the

with
its escape
locity,
great veeverywhere in the body of the

pores, will without

we

only

extremity of
him
present
will

with

man

make

meeting

Hitherto

of

basin, or

result

spark

case

see

only

obstruction
the usual

be diffused

effect of

elec-

118

THE

tricity
;

but

the

over

LEYDEN

while

the

of the

body

equal rapidity,
by
into

the

with

Now

5.

ether

the

the

and

it enters

as

this

new

with

increased

body

of the

the
into the

contains.

containing already
compressed, it will acquire from
force, and will diffuse itself with
well
I H
as
through the chain

itself

its escape
thence
is performed in an

at

it will of consequence
with new
efforts ; and

instant,it will

force

make

to

be

into the

enter

diffused

as

over

the

this

finger
whole

man.

into the water

in the basin,
Passing thence anew
ther
penetrating the bottle, it will increase still furthe agitationof the ether
compressed in the
of the bottle and

water

till the whole

in the

the
The

several

ether

acts.

same

thing
instead

persons

bar ; and

is restored

quickly take place, from

which
7.

rapidityflies
it discharges itself with
hand, or by the chain A,

basin

such

in the bottle

water

impetuosity, as
through the bar

will

the

bottle

much

too

this increase

and

other

with

impetuosity, it will easily overcome

opposed by the glass,and penetrate

which

water

6.

man,

the

in

water

ether

such

obstacle

an

EXPERIMENT.

will
of

to

the

tinue
con-

which
equilibrium,
great rapiditywith

happen
one

this will

man.

if you
And

employ
now

arises
myself, you fullycomprehend whence
the surprising increase
of force
in the electricity
which
is produced by this experiment of Mr.
Musexhibits effects so prodigious.
chenbroeck, and which
could
remain
8. If any
doubt
I
respecting what
have
in the
advaaced, that the ether compressed
of the bottle could not penetrate through the
water
allowed
I have
it a passage
glass, and that afterward
such
doubt will vanish
it is
when
abundantly free
considered, that in the first case
thing is in a
every
and in the last the ether is in a
state of tranquillity,
terrible agitation,which
must
undoubtedly assist its
through the closest passages.
progress
28th July, 1761.
flatter

"

LETTER
the Cause

on
Reflections
on

XXXV.
Nature

and

other Means

to

proper

elucidations,you

these

AFTER

119

ELECTRICITY.

OF

NATURE

and
of Electricity,
produce it.
can

be

at

no

loss

servable
prodigious effects obof electricity.
in the phenomena
who
have
treated the subject,perauthors
Most
plex
that they are
the experiments in such a manner
rendered
absolutely unintelligible,
especiallywhen
they attempt an explanation. They have recourse
subtile matter, which
to a certain
they denominate
the electric fluid,and to which
they ascribe qualities
so
tempt
extravagant, that the mind rejectsthem with conto acknowledge, at
they are constrained
; and
length, that all their efforts are insufficient to furnish
of these important phewith a solid knowledge
us
nomena

respecting the

of the

cause

of nature.
But

enabled

are

you

I have

which

electric

become

of the

state

conclude, from
unfolded, that bodies

only so
compression

bodies, is not the same

it is more
words, when
than

For

in others.

with
elasticity
violent

efforts

to

as

bodies
the

the
are

the

to

return

phenomena
When

the

of

principles
evidently
the
or
elasticity,
in the

pores of
in other

everywhere else ;
less compressed in some
or
in that case
the prodigious

as

ether
its

same

is endowed

makes

store
equilibrium,and to reof
as
degree
elasticity,

the

equilibriumwhich

always produces

the

electricity.

ether

compressed,

more

the

the

in different
pores, which
less open, will permit ; and it is

of
or

as

of the ether

recover

nature
more

far

the

which

everywhere
far

to

escapes
to

from

discharge

body

where

itself into

it is

another

it is less so, this passage

is always obstructed
of the air ; hence
it is put into
the close pores

where

by

120

ON

certain

THE

violent

or
agitation,

which,

as

violent

have

we

CAUSE

is,the

more

till it is at

becomes,

of

motion

lightconsists

seen,

this motion

AND

vibration, in
and

the

brilliant

the

capable of

more

light

settingbodies

length
on
fire,and of burning them.
the ether
While
penetrates the air with so much
tion
force,the particlesof air are likewise put into a mo-

occasions
sound
cordingly
vibration, which
; it is acof electricity
observed, that the phenomena
accompanied with a cracking noise, greater

of

are

to the

less, according

or

And
with
of

the

as

the

them, it is

should

circumstances.

animals

and

men

minutest

seems

nerves

in

of

bodies

in their

ether

diversityof
pores,

and

filled

are

action

the

as

tained
depend on the ether conand animals
impossible that men

to

be indifferent

: and
respect to electricity
is put into a great agitation,
when
the ethe'r in them
be very
the effect must
sensible,and, according to
circumstances, sometimes
salutary,and sometimes
hurtful.
this last class, undoubtedly, must
be
To

referred

the

be carried

might

for

men,
as

mice

and

Though
of
that there

shock

terrible

there

; and

with

by

is every
to

of

of it many

ment
experi-

Leyden
to

reason

degree of

means

the

believe

that

force

ing
capable of killsmall animals, such

actuallybeen killed.
friction usually is employed
in the production
electricity,you will easilycomprehend
birds, have

may

be

other

besides

means

this.

ever
What-

capable of carrying the ether contained

of a body to a greater or less degree of
it electric : and
than ordinary, renders
will be of
are
close, there the electricity

is
pores
pores

duration
it cannot
or

other
Hence

whereas, in bodies whose

pores
possibly subsist,unless surrounded

bodies
it has

with
been

very

sensible

are

in the
pression
com-

if its
some

open

by air,

close

pores.
observed, that

supplies the place of friction.

melt sealing-wax or sulphur in
a

it

When
a

heat

frequently
heat

you

or

discover

spoon, you
in these substances
electricity

after

OF

NATURE

they
for

they occupy
they are cold.
You

know

and

that

when

longer than
all bodies

When,

We

find,for the
hot

iron very
cold
when

"

fills the

is

always

property

tube
same
what
some-

to

common

these

substances

and
a

we

are

open ; a greater quantityof ether must

introduced
to fillthem.
afterward,
When,

be

to

and

occupies

acquainted.
of sealing-wax
therefore, we melt by fire a mass
or
sulphur,their pores are enlarged, and

course

contract

hot,

of

which

with

probably more
of

it is

mercury

it

because

it is cold.

bar

the

thermometer

falls in cold

space
than when

reason,

in

that

greater

more

longer a mystery,

enlargesthe pores of all bodies,

hot than when
greater space when

rises in heat
a

is no

reason

that heat

know

we

as

The

cooled.

are

121

ELECTRICITY.

that

close, so

smaller

suffered

are

the

ether

cool, the pores

in them

is

duced
re-

consequently carried

and

space,

to

of

compression, which increases

will acquire, therefore,
its elasticity
: these
masses
and must
a positiveelectricity,
consequently exhibit
to

higher degree

the effects
This

property

remarked
stone

of it.
in

compress
and its pores
of the
1st

by
Nay,

stones.

tourmaline, which, when

heated, acquires
to

electric

becoming

precious

most

named
The

of

at

ether in

one

too

two

part of

that which

more
are

the

once

close

to

stone

is in the

permit the

is

there

is

rubbed

species of

the

heat

or

city.
electri-

is

expelled
other part ;
ment
re-establish-

equilibrium.*

August, 1761.

since the time of Euler,

Very important discoveries have been made
and heat.
respecting the production of electricityhy friction, pressure,
A very brief notice of these will be interesting to the reader.
all the precious
Electricity by Friction." Rock
crystal, and almost
substances
stones, acquire positive or vitreous
electricitywith whatever
and
the
other
"c.
on
bitumen,
resin,
they are rubbed
hand,
;
sulphur,
with
when
rubbed
ducting
non-conacquire negative or resinous
electricity
any
substance.
tricity
Glass, however, when
polished,gives vitreous elecit
whereas
when
it
is
resinous
rough.
gives
by friction,
electricity
bismuth
zinc and
the metals
Among
always acquire vitreous electri-

VOL.

II." L

122

NATURE

OF

THUNDER.

LETTER

Nature

Thunder

of

of

and

Phenomena
I

of

Explanations of the
Descartes:

Thunder

hitherto

HAVE

XXXVI.

rubbed

citywhen

with

of the
of Electricity.

considered

electricityonly
speculationto naturalists

objectof curiosityand

losophers
Phi-

Resemblance

those

to

Ancient

as

an

; but

piece of

woollen
and antimony
tin
cloth, while
of the other
electricity. In many
metals, and
in various
often
other substances,"the results
are
irregular and anomalous,
of electricitybeing developed, and sometimes
kind
sometimes
one
of this
is in the mineral
another.
The
most
called
striking example
which
of
resinous
always acquire
kyanite, some
electricityby
crystals
while
other
crystals always acquire vitreous
friction,
electricity.In some
of these
electricity is obtained
crystals, indeed, vitreous
by rubbing one
For further
tion
informaface, and resinous
by rubbing the other.
electricity
this subject, see
on
Haiiy's Traitfd?
Mineralogie, Paris, J822, vol. i.
the
vol.
Edinburgh
Encyclopaedia, Article ELECTRICITY,
p. 186; and

always

acquire

resinous

viii. p. 430.

Electricityby Pressure.
producing electricityby
is held

hand

The

"

Abb"

Haiiy

He

pressure.

discovered
that

if

method

the

rhomb

of

of Iceland

its

opposite edges, and if with two

opposite faces are merely touched, it
is applied in place of convitreous
When
electricity.
tact,
gives out
pressure
the
the
effect is greatly increased.
same
Ilaiiy found
property
in topaz, euclase, arragonite, fluate of lime, carbonate
of lead, and
hyalin quart/, ail of which
electricity,both by friction and
give vitreous
Sulphate of barytes and sulphate of limn give no electricity
pressure.
is negatively electrified by friction,
Elastic bitumen, which
by pressure.
spar

fingersof

in

one

hand

the other

by

two

two

of

found

of its

is also

negatively electrified by pressure.

The
property possessed by
Electricity by Heat."
electrical

by

heat

seems

to

have

been

tourmaline

known

to

the

of

coming
be-

ancients,

mesozinc, borate of magnesia, Auvergne

and
one
heated,
are
tremity
exmesolite,
scolezite,
mesotype,
other
vitreous
tricity,
electhe
and
resinous
crystal developes
the extremities
the intensity of electricitydiminishing rapidly from
point of the crystal. In the boracite there
to the middle
or neutral
solid angle of the cube.
at each
electrical
one
poles,
are
eight
the electricity
the ordinary temperature,
minerals
these
When
again reach
then
has
it
M.
that
but
found,
by
lately
passes
Haiiy
disappears ;
oxide
of
zinc
the
With
to
of temperature
opposite state.
a reduction
he
and
tourmaline
invariably found, that the opposite electricitycould
be developed by cold, so that the pole which
possessed vitreous electricity
cold.
When
it was
hot developed resinous
it was
when
electricitywhen

When

tourmaline,

oxide

of

type, Greenland
of the

the

opposite electricityis beginning

to

show

the
itself,,

two

poles

have

124

NATURE

sulphureous
from

and

the

bituminous

earth

clouds, where

THUNDER.

OF

ing
which, ascendvapours,
the
with
the
air, mixed

into

fire from

they caught

unknown

some

cause.

Descartes, who

quicklyperceived the insufficiency

of this explanation, imagined another
in the
cause
clouds
themselves, and thought that thunder
might
be produced
fall of more
elevated
by the sudden
others
clouds
in a lower
on
region of the air ; that
the

air contained

this fall to such

by
of

noise

exciting a
lightning and
him

in the intermediate
a

degree

loud, and

so

to demonstrate

as

capable

producing
impossible for

was

possibilityof

the

was

pressed
com-

of

even

thunder, though it

was

space

it.

without

false explaattention
on
fixing your
nations,
which
lead to nothing, I hasten
to inform
discovered
that it has
been
by incontestable
you
of thunder
are
proofs that the phenomena
always
But

accompanied by
Let

bar

of

the

most

metal,

pillarof glass, or any

are
close, that when

indubitable

the

the

clouds

of electricity.

a
say of iron, be placed on
whose
other substance
pores

bar

acquires electricityit
itself to the body

communicate
not escape
or
may
which
supports the bar ; as soon

arises, and

marks

which

as

thunder-storm

contain

the

thunder

directlyover the bar, you perceive in it a very

generallyfar surpassing that which
strong electricity,
art
produces ; if you
apply the hand to it, or any
other body with
see
bursting from,
open
pores, you
it,not only a spark, but a very bright flash, with a
noise
similar to thunder
who
man
applies his
; the
come

hand

it receives

to

This

stunned.
reason

why
the

we

shock

violent

that

he

is

curiosity; and there is good

surpasses
should
be on our
guard and not approach

bar

during a storm.
professor at Petersburg,

furnished

so

named

melancholy example.

Richmann,

has

Having perceived

NATURE

resemblance

125

THUNDER.

OF

the phenomena
strikingbetween
this unfortunate
of thunder
and those of electricity,
naturalist,the more
clearly to ascertain it by experiment,
of
his
of
iron
roof
raised a bar
the
on
house,
of glass, and
cased
below
in a tube
supported by a
of pitch. To the bar he attached a wire, which
mass
he conducted
into his chamber, that as soon
the
as
bar
become
should
electric,the electricitymight
a

have

free

enable
And
was

so

him

communication
to

it may
be
conducted

in contact

with

the

prove

effects

to inform
proper
in such a manner

but

with

bodies

wire, and

the

his

in

whose

apartment.

that

this wire

nowhere

to

you,
as

so

close,

are

pores

be

glass,pitch,or silk,to prevent the escape

of the electricity.
this arrangement, he expected a
Having made
thunder-storm, which, unhappily for him, soon
came.
such

as

The

thunder

was

all attention

was

mark

any

heard

at

to his

wire,

of

distance
to

see

electricity.

As

Mr.

Richmann

if he

could

the

storm

ceive
per-

proached
ap-

he

received

judged it prudent to employ some

caution,
preand not
the
wire
but
keep too near
pening
hap;
his chest
he
a
little,
carelesslyto advance
a terrible
stroke, accompanied with a loud

clap, which
"

About

Dr.

stretched

the

Ludolf

of iron
disaster
the

bars

on

lifeless

preparing

were

city,and

their

which

the

on

time, the late Dr.

same

in this

him

houses
had

with
;

befallen

of iron

similar

that view

being

Mr.

and

Lieberkuhn

to make

but

floor.

had

ments
experi-

fixed bars

informed

of

the

they
and, in

had

Richmann,

immediately removed
;
my
opinion,they acted wisely.
this you will readilyjudge, that the air or
From
electric
become
atmosphere must
during a
very
in it must
thunder-storm, or that the ether contained
then
be carried
to a very high degree of compression.
This ether, with which
the air is surcharged,
Will pass into the bar, because
of its open
pores ;
L9

126

THE

it will

and
in

the

4th

PHENOMENA

become

electric,as

method,

common

August,

OF

but

it would

in

much

have

been

higher

gree.
de-

1761.

LETTER

Explanation of

XXXVII.

Phenomena

the

of Lightning

and

Thunder.

mentioned
experiments now
incontestably
tremely
demonstrate, therefore, that stormy clouds are exthat
and
electrical,
consequently their pores
either
are
surcharged with ether, or exhausted, as
both states
are
equally adapted to electricity.But
for believing that this
I have
very powerful reasons
pressed
electricityis positive,that the ether in them is comto the
highest degree, and consequently so
THE

much

the

Such

elastic

more

than

elsewhere.

usually succeed

sultryweather.
The
floating in
pores of the air, and of the vapours
then
it, are
extremely enlarged, and filled with a
prodigious quantity of ether, which easily takes possession
of all the empty spaces
of other substances.
collect in the superior rewhen
the vapours
But
gions
of our
atmosphere, to form clouds, they have
excessive
cold.
Of this it is impossible
to encounter
is frequentlyformed
the hail which
to doubt, from
in these regions : this is a sufficient proof of a congelation,
storms

as

well

heat

Nothing then
by proof, than
where

clouds

cold

contracts

to

smaller

which

snow

is
the

we

such

mountains,

of very
high
while
extreme

prevails in

the

as

very

find
the

as

on

the

tops

Cordilleras,

prevailsbelow.

more

certain, or better established

excessive

cold

which

universally
regions of the atmosphere,
upper
formed.
It is equallycertain,that
are
the pores
of bodies, by reducing them

the

size

now,

as

the

pores

of the vapours

127

THUNDER.

AND

LIGHTNING

extremely enlarged by the heat, as soon

tract,
they are formed aloft into clouds, the pores confilled them, not being able
and the ether which
of the air are
those
because
very close,it
escape,
been

have
as

to

needs

must

to

remain

there

much

elasticitywill

real state of

The

it will be

higher degree

its

consequently
greater.

of

course

of

be

pressed
com-

density, and
much

so

stormy clouds, then, is

this

the
the

"

is much
in their pores
elastic
more
than
a
usual, or, in other words, the clouds have
positiveelectricity. A s they are only an assemblage
ether

contained

of

vapours,
surrounded

their

humid

being
this

could

ether

are
pores
air,whose

the

by

but

not escape

very

open

close,

are

pores

; but

very imperceptibly.
whatever
with open

body
to approach it,the
same
phenomena
pores, were
which
electricityexhibits would present themselves
;
vehement
spark, or rather a real flash,would
a very
burst forth.
Nay more, the body would
undergo a
shock
by the discharge,from the inlvery violent
the ether
in the cloud would
petuosity with which
This
shock
rush into its pqres.
might be indeed so
violent as to destroy the structure
the
; and, finally,
bursts from
the
terrible agitationof the ether which
cloud, being not only light,but a real fire,it might
be capable of kindling and consuming combustible
if any

But

person,

or

any

bodies.

Here, then, you

will

distinguishall
thunder;

which

accompany
of thunder, the cause

is very
should
be in

noise

stances
circum-

the

and

as

to

obvious, for

the
it is

such a state of
impossible the ether
air itself receiving from
the
it
agitation without
violent concussions, which
the most
forciblyimpel
and excite a dreadful noise.
the particles,
Thunder,

then, bursts
contained

body

into

and

whose

forth

in the
where

pores

as

often

clouds
the
are

is

as

capable

ether

open

the

force
of

of

penetrating

is in its natural
:

it is not

ether

even

state,
neces-

128

PHENOMENA

sary that
cloud.
What

such

body

I have

said

OF

should

immediately

the

touch

respecting the atmosphere of

electrified bodies
principallytakes place in clouds ;
and frequently,
during a storm, we are made sensible
of this electric atmosphere by a stifling
air,which is
As soon
oppressive to certain persons.
particularly
the cloud
as
begins to dissolve into rain, the air,
becoming humid
by it,is charged with an electricity,
the commotion
by which
maybe conveyed to bodies
at a very
great distance.
It is observed
that thunder
usually strikes very
elevated bodies, such as the summits
of church-spires,
when
with open pores, as
they consist of substances
all metals
contributes
not
are
; and the pointed form
it. Thunder
a little to
on
frequentlyfalls likewise
water, the pores

of which

with

close

pores,

with

close

pores,

are

very

open

but bodies

glass,pitch,sulphur, and silk,

not
are
greatly susceptible of the thunder-stroke,
moistened.
much
unless they are
It has been
very
thunder
accordingly observed, that when
passes
it
does
the
not
a
window,
perforate
through
glass,
which
unite
but always the lead or other substances
the panes,
It is almost
certain,that an apartment
of glass cemented
by pitch,or any other substance
as

would

be

an

effectual

security

of thunder.

againstthe ravages
8th August, 1761.

LETTER

XXXVIII.

Continuation.

THUNDER,
the
and

then, is nothing else but

which

electricitywith
as

natural

an

electrified

state, emits

discharges

into

it

the

clouds

the
are

effect

of

endowed

another

in its

body, applied
a
noise, and
spark with some
the superfluous ether with
proto

LIGHTNING

thing takes place in a

electric,or surcharged with ether, but
of the
incomparably greater, because
that is electrified,and in which, according

digious impetuosity,the
cloud

that is

with

force

terrible

mass

much

higher
capable of producing
for

prepared

the

of the
and

The

motion

of

at the

know

put into

that

noise

instant

same

sound

quantity of time,
about

eleven

in order

Hence

with

always
the
see
lightning;
interveningbetween
we

enabled

it is

in

certain

to

any
of
at the rate

only

whereas

second;

but

velocityinconceivably greater.

hear
and

the
from

thunder
the

the

than

later
of

the

report,we
of

distance

the

are

place
feet

hundred

generated, allowing eleven

we

seconds

number

the flash and

determine

to

where

feet

the

lightning;

to its transmission

is

lent
vio-

doubt, be

no

the

light;

very
results

always requires

hundred

light travels

must,

with

distance, and that its progress

stead
in-

which

vibration, from
This

brilliant

most

time

same

of thunder.

excited

to

violence

air is at the

you

charge
dis-

ether, this

its

incredible

atmosphere, produces
this lightningconsists.

in

noise

bodies

approaches

of

with

are

machinery.

our

cloud

to

simple spark, the air will be penetrated

prodigious flash,which, exciting a commotion
in the whole
ether contained
adjoining region

of
in the

by

admission

be made

must

in it

therefore, such

When,

with

same

the ether is reduced

appearance,
degree of compression than we

to every
a

129

THUNDER.

AND

second.

The
cloud

into
body itself,
is

stroke

discharged,receives

; sometimes
set

sometimes
cases,

which,

which

on

say
however

from

it is shivered

fire and
it is

of

of
electricity
it

to

consumed,

melted, if it be

we

the

dreadful

most

pieces
"

times
some-

if combustible

metal

thunder-struck,

the

"

and, in such

the

effects

of

surprisingand extraordinary they

may appear, are in perfectconsistencywith the wellknown
phenomena of electricity.

130

PHENOMENA

melted

in the

the

of

openness
ether
very

the

likewise
the

whom

on

struck

been
middle

thunder
it ; and

suffered

in the

stand

who

with

surcharged
back
who

the

tained
sus-

from

of

permit

the
it

over

the
of

nature

those
The

bard
scabbodies

ether

the

ether

so

of

this

phenomenon
a group
exposed
greatest danger

in the

soon

in the

were

cause

vicinity to
as

who

In

are

nearest

the

the

as

air that

ether

is

is discharged

all the

adjoining air is brought

state, and consequently those
the

to

nearest

were

that

they

one,
upon
its natural

to

for

exercises

is manifest.

thunder-storm,

last

metal, which

and

not

injury.

no

likewise
a

the

by

found, that of several persons

has
fallen,some
only have

been

by

the

accounted

to

do

been

while

substance

allied

closely

pores, which
transmission.

It has

to

the

; whereas

close

free

of

pores

easilypenetrates,

all its powers

is more
with

be

is to

THUNDER.

sometimes

scabbard,

this

injury:

no

AND

has

it is known,

sword,

thunder

LIGHTNING

OF

unfortunate

victim

feel

no

effect; while
air is

the

struck

others, at a greater distance, where

still sufficientlysurcharged with ether, are
the

with

In

word,

all the

related

the

not

appear,

distinguish
the

fills the

space
electricityis

in

But

we

the

spark

easily

phenomena

issues
the

negative, the
from
are

from

that which

between

reality emitted

body.

thunder

contain

reconciled

with

that

thundei

clouds, but from the earth,

However
ment
extravagant this sentiit is not so absurd, as it is difficult

electrified,or from

in

be

of

quently
fre-

so

the

from

bodies.

from

whether

effects

not

may

come

may
to

the

circumstances

electricity.
philosophers have maintained,

Some

or

strange

of

nature

does

of

which

nothing

thunder-clap.

same

the
is not

two

ether

the natural

of

body
so,

bodies
and
or

electricity
as

which
it

; and

the

is

equally
if the

spark

are

non-electrified

assured,
sufficiently

that in thun-

132

PREVENTING

OF

AND

AVERTING

The

tricity
knowledge of the nature and effects of electhat the thing is
not
to doubt
permits me
time
with
a
possible. I corresponded some
ago
Moravian
sured
aspriest,named
ProcopiusDivisch, who
that he had averted, during a whole
me
mer,
sumwhich

thunder-storm

every
habitation

and

threatened

his

own.

of a
neighbourhood, by means
the principlesof electricity.
constructed
machine
on
arrived
from
since
that
Several
country
persons
have
assured
that the fact is undoubted, and
me
confirmed
by irresistible proof.
But there
are
respectable characters whor
many
the supposition that the
on
thing is practicable,
have their scruples respecting the lawfulness
would
ancient
of employing such
a
preservative. The

doubt, would

no

pagans,

the

have

should
have
impious who
with
Jupiter in the direction
who

assured

are

that Divine

that

considered

him

as*

to

interfere

of his thunder.

tians,
Chris-

presumed
thunder

is the work

of

Providence

frequentlyemploys
it to punish
might with
men,
impiety to attempt
allege that it were
equal reason
of sovereign justice.
the course
to oppose
sion,
Without
involving myself in this delicate discusthat
I remark
conflagrations,deluges, and
likewise
the
other
are
general calamities
many
to punish the sins
means
employed by Providence
of men
one
surely ever will pretend,that it
; but no
of a
is unlawful
to prevent or resist the
progress
God, and

the

fire

or

an

inundation.

fectly lawful
the

effects

The
mann

wickedness

to

of

use

the

of

infer,that

Hence

means

of

thunder, if they

are

it is pei-

prevention against
attainable.

befell Mr. Rick'

melancholy accident which
that the thunderstroke
at Petersburg demonstrates
this gentleman unhappily attracted to
which

undoubtedly Have fallen somewhere

this place thereby escaped ; it can
it be
therefore
no
longer remain a questionwhether
possibleto conduct thunder to one place in preferhimself, would
else, and that

EFFECTS

THE

to

ence

another

this

; and

133

THUNDER.

OF

bring

to

seems

us

near

mark.

our

It would

doubt

no

to have

of

their

be

it in

portance
of still greater im-

matter

our

electric

force,
exposing any

to divest the clouds

power
the
without
being under

place to the ravages

should
in that case
altogetherprevent
; we
dreadful effects,which
terrifyso great a

necessityof
of thunder
these

one

part of mankind.
This

by

appears

Moravian

no

I mentioned

priestwhom
effected

and

impossible;

means

it ; for I have

above

unquestionably
that his

assured

been

the

strained
sensiblyattracted the clouds, and conthem
to descend
quietly in a distillation,
any but a very distant thunder-clap.
vated
experiment of a bar of iron, in a very ele-

machinery
without
The

situation, which
of

approach

construction
that in

thunder-storm,

of

similar

proportion as

clouds

must

but

it must

be contrived

bars

may
have

they

the

of the

pores,
quantity of
immense

preciselythe
in such

quantity;

same

that

manner,

the

earth, which, by

easily receive
ether, and disperse
of the

extent

particularspot.

in

discharges its electricity

the

which

ether

will with
which

not

may
This

of chains

means

earth,

so

it

communication
of

much

iron, or

whole

the

sion
compressensible
in any
is very easy,

any

great rapiditycarry

the bars

greater
the

over

that

become

of their

means

may

of the ether

with

the

for this purpose

be necessary
to procure
free communication
with a pool, or with

bowels

which

to

us

attracted.

open

by

the

on

it is certain

as

immediately discharge

It would
for them

lose

lead

may

machine,

the bar

the

electric

becomes

other
off the

metal,
ether

surcharged.
I would
advise
the fixing of strong bars of iron,
gether,
toand several of them
situations,
very elevated
their
in a
higher extremity to terminate

point,
VOL.

as

this

II." M

are

figure is

very

much

adapted

to the

134

OF

AVERTING

attraction

of

electricity.I

chains

long

conduct

EFFECTS

THE

of

iron

would

these

to

THUNDER.

OF

afterward

attach

I would
bars, which
pool, lake, or river,

ground into a
there
to discharge the
I have
no
electricity
; and
doubt, that after making repeated essays, the means
be certainly discovered
of rendering such
chinery
mamay
certain
in its
more
commodious, and more
under

effect.*
It is

abundantly evident, that

thunder-storm, the

ether

surcharged would

are

into these

be

the

on

with

which

transmitted

bars, which

approach
the

of

clouds

in

dance
great abunthereby become

would

unless the chains furnished

to the ether
very electric,
to spend itself in the water
and in the
a free passage,
bowels

of the

The

earth.
of the clouds

ether

would

continue, therefore,

quietlyinto the bars, and would

might be
produce a light which

pointed
storm

that

"

the

of the

ether

itself;and
good sign of the
Lights
the tops
the name

cloud

one
every
harmless

likewise

are

of the

masts

of Castor

and

visible,they consider

the

stroke

among
*

As

buildings
branches

than

considers

are

struck

diverging from
building. By
there

when

f Thislphenomenon
of

often

pillarsand

protect the

account

this

as

absorption of many

themselves

philosophers have ranked

vulgar superstitions
; but

openings in the
effectuallythan
more

is there

during
infallible proof
ing
quietlydischarg-

at

very
thunder-strokes

sea

on

sailors
such

by
signs

safe

from

as

of thunder.

in monumental

lateral

the

on

observed

frequentlyobserved
of ships,known
to
Pollux ;f and when

are

Most

visible

tion
agita-

extremities.

light is, accordingly,often

of spires an
the summit
on

Such

its

by

to enter

it will

vol. ix. p. 35.-Ed.

we

are

phenomena
now
fully

the main
laterally,
thunder-rod, especially
buildings,should have various
it, and extending to the air through

elevated
this

means

only

one

it is

secured
which

much

more

do

no
conductor,
Ed.
building.
also called the Fire^ofSt. Elmo.
A very interesting
be found
in the Edinburgh
nal,
PhilosophicalJour-

summit
is

is

these

of

the

"

can

ON

that

assured

sentiments

such

135

LONGITUDE.

THE

indeed, they

without

not

are

infinitelybetter

are

dation;
founfounded

of our
philosophicalreveries.*
many
15th August, 1761.

than

LETTER

On

the celebrated

Problem

of the Longitude :
Earth, of its Axis, its two

Descriptionof the
and the Equator.
You

will

have
of

not

obliged
which

to

most

which

A very

found

to add

in

of the

account

article

that

on

the

they

are,

almost

intelligible
principlesof

moat

most

useful

experiments

indeed
I
electricity
; and
that subject ; and am,
on
the choice

about

choice, I think
my
consideration
those

of

facts.
the

The

American

discoveries

recent

subject,

"

as

that

attention.

vol. viil. p. 411.

Ed.
[Itis remarkable
editor have
noticed
anywhere

admitted

Poles,

myself
take
into
subjects
materiallyinterest human
knowledge,
authors
of celebritymost
frequentlybring

copious
the

General

doubt, imagine

no

little embarrassed

of your
to determine

In order

of

said

worthy

one

and

been

time,

nothing further

course,

of

this

by

has

enough

XL.

in

the

discoveries

the

the

lie at

universally,to

science, and

omission

in

will
electricity

be

the Edinburgh
Encyclopaedia,
his European
Euler
that neither
nor

is the

have

to

Dr.

Franklin,

enriched

of the
it with

surprising, since

more

philosopher which

of

foundation

demonstrated

the

the
tity
iden-

in 1752,
made
the fluid of an electrical machine
were
his
letters
date
that
of
and
"o
to
the
Euler's
prior
Letter;
years
Peter
Collinson, of London, describing his experiments and discoveriea,
all the languages of Europe, and more
were
published in almost
eagerly
read than any thing that had
ject.
and
interesting subappeared on that new
the
To Dr. Franklin
the world
is certainly indebted
for
application
of the rod to the preservation of buildings. His
also of the nature
views
of electrical agency
were
cordiallyreceived by the scientific world, and
the basis of the prevailing theory,
while
that of Euler
still constitute
attained
much
is
and
the
never
now
no
learned,
longer
vogue
among
So prominent a station does Dr. Franklin
the most
heard of.
hold among

of

lightningand

nine

"

successful
which
Dr.
on

have

cultivators
been

added

this

of

science,and
day, we
and to
Electricity,

since
of

Priestley'sHistory
subject." Am. Ed.]

the

his

so
can
some

numerous

are

only refer the

good modern

the

facts

reader

to

treatises

136

ON

forward.

These

LONGITUDE.

THE

subjects respecting which, it is

presumed, persons of qualityhave considerable

to be

are

information.
As

unquestionably have heard frequent

of the celebrated
gitude,
problem of the lon-

must

you

made

mention

for the
has

proposed

that

solution

most

will

labour

my

of

which

the

British

magnificent premium,
not be wholly thrown

nation

I presume
if I
away

employ it in laying before you a fair state of that

nexion
conimportant question. It has such an intimate
with the knowledge of our terraqueous globe,
that

it

were

shame

accordingly

furnish

be

ignorant of it. It will

with
an
plaining
opportunity of exI
interestingarticles, which

to
me

variety of
wish
elucidated.
flatter myself you would
to see
I begin, then, with
a
general description of the
be considered
as
a globe,though
earth, which
may
it has been discovered
that its
by recent observation
flattened ; but the
real figure is a spheroid somewhat
difference
for the present be
is so small that it may
altogetherneglected.
the globe of the
The first thing to be remarked
on
the
earth are
two
points on its surface denominated
Round
these two
two
points the
poles of the earth.
globe of the earth every day revolves, as you turn
the two
between
a ball fixed
chine.
points of a turning mais called
This
the daily or
motion
diurnal
a

motion

of the

in

earth, each

revolution

according to appearances,
heavens, which we consider
whose
four

the

two

poles

line drawn

earth
This

hours.

round

the

circumference
round

turn

fixed

the

one

in the

; now

earth

motion
if

of these

other, that line will pass

earth.

as

speak

that the whole

ball,within

concave

revolver,

to
appear
of twenty-

same

space
is likewise

heavens,
we

is performed
to

or,

know

you

in the

points

of heaven

from

hours

twenty-four

about

of which

performed
denominated

conceive

poles

through

of heaven

the

centre

straight
to the

of the

THE

ON

But

the ance
appearthe earth turns round

easilycomprehend

will

you

these

be the same, whether

poles while the heavens

rest;

or

must

equallyled

are

we

poles of

remaining

earth

in

revolve

at

rest.

to the

earth, the foundation

the

that

remain

heavens

the

whether

poles,the

137

LONGITUDE.

On

state

round

of

their

either

knowledge
not only of

supposition
of the

omy,
astron-

of

geography.
Let Fig. 100 represent the globe
Fig. 100.
of the earth, whose
poles are at
of these
the pointsA and B ; one
the south or antarctic
poles,A, is named
inated
pole,the other, B, is denomthe north or arctic pole. This
last is nearer
to the region of the
globe which we inhabit.
two
I remark
that these
poles
are
directlyopposite to each other ; in other words,
were
a straightline A B to be drawn
directlythrough
the earth, it would
dle
pass preciselythrough the midC, that is to say, through the centre of the earth.
This
straight line A B has accordingly its appropriate
called
and is
the axis of the earth,which
name,
being produced in both directions to the heavens,
called the
will terminate
in the two pointswhich
are
give the same
poles of heaven ; and to which we
but likewise

names

to those

as

These

of the

earth.

a
poles of the earth are by no means
and
mere
fiction,or a speculation of astronomers
essential
geographers; but are really most
points

marked

two

on

the

surface

known, that the

the

colder*

I have

the
with

which
than

vol

and

more

lately had

poles,but
the

nearer

at two

magnetic

Captain Parry
that of the

ix. p. 201."

north

globe ; for it is well

we
approach these two points,
rugged the face of nature be-

occasion

points on
poles. The
found

to be

pole of

of

our

to

our

show,

each
mean

that

the greatest

cold

is not

at

pole, nearly coincident

of Melville Island,
temperature

side

of the

l^o for 1819-1820, is undoubtedly lower

globe." See Edinburgh. Transactions,

Ed.

M2

138

ON

to such

LONGITUDE.

THE

degree that the regions adjacent to

the poles are
cessive
absolutely uninhabitable,from the excold which
prevails there during the winter.
No
one
instance, accordingly,has been produced of
has
by land or water, who
any traveller,whether
comes,

reached

of

either

the

therefore, that these

poles.

two

spots

It may
be
of the earth

affirmed,
are

gether
alto-

inaccessible.

Having
and

into

B,
two

which

thus
we

determined
conceive

may

in

For

this purpose we
through its centre

perpendicularto
the

B E

and

of the

one

0,

that

so

axis of

the

surface

the

the

each

DAE,

poles

to suppose

are

the

poles of the earth

whole
globe divided

the

hemispheres,

terminates

will mark

the two

as

of

its summit.

globe bisected

section

earth

shall

; this

be

section

circle

encompassing the
whole
globe, everywhere equally distant from the
two
poles. This surrounding circle is denominated
the equator.
The
the
regions adjacent to it are
hottest,and on that account, as the ancients believed,
almost
uninhabitable
found to be
now
; but they are
exceedingly populous, though the heat be there
almost
insupportable.
from the equator on either side
But as you remove
becomes
towards
the poles, the countries
and
more
more
temperate, till at last, on approaching too near
the
As

on

cold

poles,the
the

bears

the

all

Africa,

and

the
name

in it ; thus the half D B

the
pole, is denominated
it is situated

intolerable.

becomes

equator divides
each

part of

the

northern
almost

half

spheres,
hemi-

two

pole contained

of the

E, which

Europe,

into

earth

contains

the

north

hemisphere, and
the

whole

of America.

of
The

in

Asia,
other

the
hemisphere, D A E, is from its pole denominated
southern
the greater part
hemisphere, and contains
of Africa, the other
half of America, and
several
isles,which
geographers attribute to Asia, as you
will recollect

18th

to have

August, 1761.

seen

in maps

o' the

world.

140

MAGNITUDE

EARTH.

THE

OF

into 60 equal
Every degree is again subdivided
contains
parts, called minutes, so that every minute
than an English mile, or 6076
English feet ; r.
more
second, being the sixtieth part of a minute, will conlain 101 English feet.
It being impossible to represent a
Fig. 101.
other

any
paper
flobe
circle, you
on

supply this
ingly,
Accordby imagination.
A B, Fig. 101, being the two
must

defect

poles

of the

the

earth, B the north, and

south,

the
of

other

The

as

D
E

and

all of

of

the

to the

their

semicircles

; all these

that

of

the

globe

It is

C.

circles,
semi-

of other

drawn

through the two poles of

passing through every point

as

A, B N

first,B D A
form

the

on

infinite number

an

B, and

and

appears
very
this, and the

correct

must

real

and

B
at

them

equator,

similar

figure

us,

opposite side.
represents, then, a semicircle,

represent
that half

towards

concealed

being

earth

will

rather

or

having their centres

possible to imagine
the

is turned

line

well

as

equator,

it which

the

than

way

will all be

these

A, though

in the

different.
fact is

Imagination
apparent on a

globe.

All these

semicircles

drawn

other, through whatever

from
of

point

one

the

pole to the
equator they

denominated
meridians
rather, a
may
pass, are
; or
is nothing else but a semicircle, which
meridian
on
the

surface

the

other
any
the

of the
and

place

earth

is drawn

from

easilycomprehend

can
you
whatever

on

the

surface

pole

one

that

of

the

to

ing
tak-

earth,

a meridian
always conceive
B L M
A, which
passing through the two
poles
takes
in its way
the point L.
This
meridian, then,
named
the
meridian
is
ample,
of L.
Supposing, for ex-

say

point L,

you

L to be BerJm.

can

the

semicircle

B L

would

MAGNITUDE

the

be

OF

of

meridian

THE

Berlin

and

the

respecting1every other spot of

You
can
represent to yourself
of

which

described

are

earth, the continent,

the

islands.

as

earth.

the

acquainted with.
possibly be drawn
which
actually are

As

all meridians

to

of

with

sea,

globe, denominated
no
terraqueous globe, yoir must

or

the

countries

artificial

This

be

may

globe, on

all the

well

as

same

the

said

surface

141

EARTH.

its

the

restrial
ter-

doubt

be

which

can

of
it,and a great number
traced, I remark, that each being
is divided by the equator into two
a semicircle
equal
is the fourth
part of a circle,
parts, each of which
arch
of 90 degrees.
that is, an
Accordingly, B D,
fourth parts of a circle,as well
B M, B N, B E, are
therefore
A D, A M, A N, A E ; each
contains
as
be further added, that each
90 degrees : and it may
is perpendicularto the equator, or forms
right angles
with

it.
to travel from
the point of
person
to the pole B, the shortest
road would

Again, were
the equator M
be

to pursue

being

the track
of

arch

an

miles
the

upon

; the

90

to either

will

recollect

meridian

degrees,

distance

equator

You

of the

to

of

passed
poles.

the

that

will contain

be

the

which

MLB,
in

shortest

lish
Eng-

6214

going

from

road

from

place to place is the straightline drawn

through any
from
the
two
places ; here the straight line drawn
fall
point M in the equator to the pole B would
within
the earth
which
it is impossible to
route
a
"

for we
pursue,
earth that we
the
when
from

it

so

are

cannot

attached

from

remove

question becomes
is asked, What
is

the

it.

surface
For

exceedingly
the

shortest

that

spot

on

surface

globe itself.
Jiarmony with the

of the

This
case

of

road

of

this

the
son,
rea-

different

leading

globe to another ?
This
shortest
road is no
longer a straightline,but
the segment of a circle,described
from
one
point of
the surface to another, and whose
is precisely
centre
one

the

to

accordingly in perfect
in question; for to

is

142

MAGNITUDE

travel

from

the

B,

the

arch

the

the

the

THE

the

in

pole

which

B,

I have

is in

road,

whose

the

to

equator
M

shortest

circle

EARTH.

meridian

the

as

point

of

represented
of

OF

reality a segment
that
of
precisely

is

centre

earth.
In

in

like

the

if

manner,

meridian

thence

the

to

know

allowing
shall

have

of

disposed to travel from

track,
by the shortest
track

the
number

of

of

the

arch

the

be

of

miles

to

degree,
were

equator
L

pursue
the

M,

reckoning
give the

would

degree,

we

to

which,

we

tains,
con-

if you

meridian

in

necessary

the

contained

arch

the

go

if

this

to

spot

to

and

But

same

it would

to

road.

situated

road

which

the

arch

degrees

English

69

the

miles

spot

shortest

degrees

length

the

the

English

69

the

A,

Avill be

of

number

the

pole

consi'der

we

distance.
We

in

miles,

find

that

contains

is

Berlin

from

Berlin

direction

These

part
have
22d

of

of

extent
a

seen,

circle,

or

24,855

August,

1761.

90

arch

the

equator,

shortest

one

must

were

containing
be
2591
English
give 6214
English

M,

miles.

which

which

is the

contain,

to

road
to

follow

L, which,

degrees,

English

to

the

if any
pole, he

added

the

them

consequently,

equator,

would

half,

half;

But

tances
dis-

other
nation.
any
for the
spot L, we

leads

north

arch

of

reduce

to

easy

which

the

to

so

Berlin

and

distances

two

the

for

the

of
and

M,

the

to

of

these

expressing

miles

miles.

English

3623

from

degrees

52

travel

the

city

arch

the

being

or

the

then,

Taking,

it

degrees,

English

to

with

satisfied

be

must

go
the

37

grees
de-

miles.
miles
fourth
as

we

XLII.

LETTER

Influenceon the Seasons, and

Length of the Day.

Of Latitude,and

with

the

(Fig. 102), which

figure

the

its

more

once

BEGIN

143

LATITUDE.

OF

same

pi.

102.

by

must

abundantly familiar to
circle represents
whole
The
you.
the globe of the earth ; the pointsA
and B its two
poles ; B the north or
this time

be

arctic,and

the earth and

within

equator, which
Let

take

now

us

its meridian

draw

passes
B

divides

northern, and

the

and

the

by

making

two-fourths

90

any
B L M

spot whatever, say

place

from

of

being

laid

equator, is

; so

that

nothing

gives
of the

down,
L

M,

of which

the

of the
L

from

importance

distance

arch

arch

the

place L

same

tains
con-

the

distance

that

it is of
or

poles
the place L,
equal parts,

of L
the

of any place on the

arch of the meridian

of

the latitude

the

serve
to ob-

of

the latitude
the

two

the

and

cle,
semicir-

further, that
us

L,

B E

the two
of

circle,each

I remark

denominated

else but

and

into

equator, and

that the arch

the

at
a

the distance

expresses
pole B.
This

the

point L,

is the meridian

equator

degrees.

A, which, being

the

of this meridian

hemispheres,D

the southern.

then

divided

it into two

is the

DAE

through
This

A.

drawn

passing through
axis of it. Again,

C, is the

its centre

antarctic

or

straightline B

that the

so

south

the

from

place
globe is
that

the equator and

place,which is interceptedbetween
the given place ; in other words, the latitude of a
place is the distance of that place from the equator;
expressingsuch distance by degrees, the quantityof
each
which
as
we
perfectlyknow
degree contains
69 English miles.

144

OF

LATITUDE.

readily comprehend that this distance

be distinguished according as the given place
must
is in the northern
southern
In the
or
hemisphere.
former
that is, if the
given place is in the
case,
northern
latitude;
hemisphere, we
say it has north
if
it
is
in
southern
but
the
hemisphere, we say it is
You

will

in south

latitude.

Taking Berlin as an instance, we

say it is in 52
of north
latitude ; the latitude
degrees and 32 minutes
of Magdeburg
northern, 52
is, in like manner,
But the latitude of Batavia
degrees and 8 minutes.
Indies
is 6 degrees 12 minutes
south ;
in the East
and that of the Cape of Good
Hope, in Africa, is
likewise
south 33 degrees 55 minutes.
viation,
I remark, by-the-way, that for the sake of abbreaffix a small
instead of the word
degree we
characters, and instead
cipher (") to the numeral
stead
of the word
minute
a small
slanting bar ('),and inof these ("); thus the .latitude
of second
two
of the observatory at Paris is 48" 50' 14" N., that is,
north.
In
48 degrees, 50 minutes, and
14 seconds
latitude has
Peru
there
is a place named
Vlo, whose
been
found
to be 17" 36' 15" S., that is, 17 degrees,
minutes, and
understand, that
36

latitude
under

0"

was

the

15

seconds

if

place were
0' 0", such a place

equator,

is 0, or nothing ; and
to affix the letter N
reach

from

the

in
or

this
S.

case

But

mentioned
would
from

you will
whose

precisely
the equator

be

it is unnecessary
it possible to
were

be
N., it would
is distant
pole of the earth, which
equator the fourth of a circle,or 90

place whose
precisely the north
a

its distance

as

Hence

south.

latitude

90"

was

degrees. This will give you a clear idea of what is

meant
pressed
by the latitude of a place, and why it is exby degrees, minutes, and seconds.
It is highly important to know
the latitude of
essential
to geography, in
every place, not only as
the view

of

assigningto
geographical charts, but

each

its exact

likewise

situation

because

on

on

the

LATITUDE.

OF

]45

of the

latitude depend the

seasons

remarkable

difference

the

inequalities
of day and night, and consequently the temperature
of the place. As
to places situated
directly
under
the equator, there is scarcely any perceptible
and through the whole
variation
of the seasons;
the days and
nights are of the same
length,
year
For
this
the
hours.
reason
namely, 12
equator is
the equinoctial line; but in
likewise
denominated
from the equator, the more
proportionas you remove
is the

year,

in the

the
days exceed
the days
nights in summer
; whereas, reciprocally,
in winter
shorter
much
than the nights.
are
as
You
know
that the longest days, in these northern
of our sumtowards the commencement
are
latitudes,
mer,
about
of
June
the
the 21st
quence,
nights,of conse;
and

year,

the

more

then

are

likewise

of the

seasons

the

shortest

the

and

that towards

the

beginning of our winter, about the 23d of December,

the days are shortest and the nights longest : so that
everywhere the longest day is equal to the longest
in every
of the
night. Now
place the duration
longest day depends on the latitude of the place.
and 38
Here, at Berlin, the longest day is 16 hours
minutes, and consequently the shortest day in winter
is 7 hours 22 minutes.
the equator,
In places nearer
whose

or

52"

latitude

is less than

that of

32',the

longest day in summer

minutes, and in winter

hours

38

more

than

this takes

7 hours

place

at

on

22

minutes.

removing

which
(Berlin,
is less

the

16

shortest

The

farther

than

is

day is
contrary of

from

the

equator:
latitude is

Petersburg, for example, whose

59" 56', the longest day is 18 hours
30 minutes,
and consequently the night is then
only 5 hours 30
in winter, on
minutes
the
:
contrary, the longest
night is 18 hours 30 minutes, and then the day is
Were
still
only 5 hours 30 minutes.
you to remove
from
farther
the equator, till you
to a place
came
latitude was
whose
66" 30', the
longest day there
would
be exactly 24 hours, in other words, the sun
VOL.

II."

146
would

not

all

then

at that

set

place

that

at

season

contrary takes place,the

that
the 23d of December,

in winter
at

PARALLELS.

OF

the

on

lasting

Now

hours.

24

not

sun

is, the

places

at

whereas

rising
night

still

more

equator, and consequently nearer

the pole, for example, at Warthuys, in Swedish
land,
Lapthis longest day lasts for the space
of several
days together, during which the sun absolutelynever
the sun
sets ; and the longest night,when
rises
never
the

from

remote

all,is of the

at

duration.

same

it possibleto reach

the

should
we
pole itself,
together, and during the
day for six months
this you compresix perpetual night. From
hend
it
is
know
to
of what
importance
accuratelythe

Were

have
other

latitude
22d

spot of the globe.

of every

August, 1761.

XLIII.

LETTER

informed

HAVING
meridian
on

earth

that

you,

given place
any
surface
of the

of

draw

Meridian, and

the First

Of Parallels,of

the

semicircle

B L M

in

L,

of Longitude.

order

to

find

the

it is necessary

to

A,

passing through the two

poles B and A, and through
the given place L ; I remark,
that

there

number

of

Fig. 103,
infinite

places through
meridian

same

which
said
the

same

in the

be

an

other

which

this

passes,

and

consequently

are

to

is

situated

all

under

meridian, whether
northern

hemisphere, between

M and A.
southern,
Now, all the places situated under

the

and

M,

or

between

the

same

me-

in

148

OF

PARALLELS.

the

the latitude
parallels;till at last, when
becomes
0, or nothing, the parallel is lost in the
equator. It is accordingly by the latitude that we
distinguish them ; thus, the parallel of 30" is that
which
latitude is
through every place whose
passes
30 degrees ; but it is necessary
to explain yourself
north or south
latitude.
according as you mean
On consulting an
accurate
will observe
map,
you
the
under
is situated
that Hanover
same
parallel
with Berlin, the latitude of both
being 52" 32' ; and
are

that

of

cities

the

Brunswick

and

Amsterdam

fall

ridians
parallel; but that the mepassing through these places are different. If
and the parallelunder which
the meridian
you know
to ascertain
its
any place is situated,you are enabled
actual positionon the globe. If it were
affirmed, for
the
example, that a certain place is situated under

nearly

under

meridian

only

the

B N

same

A, and

where

to look

have

parallelF
I, will give the

by

the

parallelF

the

the meridian
L

G, and

true

G, you
B N A

would
is intersected

the

section
point of interposition of the given

place.
employed by geographers to
the
real situation of every
determine
place on the
have
face of the globe. You
only to ascertain its
its corresponding methe latitude,and
or
ridian.
parallel,
and
to
mark
As
to the parallel,it is easy
distinguish it from every other ; you have only to
from
indicate
the equator,
the latitude or distance
according as it is north or south : but how describe
other?
a
meridian, and distinguish it from
every
They have a perfect resemblance, they are all equal
has a special and distinctive
to each other, and no one
It depends therefore
mark.
to make
upon ourselves
choice
of a certain
meridian, and to fix it,in order
all others to that one.
to refer
If, for example, in
Fig. 103, (p. 146),referred to at the beginning,we
Such

were

are

to fix

the

on

to indicate every

means

A, it would be easy
other meridian, say B M A, by simply

the

meridian

B D

the

equator

fixed

meridian

ascertainingon
the

between

149

PARALLELS.

OF

the

arch

B D

question B M A, adding only in

the fixed meridian
proceed from
whether

from

This

fixed

of
it

to

that

The

of

one

their

first

Dutch

draw

islands, called
French

German

the

and

have

But

fixed

think

made
the

on

geographers,
mark
the equator
on
reckon

other

passes

always
point

the

from

the

by degrees

meridians

have

Germans

already referred,
meridian, and
situated
mark

any

of

this

points

pass ; and
to reckon

agreed

In

all the

both
from

B M

A,

and

this

Am.

by

maps
Ed.

to

the

A.

arch

of the

and

the

meridian

of

I have

be

the

and

only,in

first
were

order

indicate
arch

to

the

is what

situated

places

like manner,
the meridian
B N A have

B M

In

equator M

under

all the

places
their longitude
equator D N, expressed

seconds.

of Greenwich,
the meridian
English maps
the Royal Observatory is situated, is made

American
taken."

B D

have

east, you

arch

degrees, minutes,
29th August, 1761.

where

of the

points

meridian, say
the

under

determined

semicircle

longitude of

meridian

situated

the

the

other

call the

the

the

towards

magnitude

isle

follow

you
it is

If,therefore, in Fig. 103, (p. 146),to which

in

to east.*

west

we

ferred,
re-

choice

not

have

whether

first meridian

point you afterward

all
through which
French

will

is

and
Canaries, for this purpose,
meridian
Germans
through it. The
theirs through another
of the Canary

Teneriffe.

which

other,

east.

should

French

carefully to

through

you

the

or

necessary

nations

different

choice.

the

which

to

in

one

other
every
first meridian ; and the

meridian,

being arbitrary,you

Ferro,

the

towards

west

or

the

direction

meridian

different

and

west,

what

the

strange

draw

to

M, contained

and

is called
this

of

east

the

N2

city of

village

the

near

London,

first meridian.

Washington

is

In

generally

150

FIRST

MERIDIAN.

LETTER

of

Choice
You

have

XLIV.

the First

received

now

Meridian.

information

complete

the latitude and the

respecting-what is denominated
longitude of a place on the surface of the globe.
the
Latitude
is computed
meridian
of the given
on
place, up to the equator ; in other words, it is the
distance
of the parallelpassing through that place
from
the equator ; and to prevent all ambiguity,it is

necessary
is north
As

longitude,we

of the meridian

determine

must

given place from

is computed on
distance
of the

;/and this
the

this latitude

or

distance

the

distance

the

first

the

equator,

south.

or

to

from

whether

to express

first meridian

to the

place, always proceeding from

meridian
west

words, longitude is the distance

of

to east

of the

the
;

ridian
me-

given

in other

meridian

of

the

given place from the first computing the degrees

said.
the equator, as I have just now
on
We
always compute, then, from the first meridian
have comit is evident,that when
eastward
we
puted
; and
are
brought back preup to 360 de'grees,we
cisely
to the first meridian, as 360 degrees complete
the

of

circumference

the

be

particularplace found
longitude,the meridian
degree distant from
only one

but

towards

were

any
degree of

10"

westward.

all

ambiguity

You

why

up to
will

to

be

For

in

fix

towards

doubt

on

this

reason,

in

one

have

the
the

359th

of that
the

place would
first meridian,
of longitude

350"
a

distance

in order

determining longitude,we

360"
no

in the

west.

geographers,

agreed

to

In like manner,
exactly correspond with

the

would

reckon

Accordingly,

equator.

of

to

avoid

go

on

to

east.

curiosity to

know

the first meridian, have

settling
of the Canary Islands.
I beg

FIRST

leave

to

reply,that

settlingthe

151

MERIDIAN.

intention

the

to

was

begin with

of

limits

the west
Europe towards
; and
as these
islands, called the Canaries, and situated in
the Atlantic
Ocean, beyond Spain, towards
America,
still considered
were
as
part of Europe, it was
thought proper to draw the first meridian
through

the

of

the

Canary Islands, that we

the other
to compute
meridians
might be enabled
without
interruption,not only all over
Europe, but
of Asia ; from
extent
through the whole
whence,
towards
the east, we
arrive
at
going on to reckon
return
at length to the first
America, and thence
most

remote

meridian.
But
the

of the

which

to

preference

made

choice

that

of

isles

was

isle of

Tenerifle,because
then

not

remote

that the

Germans

the real situation

which

of

besides, the German

mountain

named

them

of these
it was

the

was

most

geographers imagined
Peak

the

it were,

as

the

France

by

of

the hand

Teneriffe
of

was

Nature

for

ridiculous

to

first meridian.

Be
draw

this
the

position

it
it may,
first meridian
as

not

Canaries

globe is not
tillvery latelythat

in that

may

case

that

pass
can

determine

other
every
find out its distance

that

other

only

to

meridian

add

longitudeof
meridian

be

it 20

is

be

and

the situation
the

reason

most

precisely
observatory at

of the
what

it is

spot the first

the

undoubtedly

adopted ;

and

in order

to

meridian, the simplest way is

from
that of Paris : then, if
more

to

the

have

east, you

degrees, in order to
the places situated under
it ;
westward
to that of Paris,

to

of the

first meridian

that

this

regarding through

method

surest

from

distant

Paris, without

For

fix the

astronomers

degrees

20

real
place whose
perfectlydetermined
;

through

ascertained.

was

accurate

rather

seems

the

on

for it was

to

Ferro, and

give

we

ascertained, and
sufficiently

known

pointed out,
the

of the

perhaps

not

Canary Isles shall

Certain
geographers of

have

the

but

if this

you

must

152
subtract

the

distance

this distance

degrees

of the

from

towards
subtract

you
20

the

is

west

than

more

20

grees,
de-

degrees, that is,from

the longitude
to have

380

360, in order

above

Finally,if

degrees.

20

it from

meridian.
of

Thus, the meridian

of

MERIDIAN.

FIRST

the

of

meridian

Berlin

will be 31"
of

Paris

with

the
east

situated

the

under

meridian

meridian

of

than

of

will be

Petersburg

The

longitude of
likewise
the longitude
same

Berlin.

In like manner,
28" more
to the
of

eastward

2', the

this is

places

to the

being

11"

2' ; and

all other

meridian

Berlin

of

that

Petersburg being
Paris, the longitude

48".

James's, London, is

St.

the

west

17"

therefore,that quantityfrom 20", the remainder,

34' 45", gives the
longitude of St. James's,

than

that

of

Paris

2" 25'

to

more

by

ing,
15" ; subtract-

London.
Let
meridian
that of

take

now

us

of

which

Paris

cityof

the
is 79"

"

27

46

; that distance

32'

Now,

when

known,

are

the

and

enabled

to

are

we

the

latitude

in

Peru, the

to the

westward

of
from

be subtracted

must

will leave
degrees; which
15", the longitude of Lima.*

380

Lima

remainder

longitude of
ascertain

terrestrial

of

310"

place

its true

position
; for as
map
which
the

globe, or on ,a
the
latitude
marks
the
parallel under
ridian
gives the meplace is situated, and the meridian
of the same
the point where
the parallel
place,
on

intersects

the

meridian

will

be

exactly the place in

question.
You

have

but

for

example, and
parallels marked
from

the

This

equator

method

The

English

on."

Ed.

of

reckon

to look

that of
map,
the degrees
see

will

you
on

at

both

; above

sides, or
and

below

their
are

Europe,
of

the

distances

the

degrees

entirely abandoned.
reckoning the longitude is now
it from
from Paris, and
Greenwich, the French

so

of

the

longitude,or
from
The

maps,
of five

are

each

drawn

up

several

ridians
me-

usually traced
at

other.
and

In

most

maps

the

and

down,

on

distance

the

the

parallels

the upper
part is directed towards
under
to the
south, the right-hand

north, the

the east, and

side towards

the left-hand

west.

It is likewise
meet

their distance

always

is

where

the

that

to be

at the

approach

that

the

right :

side towards
the

of

first.

from

degrees

left to

the

distances

are
parallelsand meridians
degree by degree, sometimes

meridians
from

the

153

LATITUDE.

THE

DETERMINING

OP

to

that

remarked,

two

poles,the

either

becomes

of

; at the

the

meridians

are

ridians
meany two
poles the smaller

more

on

and

all

traced, you

they gradually approximate

is,the north

ridians
me-

equator their distance

Accordingly

greatest.

all the

as

good

maps,
observe

will

the

towards

their distances

increase

as

top,
you

the equator. This is all that seems

proceed towards
to be requisitefor the understanding of geographical
charts
of which
to
an
by means
attempt is made
represent the surface, or part of the surface, of the

globe.
But
the

principalobject was
my
real position of every spot

on

the

globe

how

is determined

by its latitude and longitude.

September,1761.

1st

LETTER

Method

IT

to demonstrate

of determining the Latitude, or

of the Pole.

being a

latitude
ascertain
are, you

XLV.

matter

of such

the Elevation

the
importance to know
and longitude of every
place, in order to
exactly the spot of the globe where
you
be sensible that it is equally important
must

154

OF

discover

to

DETERMINING

the

LATITUDE.

THE

of

means

certainlyarrivingat

such

knowledge.
be more
who
Nothing can
interesting to a man
has
been
long at sea, or after a tedious journey
at
regions, than to be informed
through unknown
what
not he
or
precise spot he is arrived ; whether
known
is near
he
some
course
country, and what
in order
it. The
to reach
ought to pursue
only
of relieving such
from
his anxiety
a
means
person
would
undoubtedly be to give him the latitude and
he is ; but what
must
longitude of the place where
this most
he
do to attain
?
important information
him on the ocean,
Let. us suppose
or in a vast
desert,
where

there

is

no

whom

one

having ascertained, by
of

or

where
his

the

he

help of

the latitude and

maps,
he is,he will with ease

consult.

can

After

terrestrial

longitude of
from

them

globe,
place

the

determine

sary
present position,and be furnished with the necesinformation
respecting his future progress.

to
proceed therefore
are
chiefly we
astronomy
latitude and
longitude of

and

not
that I may
which
methods

inform

you

enabled

to determine

the

tire you

by

place
a

that

where

tedious

it is

by
the

we

are

detail

of all

have

employed for
I shall satisfymyself with
this important purpose,
presenting a general idea of them, trusting that this
the knowledge
to you
will be sufficient to convey
method
is founded.
of the principleson which
every
is involved
the latitude, which
I begin with
in
the determination
scarcely any difficulty
; whereas
the

astronomers

of the

longitudeseems

human

research, especially at

hitherto
sea,

precision is requisite. For the

last,accordingly,very considerable
proposed, as an encouragement
direct

their talents
so

and

from

and

honour

be the fruit of it.

where

defied

all

the utmost

discovery of this
prizes have been
to

the

learned

to

their

interesting,both
the

to have

and

covery
a disindustry towards
from
its own
importance

emolument

which

are

to

156

OF

DETERMINING

THE

L ; our
horizon
always
earth at the place where
Let

touching
we

the

surface

of the

are.

pole of the
heavens
P, which
distant, the straight
being infinitely
line L Q directed
to it will be parallelto the line
A B P, that is,to the axis of the earth : this pole of
the heavens
will appear,
the zenith
therefore, between
and
the horizon
L T ; and the angle T L Q, indicated
the
how
much
by the letter m, will show
vated
straightline L Q, in the direction of the pole, is eleabove
the horizon
this angle m is denominate
; hence
the elevation of the pole.
You
have
undoubtedly heard
frequent mention
made
of the elevation
of the pole,or, as some
call it,
the heightof the pole; which
is nothing else but the
tion
angle formed
by the straight line L Q in the direcof the pole and
of the place where
the horizon
You
of the
have
are.
we
a perfect comprehension
of
possibilityof measuring this angle m, by means
astronomical
an
instrument, without
going into
my
any

us

now

further

look

LATITUDE.

from

towards

the

detail.

this angle m, or the height of the

Having measured
pole, it will give you precisely the latitude of the
make
this appear,
To
place L, that is, the angle y.
it is only necessary
that the two
to demonstrate
gles
anand y are
m
equal.
Now
the line L Q being parallelto C P, the angles
and n are
m
alternate, "nd consequently equal. And
the line L T being perpendicular to the radius
C L,
the angle C L T of the triangleC L T must
be a right
angle, and the other two angles of that triangle,n
and a?, must
But
be together equal to a right angle.
the arch B D being the quadrant of a circle,the angle
BCD
likewise
be a right angle ; the two angles
must
and
x
together equal to the two
y, therefore, are
the angle x from
Take
both,
angles n and x.
away
the angle y equal to the angle
and there will remain
the
n ; but
angle n has been
proved equal to the

KNOWLEDGE

OF

157

LONGITUDE.

THE

angle m, therefore the angle y is likewise equal to

the angle ra.
that the angle y exIt has already been remarked
presses
the latitude of the place L, and the angle m
the elevation
or height of the pole at the same
place
L ; the latitude of any
place, therefore,is always
place.
equal to the height of the pole at that same
which
for
The means
observing
astronomy supplies
the latitude
the height of the pole indicate therefore
required.
Astronomical

observations

accordingly informed
pole is 52" 3#, and
of that
This

is

city is

hence

conclude

we

likewise

the

52"

height

have
of the

that the

tude
lati-

32'.

instance
to demonstrate
remarkable
very
ment
the heavens
assist us in the attainmay

one

how
of the
to the

that there

us

at Berlin

made

knowledge

of

objects which

relate

only

earth.

5th

September,1761.

LETTER

XLVI.

Knowledge of the Longitude,from a Calculation of

Direction,and of the Space passedthrough.
I
on

the

proceed to the longitude; and remark that,

taking a departure, whether
by land or water,
NOW

from
the

known

spot

place,it would
had

we

length

of the

We

measure

be

reached, did

we

easy
know

to ascertain

exactly

the

road, and the direction which we

sued.
purThis might, in such a case, be effected even
without
the aid of astronomy ; and this obliges me
to enter into a more
particulardetail on the subject.
know

how

miles

go to

thus

we
we

VOL.

the

many
are

an

II. ~O

feet
arch

enabled

have

length

of

road

feet ; we
how
many

by

mile, and
of one
degree upon the globe :
tance
to express
in degrees the disgo

travelled-

to

158

KNOWLEDGE

As

the

to

OF

route

THE

LONGITUDE.

direction

or

in which

travel,it
position of the
we

is necessary
the
accurately to know
meridian
at every
we
are.
place where
proceeds in one direction towards

pole, and in the

only to draw, on
are,

called

the

office of

it is

the

with

the

the

the

direction

plane

one

of

being

the

north, and

of the

other

S towards

With

let there

is then

it is easy

to

prehend
com-

furnish

may

other

actly
ex-

dicularly
perpenthat instant,

fall,at
sun

is

meridian

direction

pi.

105.

so

many
to the

is

N
the

the south.
meridian

every

his

; or, which
sun

will

Hence

towards

the

is at

sun

staff fixed

extremities

directed

S,
meridian,

the

be

line very

accurately tracing a

of

means

of the
of

observation

an

straightline

Fig. 105,

possible

againperform

horizon

the

be.
we
line,wherever
may
Having traced a meridian,
very easily determined.
Let

All

meridian

when

precisely northward.
us

have

must

horizontal

how

south, you

place.

this

south, and the shadow

on

north

heavens

above

thing, the

same

that

midday

greatest elevation
the

the

guide.

know

^You

ridian
me-

of the spot where

you
north
is
to south, which

to trace

here

the

horizon

line of

taken

be

must

the

towards

from

meridian

accurately,and
the

the

straightline

care

other

As

this

be drawn

at

right angles the straight

line E W, whose
extremity
E shall be directed
the

east, and
W

Having

the

towards
divided

into sixteen

towards

other

tremity
ex-

the west.
the

circle

equal parts, we
directions,denominated

shall have

according
affixed to them
and
in
of not
case
;
pursuing
which
exactly corresponds with some
one

ent
differletters
a

tion
direcof the

OF

KNOWLEDGE

sixteen, the

angle

S,

wrth

or

It is thus

long
of

we

as

we

are

the true
to

indicate

which

with

the

that

meridian

is

both

certain
pursued, it will be very easy to ashave
we
arrived, and
place at which
We
its longitude and latitude.
ploy
em-

which
for this purpose
accurate
an
map,
the point of departure, and that which
we
reached

quantity
easy

and

by

of miles

trace,

to

viating
de-

perpendicular to it.
enabled
to determine
are
exactly the
in travelling; and
we
so
pursue
assured
of the length of the way,
and

direction

the

which

W,

which

direction

makes

direction

of

line

marked

be

must

159

LONGITUDE.

THE

or

that go to
map, the track

leagues

such

on

have

scale, which

of the

means

tains
con-

gives the
degree, it is

pursued

and

completed.

Fig.
from

106

left to

represents

right the degrees

Fig.
13

14-

15

15

16

17

JL6

IT

18

18

Iff

JL9

which

on

map,

of

marked

are

longitude, and

those

106.
20

20

22

2J

21

24

22

23

25

20

2+

25

160

KNOWLEDGE

of latitude
the

on

top to bottom ; it is likewise visible

of it,that the meridians
as
converge

face

on

the

towards

towards

other

the

LONGITUDE.

from

they approach
each

THE

OP

the

and

retire

from

is the

actual

case

north,

south,

as

globe.

contains
part of the surface of the earth,
map
the 53d degree of north latitude to the 59th degree

This
from

from

; and

the

13th

degree

of

the

longitude to

26th.

Suppose, then,
L, the longitude
57"

20', and

and

have

departure from

of

is

that I

travelled

to determine

order

I take

my
which

16", and

in the

proceed

the

the

place

latitude
E

direction

E,

In
space of 345 English miles.
the longitude and latitude of the

place I have reached, I draw from the place L the

straightline L M, making with the meridian an angle
of 67" 30',the same
angle which the direction E S E
with N S.
Then
in the preceding figure makes
on
that line I take, according to the scale marked
on
the chart, L M equal to 345 English miles, and the
point M shall be the place which I have reached.
the
this place with
I have
then only to compare
meridians
and parallels
traced on the map, and I find
that its longitude is 24" nearly ; and on measuring
more
exactly the part of the degree to be added to
the 24th degree, I find the longitudeof the point M
to be

24"

between

4'.
the

25', and
It has

pursued
but

to the

55th

and

56th

degree,
55"

the
its

place M, which
longitude 24" 4'.

here
the

if I have

been

same

from

it to

latitude,I observe

I find it to be

computation
of

As

25' ;

1 have

supposed

and
so

by
that

easy
the latitude
is 55"

invariably

direction,E S E, from
time

to

time

first to last ;
deviated
from
that

direction, I have only to perform the same

each deviation,to find the place where
on
this I take

fresh

operation
I then

departure,and trace
direction till another
deviation takes place; and
my
it is
so
object. By these means
on, tillI reach
my
travellingby sea or
always in my power, whether

was

from

an

reached,

that I have

be

KNOWLEDGE

161

LONGITUDE.

THE

OF

place I have reached ; provided

the
I know
exactly, through my whole
progress,
with equal accuracy
direction I pursue, and measure
the length of the way.
with the asWe
dispense even
might in this case
the

land, to ascertain

unless

sistance of astronomy,
determine

accurately to
needle

or

compass

in many

may,

for it

direction, or the angle

our

the meridian

with

it makes

which

occasion

had

we

the

but

magnetic
this

supply

cases,

want.

You
make

to

sensible,however, that it is possible

considerable
mistake, both in the
very
be

must
a

computation of the
especially in
way,

direction

and

voyages.
the direction

when

? and

exactlythe length of the way

travel by land we
not reduced
are

But

we

to

this

accuracy,

the

same

of

METHOD

length

utilityin
every

of

the meridian

with

determine, with
of all

places.

September,1761.

Continuation.

under

by geometrical
the
and
places,

measure

situation

true

XLVII.

LETTER

the

is it possible

how

tolerable

travelling

measure

enabled
to
are
expedient ; for we
experiments the distance
make
angles which the distances
of every
can
place ; and thus we
8th

in

the

often

How

long

very

is it necessary
to change
from hence
to Magdeburg
even
to

length of

of the

Defectsof

observing

of the

sea

voyages,
the necessity of

moment,
wind we

Pilots

as
can

seems

because

observing the

course

to

of the

she has made.

O

pursued and
be of singular

there

deviating from
in travellingby land
proceed in the same

accordingly very

are

the progress

direction

the

course,

this Method.

we

are

not

the direction
;

for with

the

direction.
in

vessel, and in

exactly
measuring

They keep

accurate

attentive

an

162

KNOWLEDGE

OF

journal of all these

day, nay still more
sea-charts
of

to mark

the

on

time, the point where

consequently

at the close

observations

frequently ; they trace

they have made,
progress

the

enabled

are

LONGITUDE.

THE

they

are

period

of which

*and

and

thus

they

longitude.

cordingly
Ac-

regular,and the
vessel is not agitated by a tempest, good pilotsare
mistaken
seldom
they are in doubt, they
; but when
have
to astronomical
recourse
observations, from
which
they discover the elevation of the pole ; and
this being always equal to the latitude of the place
it with
that which
where
they are, they compare
the chart, conformably to the
on
they have marked
If these are found to
computation of their progress.
coincide, their computation is just ; if they discover
with certaintythat some
a difference, they conclude
in the computation of the
committed
has been
error
distance
and of the course
amine
; in that case
they re-exand
the other more
both
the one
carefully,
and endeavour
to apply the necessary
corrections,
in order to make
with
the computation agree
the
observation
of the height of the pole,or of the latitude,
which
is equal to it.
be sufficient in short voyages,
This precaution may
so

the

as

importance
last

the

place

considerably from
the

can

in very
accumulate

gross
where

is

course

; but

may
very

as

committed

errors

mistakes

long

the

and

charts, for every

the latitude

know

of every
their
on

in these

be of

great

no

these

long

voyages,
to such
a

slight
that

at
degree
mistake
be committed, and
may
the vessel
differ
actually is may
what
it was
supposed to be on

chart.

I have

hitherto

proceeded quietly;

voyage

during

which

concussions

the
of

vessel

wind

computation of
deranged, and that
the

chart

the

on

gone

the

progress

is

and

she

but should

subjected

to

waves,

distance
it is

supposition

and

course

made.

rudest

the
is

trace

the

arise,

storm

it is evident

impossible to

has

that

that

entirely
on

the

164

KNOWLEDGE

trust them.

OF

We

have

but

ships dashed on concealed

these were
computed to be
It

late, that
the

of

the

like

vessels

caught in.it are

river

has

ocean

it flow
In

occasioned

been

which

too

deranged

by

the

culations
cal-

navigators.

fact,when

In

had

ocean,

considerable

discovered, when

calamities

of the

currents

still at

afterward

was

these

fatal instances
many
rocks and lost, because

too

of

distance.

LONGITUDE.

THE

river, following

which

current

carried

certain

away
that

makes

direction,

imperceptibly.

is
current
clearly perceive
the
or
carrying us along, by observing the banks
bottom
land is visible,and the depth
no
; but at sea
is too great to admit of our
making any observation
from
the bottom.
At
sea, then, it is impossible
a

we

to discern

the

mistakes

Whether,

not,

fallingon

respecting both

course

methods

12th

of

places where

we

be

into the

tempests

count
ac-

necessityof
ascertaining the longitude
under

may

the

arrive

and

of the

of

the

you.

September,1761.

Method

sure

VERY

XLVIII.

of determiningthe Longitude,by means

of an exact Timepiece.
method

clock, watch,

to say,

ful
dreadmany
and distance.

employed for acquiring

longitude I now
proceed to

LETTER
Second

so

hitherto

methods

knowledge

inform

take

we

always

are

we

other

of the
this

hence

therefore,

or

various

; and

currents

the

which

exactly, that

or

should
no

findingthe longitudewould
pendulum, so perfect,that is
always go so equally and so
of

concussion

should

be

able to affect

its motion.

Supposing
see

in what

such
manner,

timepiece constructed, let

should
of it,we
by means

us

be

meridians, which

of

through
You

day

place on
every
that the
know
round

circle

that,

earth, and

the

globe.

to describe

seems

every

of

quence,
conse-

all the meridians

successivelyover

he passes

twenty-four hours.

of

in the space

of the

the surface
sun

to be drawn

conceive

to

are

we

We

consideration

the

to

return, for this purpose,

must

longitude.

of the

problem

the

to solve

enabled

165

LONGITUDE.

THE

OF

KNOWLEDGE

or
through a
is said to pass
over
Now, the sun
given meridian, if a straightline drawn from the sun
of the earth C, Fig. 107,
to the centre
^
p.

line drawn

from

the

the

earth

pass

through

A,

in that

was

be

all the

to

this meridian

under
be

midday

noon

of the meridian
circuit

from
N

east

before

consequently it
B

he

than

situated
every

it would

other

precise instant;
after it everywhere
is situated

A, the

reaches
be

sun

it would

then

west, must

will

earlier

to

the

but under

or

meridian

If the

that

places

that

at

be before

there

of

meridian

the

say
and

meridian,

midday

not

would

we

the

case

to the centre

sun

""

meridian.

precisely through that

If, therefore, in the present

pass

in

under

the

else.
the

ward
east-

making

pass over
the meridian

midday

under

sun,

to

it would

the

meridian

the
B

his

dian
meriM

meridian
B

when, therefore, it shall be midday under this last

to the
meridian, midday under every other meridian
eastward
with

will be

them.

On

under
the

And

as

the

sun

the meridian

over
as

the

and

he

be

afternoon

be

noon
still fore-

meridian, say B D A, situated

every

westward,

passed

already past,or it will

the contrary, it will

motion

of

reach

cannot

B
the

it till he

to

has

A.
sun

form,
regular and uniof the globe, that

is

completes his circuit

is 360 degrees, in twenty-four hours, he must
every
arch
of 15 degrees.
hour describe
fore,
an
When, thereat Berlin,and
it is noon
at every
other place
the same
will be
situated under
meridian, noon

166

KNOWLEDGE

THE

OF

LONGITUDE.

alreadypast under meridians situated to the eastward ;

and
still under
the meridian
ated
situmore
particularly
15 degrees to the eastward
of that of Berlin, it
will already be one
o'clock ; under the meridian
30
grees,
degrees eastward, two o'clock ; under that of 45 dethree

o'clock

will take

the
of

place under

only eleven
15 degrees to

meridian

15

to

an

and

45

hour

To
Paris.
the

eastward

15

degrees,

of

Paris, it

at

midday
at

us

the

be

clocks
of

The

ridian
me-

under

difference

of

always amounting

will

at

noon

this

and

hour to

an

three-quarters
therefore, it is midday
and

or

29

at Paris

city till 44

Hence

should

that

time,

seconds

when
reciprocally,
only be 15 minutes

last

and

17' 15" to

is 11"

and

minutes

it is evident,

always

this difference

be

31

that

so

faster

ought

after

it is midday

and

o'clock

afterward.
at Berlin

of

been

now

17' 15" will give 44

of 11"

minutes

be 44

has

cities Berlin

two

Berlin

When,

Berlin, it will

minutes

"

Paris, reckoning

of

nearly.

Paris, and

44

of

seconds

29

at Berlin ;

seconds

the

this difference

after eleven
not

the

meridian

the

clearlywhat

compare
meridian

of that

and
hour

an

meridians

still more

let

As

minutes

on

the

o'clock

under

so

to

there, it

noon

under

ten

trary
con-

of time.

elucidate

remarked,

situated

forenoon

o'clock

The

on.

it is

westward,

of 30, nine

degrees westward,
two
degrees between

when

o'clock
the

so

meridians

of that of Berlin

westward
will be

afternoon, and

onds
sec-

it will
and

that

than

to be

29

the

those

nearly

29 seconds.

between

difference

the

meridians

of

Berlin

nearly 1" 40' ; Berlin therefore is

of Magdeburg ; and
this difference
to the eastward
and
reduced
40 seconds,
to time
gives 6 minutes
of Berlin ought to indicate
which
the clocks
more
than that of Magdeburg.
Consequently,if it is just
at Magdeburg, and the clocks
now
noon
there, which
well regulated,point to XII., the clocks
I suppose
at Berlin
should, at the same
instant, indicate 6
and

Magdeburg

is

KNOWLEDGE

and

minutes
is

there

OF

seconds

40

167

LONGITUDE.

THE

after

that

XII.,

is, noon

already past.

Hence

in

that

see,

you

proportion

places

as

differ

situated
under
different
longitude, or as they are
meridians,
well-regulated timepieces ought not to
hour
at the
instant, but the
same
point out the same
in

difference

ought
the longitude is
In employing
the

of

longitude

it would

first be

place
by observing
some

the

when

the

and

where

be

to
15

hour

when

that

of

degrees.

'timepiece, then, for ascertaining

the
we
places through which
pass,
it
to
regulate
exactly at
necessary
This
is done
we
actually were.
a

instant

the

of

over

passes

sun

whole

the

timepiece
ought
ought afterward
that
after
always

that

noon,

is, the

meridian

then

instant

of that

place

point precisely to
be
XII.
It
to
adjusted in such a
revolution
of 24 hours,
a
manner,
the sun
to the meridian, the index
when
after
returns
two
circuits, should
complete
having made
again
If this is carefully observed,
point exactly to XII.
well

such

and

the

meridians,
the

longitude,

watch,
;

at

the

at the

degrees
Knowing,

that

of

one

of

if

they

indicated

whole

will
hour

coincide

not

situated

under

situated

are

is, if there

moment,

same

rate

; but

time

will

tii"?se be

unless

meridian

same

different
of

regulated timepieces
places,

different

to

be

by

the

likewise
of time

in
one

under

difference
clock

or

be

ent
differ-

for

every

longitude.
of time
indicated
then, the difference
different
at
places,
by well regulated timepieces,
and
enabled
at the
are
instant, we
same
exactly to
of longitude
at
the
difference
these
two
compute
hour,
places, reckoning always 15 degrees for an
and the fourth
part of a degree for a minute.
15

15J/4

September, 1761.

168

KNOWLEDGE

OF

LONGITUDE.

THE

LETTER

XLIX.

Continuation) and further Elucidations.

You
which

different

with

where

the

with

noon

that

the

us.

where

he

towards

the

that there

are

is but
with

just rising.

the

one,

and

instant that
other, at the same
You
know, besides, that with

noon

our

and

already night

antipodes,who are
opposite to ours,
; so

countries

are

already set,

west

be

with

morning

it is

is

sun

therefore

It must
still

the

recollect, that while

you

there

us,

towards

others

us

meridians, when

noon

east

our

surprisedat the difference of time

regulated timepieces must indicate under

well

it is

less

will be

under
it is

the

meridian

night, while

cally
diametri-

it is

day with
corresponds exactly to their

midnight.
It will be

an

easy

matter,

after these

elucidations,

timepiece may assist us in

discoveringthe difference ol" meridians, or that of the
longitude,at different places.
piece,
Supposing me possessed of such an excellent timewhich, once
exactlyregulated,shows me every
day the precise time it is at Berlin,so that whenever
it is noon
at Berlin, it points precisely to XII.:
posing
supfurther, that it goes so regularly,that once
to touch
it,and
adjusted,I have no further occasion
is not to be deranged either by the
that its motion
shaking of a carriage,or the agitation of a vessel
to

on

show

how

an

exact

by any
exposed.

the ocean,

it may
be
Provided

or

thus

with

concussion

whatever

timepiece

of

this

to which

descripby sea ;

travel,whether
by land or
I will, its motion
perfectlyassured, that go where
will be steady and
at
uniform, as if I had remained
tion, I

Berlin
moment

set

out

it will

it is

to

every
noon

day point to
at Berlin, and

XII.

at

the very

that wherever

KNOWLEDGE

may
at

OF

happen to
Magdeburg:
the

/passes

the

this

being then noon

timepiece, and observe
seconds

that when

it is

XII.

after
at

noon

when

happens
at

he
is

he

Magdeburg,

it

points to

whence

first

when

sun

it

and

I arrive

journey,

I observe

there

my
and 40

minutes

this

On

meridian, and

exactlysouth
I consult

be.

169

LONGITUDE.

THE

Magdeburg,

clude,
con-

at

noon

already past, and that the difference is

6' 40" of time, which
correspond to 1" 40' of distance ;
ward
therefore
is to the westthe meridian
of Magdeburg
of that of Berlin.
The
longitude of Berlin,
therefore, being nearly 31" 7' 15', the longitude of
Magdeburg will be 1" 40' less, that is,it will be 29"
Berlin

is

27' 15".

I thence

proceed
timepiece,which

my

when

depend
the

; so

it is

exactlynoon

when

15" to the westward

hour, that is

an

of time

that

the

at

meridian
of that of

there

; and

for

sun,

Berlin

serving
ob-

I cannot
announce

announces

is

noon

past

Hamburgh: hence
is 3" 23'
of Hamburgh
Berlin ; reckoning 15"
at

for every four minutes

accordingly,I find that 13' 33" of time give

one

3" 23' 15'' of distance

The
27"

by

noon

XII.

conclude, that the

to

touch

never

public clocks which there

find my
timepiece already

hour, I

13' 33"

the

on

13' 33'' after

it is

Hamburgh, accompanied by

to

degree

for

the

difference

longitudeof Hamburgh

of the

will be of

ridians.
me-

course

44'.

At

Hamburgh I go to sea, stillaccompaniedby my

I arrive at a place
timepiece, and after a long voyage
of which
I ascerwhere, waitingfor noon, the moment
tain
by observing the sun, I find that my timepiece
indicates only 58' 15" after X. ; so that then it is not
yet

Berlin, and the difference

and 45 seconds, from which

at

noon

1 minute

the

place at

Berlin

of time

and

which
as

15', and

of the

one

45

I have

hour

arrived

will

is 1 hour

conclude, that

is to the eastward

gives 15 degrees, one

seconds

meridians

of time

of

minute

11' 15", the difference

therefore
be 15" 26' 15'

of time

tfoL. II

"

170

KNOWLEDGE

THE

OF

LONGITUDE.

of
find,then, that I am at a place to the eastward
Berlin, whose
longitude is greater than that of Berlin
I

by 15"
nearly

26' 15"
31"

7'

be

must

am

under

15", the

to

as

find the

Thus

now

point of

the

this,I have
and

longitude of that citybeing

I
longitude of the place where

46" 33' 30".

meridian

what

ascertain

the

; now

discovered

I have
I

; but

am

still

am

the meridian.

In order

to astronomical

recourse

height of

the

pole to

be

certain
un-

to

vations,
obser-

precisely

likewise

that I am
still in the northern
Knowing
hemisphere, as I have not passed the equator, I
that I actuallyam
at a place whose
latitude
discover
fore
I take thereis 41" north, and longitude 46" 33' 30".
and trace the meridian
whose
my globe or maps,
longitudeis 46" 33' 30" ; I look for the place whose
I find
latitude is 41", and at the point of intersection
I have
got to the city of Constantinople without
to any perhaving occasion to apply for information
son
41".

whatever.

place of the globe I may arrive,

able to
possessed of a timepiece so exact, I am
ascertain the longitude of it ; and then an observation
its latitude.
of the height of the pole will show
me
Thus,

All that

at whatever

remains, therefore, is

good

globe, or

ascertain

where

country may
It is

map,
I am,

in other

much

to

be

greatest abilityhave

it will

however

the terrestrial

be easy
unknown

for
to

me
me

to

the

respects be.

regretted,that
hitherto

been

artists of
unsuccessful

the
in

scribed,
timepieces such as I have dethe case
meet
and such
as
requires. We
with
good pendulum machines,
a
great many
very
fixed in undisturbed
but they go regularlyonly when
is apt to derange
situations ; the slightestconcussion
therefore
their motion
totallyuseless in
; they are
It is obvious
that the pendulum,
long sea voyages.
which
regulates the motion, is incapableof resistingit is exposed in navigation.
to which
the shocks
About
ten
English artist
years
ago, however, an
pretendedthat he had constructed a timepiece proof
the

construction

of

and

to take

172

KNOWLEDGE

that

have

we

often

enter
one

and

the

the

mean

our

them

employ

to

power

so

requires.

know

that

other

its end

time

middle

of

the

the

them

eclipse.

The

remains

time

some

eclipse,during
the

when

and

between

in

for

is

moon

wholly immerged

when

LONGITUDE.

THE

it
eclipsed when
of the earth : it is possible
into the shadow
the moon
the moment
when
observe
begins
she has emerged ;
into the shade, and when
the beginning of the eclipse,
is denominated

passes
then to
the

in

it not

occasion

as

You

to

OF

both

is denominated

invisible

which

we

may

is

moon

shadow

the

observed,

are

sometimes

earth, and

of the
;

this

call

we

remark

the

entirelydisappears, and

moon

the

total

moment

that

when

is called the
former
; the
emerge
beginning of total darkness, and the latter the end of
she

begins

it.

But

to

when

part only of the

is

moon

obscured,

only
partialeclipse ; and we can remark
know
the moment
of its beginning and ending. You
likewise
that eclipsesof the moon
can
happen only
at the full,and that but rarely.
is observed
When,
therefore, an
eclipse of the moon
different places situated under different
at two
meridians, the beginning of the eclipsewill be clearly
we

call it

seen

both, and

at

these

at

indicate

the

exactly the
each

of

doubt

indicate

same

degrees

15

the

difference

than

any
well

time

eclipse.

But

from

distant
of

end

place situated

mean

places

same

will

other

but

by

the
no

pieces
timemeans

division

of time

regulated timepieces,

at

the

if these
each

beginning
two

and

meridians

other, that

is,if

their

differ

must
to the

the

of the

are

more

or

instant

it is
points preciselyto XII. when
situated
place. If these places are
meridian, their timepieces will no

that

the

at the end

hour,

same

under

same

different

same

which

at

noon

at the

of

pieces
longitude be 15", the timea
complete hour from the ning
beginthe eclipse; the timepiece of the

to the

the other

eastward
:

the

will indicate

difference

of 30"

one

in

hour

longi-

KNOWLEDGE

OF

tude will occasion

regulated clocks or watches

according to the following table :

If,therefore,the difference

150",the timepieces would

beginning to
Thus,
different
is

the end

when

the

cated
indi-

in the time

hours

that of two

well

by

on,

173

LONGITUDE.

THE

of the

differ ten

; and

so

longitudewere
hours

from

the

of the
same

places,and the
exactly marked

eclipse.
eclipse is observed
of its

moment
on

the

at two

ment
commence-

timepieces

at

each,

it will be easy to calculate from the difference of the

time indicated, the difference
of longitude between
the

two

places. Now,

advanced
and

must

be

that where

situated

more

the

time

towards

is
the

more

east,

consequently its longitude greater,as longitude

is reckoned

from

west

to east.

accordingly,the longitude of the

By such means,
principal
places on the globe have been determined,
and geographical charts are constructed
conformably
to these determinations.
But it is always necessary
in a place the
to compare
the observations
made
not
was
longitude of which
already known, with
those which
in a known
had been
made
place, and
the result of that comparison.
to wait
Were
I to
at an
unknown
arrive, then, after a long voyage,
place,and an opportunity presented itself of there
this would, in the
observing an eclipse of the moon,
first instance, afford

me

no

P2

assistance

towards

the

174

KNOWLEDGE

of the

discovery

not, till after

with

learn

too

LONGITUDE.

THE

of that

longitude

return,
my
in a
made

another

should

OF

compare
known

late where

place
my

could

; I

observation

place, and

thus

at that time.

was

The

I at the moment
am
grand point in request is,How
to
information, that I may
acquire the necessary
take my
measures
accordingly1
of the moon
being so exactly
Now, the motion
known, it is possibleto attain this satisfaction ; for
hand
we
are
thereby enabled, not only to calculate beforebut to ascertain
the moment
all future eclipses,
pieces
of the beginning and
end, according to the timeknow
of a given place. You
that our
Berlin
almanacs
always indicate the beginning and the
of every
end
eclipse visible at that city. In the
I can
nish
furview, then, of undertaking a long voyage,
if an
myself with a Berlin almanac
; and
portunit
opitself
of
an
observing
eclipseof
presents
at an unknown
the moon
place, I must mark exactly
of it by a timepiece accurately regulated
the time
of the
the moments
by the sun at noon, and compare
beginning and end of the eclipsewith those indicated
in the

almanac, in order

between

meridian

the

to

of

ascertain
Berlin

the difference

and

which

that

I am.
place where
besides
the rarity of eclipses of the moon,
is subject to a further inconvenience
this method
;
sufficient
able
with
to
not
are
we
distinguish
always
end
of the beginning and
of
the moment
accuracy
the eclipse,which
on
so
comes
imperceptiblythat a
passes
But

through

mistake

of several
But

at

the

middle

the

end

as
as

point

seconds

may
very
will be
the mistake

of time

which

beginning,

the

at

will

that

of the

mitted.
comsame

calculate

we

the two

between
be

easily be
nearly the

served,
ob-

moments

eclipse;

the

and

we

this with that which

is indicated
compare
for Berlin, or
almanac
for any other known

afterward

by the
place.

If the

almanac

for next

year

should

not

be

pub-

KNOWLEDGE

lished when
last

to

I set out

more

THE

OF

on

eclipses calculated

the

supposing- it

or

voyage,
there
one,

my

than

years

175

LONGITUDE.

books

are

for several

taining
con-

to

years

come.

22d

September,1761.

LI.

LETTER

of the Eclipses of the Satellites of Jupiter,

fourth Method
offinding the Longitude.

Observation
a

of

ECLIPSES

the

may
longitude, but

the

profound research,

more

of

body

the

only

which

moon

of his

parasol

in

to

rays
to shelter us

us,

from

assist

way
the

because

; it is

obscured
the

likewise

sun

the

taining
ascer-

requires

that

is not

sun

mediatel
im-

interpositionof
the

obstructs
as

in

when

employ

we

them, which

mission
trans-

does

not

prevent
For the

from

be

beholding all their lustre.

conceals
the sun
ants
only from part of the inhabitof the earth ; and
an
eclipse of the sun
may
visible
while
Paris
is
at
there
at
Berlin,
clearly

no

interceptionof

others

moon

But
the

the

moon

earth; her

by
in the

seen

horizon
It

at the

the

moon

of
shadow
or

other

number

time

other

underwent

employed

wherever

manner

have

were

to time

light.
is really eclipsed by the
own
light is diminished
hence
the
eclipses of the

same

cannot

there

be

it :

his

with

of

she

shadow
or

guished
extin-

moon

are

is above

the

the

eclipse.
escaped your penetration,

heavenly
any

of

real

similar

bodies

which

from

that

if

time

obscuration, they might

success

as

the

eclipses

of

in

lites
satelascertaining the longitude. The
so
Jupiter, which
frequently into the
pass
of their planet that almost
night one
every
of them
is eclipsed, may
be ranked
in the
of these, and

furnish

us

with

another

excel-

176

KNOWLEDGE

OF

mers
determining the longitude. Astronoaccordingly employ it with great success.
that
know
Jupiter has

lent method
You

of

four satellites which

order
O

exhibit

behind

shadow

the

the

You

the

see

of Jupiter.

body

entering

of

point

of

first

satellites,marked

these
the

piter.
Ju-

represented
in this figure,in

sun

to

round

likewise

I have
the

in

him, each

described

circles

108.

as

in the annexed

by

Fig.

their

represented
figure,Fig. 108,

orbit,

own

make

round

revolutions
his

LONGITUDE.

THE

1,
into

on

the

second, marked
2,
has just left it ; the third, 3, is
still at a great distance, but approaching
shadow

the

to it ; and

left

4, has
time

it

the

fourth,

considerable

ago.

As

of these

one

as

soon

shadow

into the

passes
becomes

invisible, and

distinctly visible

disappears in
of

entrance

of

shadow

instant.

an
a

Jupiter

had for
The
to the

some

the

time

sion
emer-

been

invisible

and

emersions
of

determination
a

its departure

satellite which

immersions

place at

is denominated

shadow

the

when

This

satellite into the

immersion, and
from

that

pen
hapmay
satellite which

be, the

before

was

it

whatever

suddenly ; so that at
place of the globe you
to

lites
satel-

decided

instant

is observed

the
; so

suddenlyreappears.
are
equallyadapted
longitude,as they take
that when

at several

such

places of

the

nomenon
phe-

globe,

KNOWLEDGE

in the

find

must

you

OF

of

each

the

beginning

and

the

time

some

the

or

is then

case

time

indicated

difference

It is the

past

pieces
by the timeresponds
exactly cor-

which
the

of

distance

of

their

observed
thing as if we
end of an eclipse of the moon
;
involved
in no
For
difficulty.
same

have

we

177

LONGITUDE.

difference

the

to the

meridians.

THE

able to calculate

been

eclipses

of the

satellites

immersions

and

emersions

of

Jupiter, that

; and

is,

have

we

these
their

only

to

with the time calculated

the time observed
compare
for a given place, say Berlin, in order to conclude
at
the

once

distance

its meridian

of

from

that

of

our

capital.
This

method

is

accordingly practiseduniversally
in travellingby land ; but the means
have
not
yet
discovered
been
of profitingby it at sea, where,
however, it is of still greater importance for a man
know
with
is.- Were
to
he
the
certainty where
satellites of Jupiter as visible to the naked
as
eye
the

is,this method

moon

even
difficulty,

made

be

feet in

at

without

length

but

be

the

telescope

a
a

"

sea

would

attended

observation

of at least

circumstance

with

which

no

cannot

four

or

presents an

five

surmount
in-

obstacle.

address
to
requires some
on
even
land, a telescope of any length, to
manage,
direct it towards
the object which
to contemplate,
you wish
and to keep it so steady as not to lose the
object; you will easily comprehend, then, that a
ship at sea being in a continual agitation,it must be
almost
impossible to catch Jupiter himself; and if
could
find him, you would
lose him
again in a
you
moment.
accurate
servatio
oban
Now, in order to make
You

well

know

of the
the

satellites

that you

should

steadilyfor

or

Jupiter,it

is

emersion

are

this method

power
together ; and

to all appearance

of

of

of

one

absolutelynecessary

it in your

time
we

it

immersion

have

some

at sea,
to abandon

of

that

to look

this

at him

being

possible
im-

constrained

determining the longitude.

178

KNOWLEDGE

This

inconvenience,

two

ways

six

inches

doubt

the

four

are

as

of

telescopes
proved
yet been
address

much

which

other

used

this

feet

in

with

there

not

or

them

be

can

in

success

perfection

to

sort

telescopes
discovering

it will

ing
bringit has

require

tho

object

contrive

to

are

but

no

than

manageable
Artists
length.

more

whether

would

way

motionless,

so

not

as

vessel.

It

be

to

which

shipboard,

on

of

remedied

as

those

as

longer.

are

The

be

point

to

of

and

themselves

actually employing
not

Jupiter

five

or

be

may

construction

would

these

LONGITUDE.

still,capable

of

satellites

that

the

less

or

THE

however,

by

one

long,

the

clearly
such

OF

should
be

to

remain

affected

does

not

founded,

if he

indeed

it would

be

chair

by

fixed
the

be

to

and

agitation

impossible that a
dexterous
mode
of balancing
In
might effect this.
in the
read
we
fact, it is not long since
public prints
that he had constructed
that an Englishman
pretended
therefore
claimed
the
such
chair, and
a
prize proposed
for the discovery
of the longitude.*
His
claim
of

the

well

was

as

at

of

satellites

adapted

much
for
of

time

some

how

many
of
26th

was

past

at
"

Ed.

no

which

the

sea,

by
are

making
further

of

the
of

means

has

have
must
you
themselves
attach

serve
ob-

of

undoubtedly
this discovery

mention

chine,
ma-

it to

emersions

whole,

difficulties

invention

tried

the

to

been

the
very
but
;

made

perceived
to

the

covery
dis-

longitude.

September,

The

inventor.

Jupiter,

constructed

and

immersions

the

From

it.

the

sea

possible

seem

1761.

alluded

here

but

it

was

to

not

was

found

Irwin's
to

answer

marine
the

chair, -which
purpose

of

the

180

KNOWLEDGE

OF

actly for

day; by

every
before-hand
hour

every

that

her

of the

which

and

of

in

longitude of
difficultywith

there

the

fixed

whole

geographical

represented the fixed

quarter of the heavens.
chart
is

You

true

to

which

on

the
is ; and

fixed

will indicate

to

Then, from
for

motion, I calculate

of

where

am

and

that

But

if the
the

the
hour

be

an

easy

the

moon

of
time

the

me

my

care

of

demonstration

and

reckoning

of

time, I compute how

the place I am
at is greater

15

much
or

to

to

moment

hour

termine
detime

regulate
of

she

must

seen

her.

with

the

that

meridian
preciselyunder
consequently the longitude is

meridians

moon

lunar observatio
my
of the moon's

the

observation
of my
will give that
difference

are

celestial

the

the

Berlin, at what

time

structed
con-

at that

knowledge

is

are

certain

matter

taken

I have

stars

in

which

to

there

which

on

maps,
appear

stars

the

likewise

I have
place where
exactly correspond

Berlin, it will be

no

calculate

fixed

are

observation

an

in the same
appear
the time observed

with

know

taking,then,

where

watch, which

my

there, from
noon,

On

place

true

the

which

stars

it will

marked,

are

near

the

is

attention, then, will be

are

similar

the

There

am

1 will compare
her
nearest, and thence

moon

which

discover

to

at sea,
latitude,even
abundantly certain for ascertaining
the pole, to which
the latitude

means

the

place relativelyto them.

which
all
celestial globes on
are
arranged, and that celestial charts

her

I find self
mywhat
use

the

to

respect
are

to

stars

for

meridian,

where

place

the

height of
always equal. My

directed

heavens

known

in order

moon,

the

is

the

long voyage
place altogether unknown,

of

I make

where

in

late
calcu-

can

Paris.

at sea,
can

we

for any

Berlin, or
Suppose, then, that after

say

means

place

true

day,

LONGITUDE.

THE

is not
which

the
of
the

If
time

place

Berlin,
same.

lin,
that of Ber-

is between

degrees for every

the longitude of

less than

that of Ber-

KNOWLEDGE

OF

THE

I'm: the

time
is
place where
always the greater longitude.
This

is

abstract

an

181

LONGITUDE.

of the

advanced

more

of

manner

has

determining

of the moon.
I
longitude by simple observations
for successfully
remark, that the happiest moments
mining
performing this operation, and for accurately deterthe moon's
a fixed star happlace,are, when
pens
to be concealed
behind
her body ; this is called
instances
favourable
two
occupation, and there are
in her motion
to observation, that when
the moon
the star
the star, and that when
completely covers
Astronomers
reappears.
these instants
to catch

calculate
I

from

them

attentive
particularly

are

of

the

occupation, in order

moon's

to

place.

true

objection you will probably

make
I
respecting the time-piece with which
tained
our
navigator provided,after having mainsuppose
of constructing one
the impossibility
that
shall be proof against every
agitation of a ship at
foresee,however,

an

this

But

impossibilityrespects only such

a
time-piecesas are expected to preserve
regular
motion
for a long time together, without
the necessity
of frequent adjustment ; for as to the observations
in question,a common
watch
is quite sufficient,
provided it go regularlyfor some
hours, after
of the
having been carefullyadjusted to the noon
we
place where
supposing a doubt to arise,
are;
whether
could calculate
from
it the succeeding
we
evening or night,at the time we observe the moon,
sea.

the

stars

and

accurate

the

sun

known

likewise

are

relation

for any

enabled

time
star

one

the
to

sun

are

VOL.

enabled
II."

the

For

to the

then

must

calculate

likewise

the

be

hour

new

from
a

tion
observa-

regulate our

the

which
well

Thus,

by

of

perfectly

determine

that

observation
to

is

simple
to

situation

stars

indicate.

to
an

the

the

is sufficient

of

means

as

fixed

whatever,

timepiece ought
very instant of making
we

afford

adjustment.

with

of any
place where

will

the

we

regulated
at the
moon,

timepiece

182

KNOWLEDGE

stars

OF

and

by

the

go

regularlyfor so
September,1761.

LONGITUDE.

THE

supposed

to

space.

LETTER

Advantages of

is

timepiece

every
short

LI1I.

this last Method

its

Degree of

Precision.

last method

THIS
on

lunar
as

occur

findingthe longitude,founded
to merit
the preferobservations, seems
ence,
the others are
culties,
diffisubjected to too many
the
or
opportunities of employing them

too

of

seldom

to

be

useful.

And

you

be

must

abundantly sensible that success

depends entirely
in forming the
the degree of precision attained
on
calculation, and

that

lead

would

the

which

errors

to conclusions

on

may
which

be
we

mitted
com-

could

It is of importance, therefore,
dependence.
to explain what
degree of precision we
may
reasonably hope to attain in reducing this method
the
considerable
to
on
practice, founded
change
which
the moon
undergoes from one day to another
in her
be
affirmed, that if the
position. It may

place

moon's

no

motion

be more
rapid,it would
adapted to the discovery of the longitude,and would
for us
a
higher degree of precision. But
procure
much
if, on the contrary, it were
slower, so that
could
we
scarcelydiscern any change of her position
from
derive
could
little,
day to day, we
very
if any, assistance
from
her towards
the discovery
of the longitude.
Let us suppose,
then, that the moon
changes her
the fixed stars a space
of 12 degrees
place among
in twenty-four hours ; she will,in that case, change
it one
degree in two hours, and half a degree, or

thirty minutes
mistake

in

were

in

an

more

hour

observing

the

if

we

moon's

were

to

place

commit
of

thirty

minutes, it would
the
should

THE

OF

KNOWLEDGE

the

be

commit
hour's

one

to

should

we

itself

longitude
would

be

almost

were

the

nothing

we
clusion
con-

meridians.
ponds
corresquently,
conse-

in the
which
that

enormous

so

error

an

in the

longitude;
15
degrees
look
for;

we

to know

well

as

place

served
ob-

we

meridians

mistaken

the

undoubtedly

of

their

in

be

of

hour

one

in the

difference

degrees

15

of

if

as

later,and

or

difference

the
respecting-

Now,

earlier

mistake

thing

same

hour

an

moon

183

LONGITUDE.

it

it ; and

about

tion,
simple computation of the distance and the direchowever
uncertain, could not possibly lead to a

mistake

so

very

But

gross.

must

man

have

gone

to commit
a
slovenly manner
mistake
place ;
respecting the moon's
have
which
he employed must
and the instruments
been
very bad, a thing not to be supposed.

work

to

in

very
of 30 minutes

excellent
the instruments
Nevertheless, however
degree of attention may have
be, and whatever
may
been
bestowed, it is impossible to keep clear of all
error

indeed

and

he

has

who

acquittedhimself

have

must

committed

not

very well
mistake
of one

the

determining the moon's

place.
it changes half a degree, or 30 minutes, in
in two
minute
of distance
it will change one
minute

When,

of time.

place
mistake
two

amounts

therefore, the mistake

to

of time.
from

it

and

this

longitude ;

an

of

error

point of

for every
were
purpose,
hitherto
I have
supposed
motion

meridian,

we

could

for every moment

very far short of

these twenty

be

to

so

without

years,

the

half

minutes

minute,
or

60

an

in

it but

be

point
error

of

moon's
;

the

ficient
suf-

attainable.
of

our

error

to

longitude, there

degree
precisionmight

the

the

minutes,

knowledge
perfect,that, for a

determine
that

of

degrees

15

hour,

one

will amount

hour,

one

as

of the moon's

one

of meridians
And

being equivalent to
will result

than

more

no

in the difference

minutes

moon's

Now,

in

but

known

true
we

perfection.

the

are

place
still

Within

in this calculation

was

184

KNOWLEDGE

than

more

OF

six minutes

and

ingenious Professor Mayer

the track I had pointed out
far

to reduce

as

may

this

LONGITUDE.

THE

it is but
of
to

likewise,the
which, added
observation

of

error

of

the

succeeded

so

minute.

in the

that

minute

one

of

to that

him, has

to less than

error

easilyhappen, then,

very

latelythat the
Gottingen, pursuing
It

calculation

be committed,
may
ih the
committed

minute

moon's

that
place, will double
which
results
from
it respecting the longitude of
the place where
we.
and, consequently, it may
are;
whole
to
a
possibly amount
degree: it is proper
further to remark, that if the moon
in twenty-four
hours
should
than
change her relative situation more
in the longitude would
be less
12 degrees, the error
considerable.
The
ered
means
perhaps be discovmay
of diminishing stillfurther the errors
into which
and
in the
liable to fall,in the observation
we
are
calculation

and

then

should

we

be

able to ascertain

ought
degree, or less.
Nay, we
not to despair of attaining a still higher degree of
several
tions,
observaprecision. We have only to make
which
be easilydone
can
by remaining several
place. It is not to be
days together at the same
the

longitude

to

apprehended, in that case, that all the conclusions

will give the longitude
should
be equally defective
; some
sought too great, others too small, and by
all the results,we
between
strikinga medium
may
that this longitude will not be one
gree
derest assured
from

removed

the

truth.

English nation, generously disposed to engage

genius and abilityin this important research, has
proposed three prizes for ascertainingthe longitude
The

"

of

one

The

first of

who
about
error

of

10,000/.,one

shall

these

as

not

second

is to be

method

still

be

bestowed

more

to

him

exact,

so

who
that

shall
the

20,0007.

the person

on

longitude to
to give perfect assurance
exceed
one
degree at

given

of

one

the

determine

it,so
shall

is to

15,000/.,and

degree,
that

most.

the
The

discover
error

or

shall

ON

exceed

never

MARINER'S

THE

two-thirds

of

185

COMPASS.

degree, or

40

minutes.

shall
who
highest prize is destined to the man
ascertain the longitude so exactly that the error
shall
exceed
half a degree, or
never
30 minutes
a
; and
of
higher degree
precisionis hardly to be expected.
The

No

one

do

not

of these
take

into

the

on

prizeshas

construction

3d

the

account

allotted:

of

stowed
gratificationbe-

pretended to it from
perfect timepieces. Mr. Mayer
claiming the highest, and I think

his
is
he

to it.*

October,1761.

LETTER
On

been

artist who

at this moment

is entitled

the

hitherto

the Mariner's

You

LIV.

Compass, and the Propertiesof

Magnetic Needle.

the

informed
by this time sufficiently
ing
respectthe discovery of the longitude: I have had the
which
pleasure of explaining the various methods
have been employed for the determination
of it.
The
first and most
natural
is carefully
to observe
the quantity of space which
have gone over, and
we
are

the direction
and

tempests

render
The

artist

reward
the

third

sea

voyages

the

currents

are

exposed

is founded
the

the

on

observation
would

which

moon,

of

ofProfessor Mayer received from the British

3000/. sterling; and Euler
himself received 300Z.

theorems
a

for his

on

which

reward

from

improvement

Mayer's
the

Tables

French

of the lunar

founded.

are

government,

theory.
"

Ed.

of

the

completely

widow

also

prizes

which

; but

impracticable.
piece
second
requires the construction of a timestanding
so
perfect as to go always uniformly,notwiththe agitation of a ship at sea ; which
no
has hitherto been able to accomplish.

eclipses of
The

to

moved

we

this method

The

in which

and

The

parliament
for furnishing
latter

gained

ceived
re-

several

186
not
were
purpose,
every
employing it too rare, and least in
answer

the

be

necessity may

The
of

fourth

most

refers

means

telescopes of a certain
which
they are invisible.
of the
Finally,observations
sea

fifth

provided

we

in the heavens

(and

is

error

mistaken
the

above

the

the

degree

one

in the

in calculation

error

exceed

never

that

assured

furnish

we

are

or

one

of
"

the other

more

day

furnish

have

with

us

the

is still a

the
of

earth

magnet,
it opens

longitude ; though
the

of

and
to

me

the

new

attend

elucidations

with
which

am

we

and

going

the

on

are

far,

nature

of

explication
important physical
and

instruction,on

I flatter

myself
to
improvement

delight and
I

yet

of discovering

The

amusement
;

method

heavens, but is attached

compass.
field of

subject of magnetism

will

as

founded

simply, being

observation, for your

the

certain

most

very far short of it.

It is not derived
from
the

persons
chieflydirected their

seems
sixth,which
adapted to the solution of the problem, were
carefullycultivated ; and will perhaps one

the

to

five methods

of these

engaged in this research

speculations : but there
likewise

not

determination

longitude.*

To.

it

be

to

tremely
ex-

practicable,
moon's
place

most

unavoidable) should

minute, in order

one

herself

moon

exactly, that

so

purpose

employing at
description,without

the
appears
able to observe

were

satellites

of

which

method,

the

the

answer

the

we

when

power

eclipses of

would

well, had

our

urgent.

to the

Jupiter,which

opportunities of

to

you
the

suggest.

My reflections shall be directed only to the main

the discovery
subject of our present research, I mean
of the longitude. I remark
in general, that the
*

the

This

method

improvement

sextants

observed."

and
Ed.

is

now

of

the

circles

with

brought
lunar
which

to

very

tables,
the

perfection,not only by
by the perfection of the

great
but

moon's

place

in

the

heavens

is

188

ON

MARINER'S

THE

COMPASS.

of itself assume
the horizontal
magnetized needle
may
position.
It then
markable
reacquires another
property still more
: it is no
longer indifferent to all situations
as
formerly ; but affects one in preference to every
that the
other, and disposes itself in such a manner

extremity B is directed
extremity A towards
of the magnetic needle
meridian

line.

You

recollect

line,which

south

; and

to

the

north
the

the

meridian
the

south,

astronomical

to

of

with

and

the

direction

almost

trace

recourse

motion

the

as

the

out

have

to

nearly,and

corresponds

point

it is necessary
determines

the

north

that, in order

may

observations,

to the

and

sun

stars

not
we
are
direction; and when
instruments, and espeprovided with the necessary
cially
when
the sky is overclouded, it is impossible

that

from
the heavens
towards
any assistance
line ; this property of the magtracing the meridian
netic
the
rable,
admimuch
needle
more
is,therefore, so
derive

to

that

place,the

it

points out,

the

it

of the

navigation
of the

use

being always

vessel
order

magnetic needle, or

reach

to

geographic

or

that

compass,

advantages resulting
most
are
conspicuous ;

to direct

the

of

course

quarter of the world,

place proposed, conformably

marine

in which

the

compass

necessary
certain
a

towards

direction

every

universal.

It is in
the

in

direction, on which
depends the
For this
the east, south, and west.

use

is become
from

times, and

northern

others, towards
reason

at all

charts, which

indicate

in
to

the

ought to proceed. Before this

take
impossible to underdiscovery,accordingly, it was
durst not lose sight
long voyages
; the mariner
of the

coast

the

sky

the

way.
vessel

for fear of

mistaking

unclouded, and

was

of the

we

on

the

proper

wide

the

ocean,

course,

would

his course,
stars

without
be

unless

pointed
the

out

ledge
know-

preciselyin

the

ON

state

of

who, with

man

MARINER'S

THE

bandage

189

COMPASS.

his eyes,
church
of

over

obliged to find his way to the great

he
going one
Magdeburg ; imagining he was
way,
The
then, is the
might be going another.
compass,
till
not
principalguide in navigation ; and it was
ventured
after this important discovery that men
and
the ocean,
across
attempted the discovery of
was

world.

new

during

compass
derive

would
after

or

he

course

pilot do

a
a

might,

without
he

storm,

when

the

heavens

from

assistance

no

whatever
what

What

he

be

must

his
could
Take

ignorant

in

proceeding, north, south, or

other
to any
presently deviate
quarter. He would
But
to lose himself.
to such
a degree as
infallibly
the
immediately puts him
right ; from
compass
to judge of the importance
which you will be enabled
of the discovery of the magnetic needle, or mariner's
direction

he

was

compass.
6th

October,

1761.

LETTER

of the Compass, and

Declination

the

THOUGH
of

south

capable

causes

which

from

Manner

of

of observingit.

affects the

needle

magnetic

directed

being

LV.

situation

cidental
north, there are acderanging this direction,

to

Such
the
are
carefullyavoided.
proximity of a loadstone, or of iron or steel. You
have
only to present a knife to a magnetic needle,
and it will immediately quit its natural direction,and
towards
the knife ; and, by drawing the knife
move
round

be

must

the

possible

direction.

that the

needle

keep

as

at

magnets

these

will

needle, you
is in

distance
;

which

substances

In

make

order

to

it
be

assume

every

assured, then,

its natural

from
is

direction, you must

it all iron or
steel, as well

so

influence

much

the

more

its direction

easy,

only

that

when

190

ON

it :

near

very

iron

compass
mines.

alone

in

ground,

of

case

when

used

very
the
on

tracks

and

this

are

To

we

in the

are

hollowed

have

to

is

overclouded,

in the

out

our

remarked

the

has

magnet

property

of

meridian

Fig.

line ;

now

meridian

at

as

and

that

direction.

bowels

of

the

all

earth,

the

to the

east

hand,

and

Now

the

magnetic

does

not

fall

the

deviates

from

sometimes

variation,of the

from

of 15"

north.

of

many

their
the

is very

rection
di-

true
siderable.
con-

it

left.
A

meridian,

it

an

This

the

15"

that

the

right-

the

needle

the

on

of 15" B 0 North.

denominated

to

west

pointing

fabrication
found

that

is

with

right angles

at

say

from

which

; that

to

first the

line,drawn

to south

the

aberration

an

represents

110

'ndicates

as

under

representing

always

about

deviated

Berlin

at

and

certain

incorrect

Having employed myself in the

magnetic needles, I constantly

but

iron

or
magnetic needle:
compass
is only almost
that its direction

it is therefore

northerly ;

drawn

in

condition

same

the

geometry.

return

north

magnet,
at the

effect,as

to

face of heaven

subterraneous

true

sensibl
in-

pass
operation is regulated merely by the comdenominated
this is the object of the science

needle

this

not

in
it is necessary
to drive mines
Plans
are
accordingly constructed
the

powerful

advantage even
perfectly sensible, that

mines,
the

act

produces

be

may
You

their effect becomes

feet.

of several

But

sea

in the

might possibly

distance

COMPASS.

removed,

once

unless
which

MARINER'S

THE

angle
angle is

declination,

the

deviation

compass

extremity

B,

or

nearest

or

magnetic needle ; and

the
north, deviates

ON

towards

MARINERS

THE

the

west,

we

191

COMPASS.

declination

the

say

15"

is

westerly.
the declination
of the
Having thus determined
make
it answer
the same
can
magnetic needle, we
if it pointed directlynorth.
The needle
as
purpose
is usually enclosed
in a circle,and you have
only to
mark
the

it the due

on

northern

north

the exact

of the

extremity

South, Fig. 110, will indicate

the

and

enable

of

to ascertain

us

north, east, south, and

The

better

needle

to

the

so

line

cardinal

in

the

but
on

circle of

body with it,the centre

pivot,* in order to admit of

it assumes,
of course,
a situation
marked
North
is always directed
horizon

; whereas

effect deviates

it 15"

to

the

rather

afterward

see

such

revolution

that the

to that

point

point of the

is not

west.

in

seen,

This

struction
con-

pasteboard,only increasing
needle, prevents its turning so

and

the

of the

weight

unencumbered.
freelyas if it were
To
remedy this, and more
the needle
"employ the compass,
circular
into

forming
is placed

which
free

rendered

serves
only to disguise th'e declination,
the vulgar consider
as
a defect, though it be
shall
an
object worthy of admiration, as we

which

the

of

needle, which

the
from

points,

magnetic
pasteboard,as represented

figure,only the needle is

pasteboard covering it, and

one
a

line,

secret, the

in the

invisible, the

North

meridian

true

four

make

to

as

the

and

from

west.

disguise

is concealed

distance

needle,

15" westward

declination

and

box, the

360",

circumference

exhibits

the

names

commodiously
is deposited
of
of

to

in

which, divided
the

principal
the pivot,

is
In the centre
points of the horizon.
or
point which
supports the needle, and this last
is
a certain direction
immediately assumes
; the box
then turned
till the northern
extremity of the needle

The
which

cap

or

hollow

gives

less

which

rests

friction than

on

any

the

of
be made
pivot should
precious stones."

other of the

garnet,
Ed.

192
B

exactlycorresponds with 15" on

reckoning from the north-westward
marked

names

the

will

with

agree

the

circumference,
and

the

then

the

real quarters

of

world.

however,

cased
in
they employ needles
circles of pasteboard,the circumference
of which
is
divided into 360", to prevent the necessity of turning
round
the box ; then the pasteboard circle,which
is
called the compass,
indicating the real quarters of
the world, we
have
only to refer to it the course
which
the ship is steering,in order to ascertain
the
north
or
south, east or west, or
direction,whether
wise
likepoint. By the compass
any other intermediate
we
distinguishthe winds, or the quarters from
which
it
on
they blow ; and from the points marked
At

sea,

their

It is necessary,
at
of the declination
perfectlyassured

names

rate, to be
variation

the

15"

different

10th

have
; we
compass
westward
here at Berlin

of

exactly

derived.

are

at other

places,as

it to be
be
; but it may
I shall afterward
strate.
demon-

LETTER

LVI.

the Declination

of

found

the

Compass

WHEN

I say that the declination

is 15" west, this is to be understood
that
different

The
*

the

Berlin, and

places

at the

seems

having

of the

same

magnetic

In the year
been

1786,M.
been

to have
so

low

present time

only

not

the

of the
as

compass

applying only

for it has

is this declination

been

marked,
re-

different at

earth, but that it varies, with

place.*
declination
Schulze

its maximum.
as

at

Place.

same

time,

or

October, 1761.

Difference in

to

any

found

is

accordingly

the deviation

In 1805, M.

17" 5' in 1788. -Ed.

Bode

to be

found

much

18" 28' which

it to be 18"

3',

ON

greater at
and
there

Berlin

the

time

the

last

in

MARINER'S

THE

was

perfectlywhen
century there

magnetic needle

coincided

line.

about

was

declination

collect
formerly. I reit was
only 10";*
a
was
period when

was

declination,so that the direction

no

This

it

than

now

193

COMPASS.

exactlywith

the year

1670

of the

the meridian
then

; since

the

progressivelygreater towards
the west, up to 15", as at this day : and there is every
that it will go on
diminishing till it is
appearance
I give this,however,
to nothing.
again reduced
merely as conjecture,for we are very far from being
able to predict it with certainty.
that prior to the year
Besides, it is well known
is become

1670, the declination

that is,towards
the

in the

was

; and

east

contrary direction,
farther

the

back

we

find the declination

eastward.
go, the greater do we
Now, it is impossibleto go farther back than to the
when

period

the

in the
after
the

the

discovery

declination
first that

at

at

the

discovered

was

compass
fourteenth

century

before

Berlin

needle

; this

; but

it

they began
for it

deviated

was

to

observe

perceived

not

was

happened
long

the meridian

from

line.
But

this subject has been more

London, where
in the
carefully studied, the magnetic declination
at

year 1580
6" 0' east

observed

was

11"

15' east; in 1622,

in 1657 there was
no

to be

in 1634, 4" 5' east ;

it was
declination; but in 1672
;

1692, 6" 0' west

18" west,

and

at

more.f

or

present
You

the

2" 30' west;

it may

then,
century, the

the year

1657

and

that

gradually increasingup
*

It

was

so

low

as

that

about

declination

thenceforward

it
,

imperceptiblein
it has since become
westerly,
to the present time.J

10" at Berlin

t In January, 1821, the variation

in 1717.
of

the

"

Ed.

needle

at

London

was

24"

35

Ed.

west."

probably be

see,

beginning of the last

was
nearly 8 degrees east : that
graduallydiminished, tillit became

in

The
but

VOL.

variation

of the magnet
is not
in
the
same
places

in different

II." R

only different in different

country, situated a few

tries,
coun-

miles

194

ON

It has

but

COMPASS.

preserved nearly the

there

it

reduced

was

later than

years

MARINER'S

THE

to

at London

order

same

nothing

; hence

Paris ;

at

1666, nine

in

you will observe

declination
tively
rela-

unaccountable

diversityof
to different places of the
earth
at the same
time, and to the same
place at different times.
At
only through all Europe, but
present, not
through all Africa, and the greatest part of Asia, the
declination
is westerly, in some
places greater, in
a

most

less, than with

others

countries

of

Scotland

and

Europe than
in Norway,

exceeds
the

on

coasts

eastern

12".

Asia

it

20"

capital: namely,

our

where

the declination

in

siderably
con-

Spain, Italy,and Greece,

less, being about 12" ; on the

of Africa
But

at

greater in certain

in

contrary, it is

western

It is

us.

as

it is about
advance

you

progressivelydiminishes,

10", and

on

eastward

till it

the
into

appears
entirely dis-

of

appears
Siberia, at Jeniseisk ; it distoo in China, at Pekin, and at Japan ; but
tion
beyond these regions,to the eastward, the declinaheart

in the

easterly, and goes on

direction, along the north part
becomes

this

increasing in
of

the

Pacific

of

America, from
which
it proceeds, gradually diminishing, till it
again disappears in Canada, Florida, the Antilles,
Ocean,

to

towards

and

the

the

of

coasts

countries, towards
and

coasts

western

the

Africa, it again

Brazil.

east, that is,towards

Europe

westerly, as

becomes

these

Beyond
I

have

already remarked.
to attain

In order
state
to

the
from

of

magnetic

ascertain

present state
each

other.

of the ent
presbe necesdeclination, it would
sary

perfectknowledge

places,both at land
magnetic declination,and

for all
of

It is also

subject to

an

hourly "change

or

and

sea,

whether

movement

at

day, returning generally to the same

place on the same
point,
each
successive
hour
the
1820
In
the
on
at
same
day.
nearly,
year
very
the
variation
New-Haven
25'
at
4"
25"
Fisher,
was
to
Professor
agreeably
VV. The
variation is 2' 49" : so that the needle appears
annual
to be gradually
the true
advancing towards
meridian, after which it will probably
acquire an easterly variation." Am. Ed.
the

same

198

ON

defective

tremely
avail

MARINER'S

THE

know

to

us

and,

the

COMPASS.

what

moreover,

of

state

would

magnetic

for the year

1700, having since
considerable
a
change ?

declination

time

that

it now

undergone

Other

English geographers have

produced,
to that period, a similar
chart, intended
such
as
represent all the declinations
they were

terior
pos-

the

with

But
1744.
as
year
that of Mr. Halley, and
to

it has

they

as

observations

procure

the

defect

same

likewise

from

countries

several

globe, they did not scruple to fill up

places by consulting Halley'schart, which

apply

not

what

I have

You

1744.

said, that

branch
13th

to

of

October,

our

physics

is

be

may

declinations
the

year

you

may

conclude, from

LVII.

likewise

proper
in the

chart

they

of no

there

all fall in

correct

and

needle,
in

of the

Norway,
Earth.

and
Mr.

been

both

recently

Hansteen

Philosophical Journal,

been

it,
of

there

all these

everywhere

published

see

served.
ob-

places,

declination, and found

he calls the
line, which

interestingcharts,
have

to

for

the declination

it had

as

certain

constructed

happen

place

no

was

declination,as

the magnetic
Christiania

he

distinguished,among

where

Very

which

should
if you
comprehend its structure.

He
those

explain in what
represent the magnetic

to

every
such

the

to

1700, that

at
First,he marked
the magnetic
needle,

certainly

1761.

Halley proceeded

manner

line

vacant

of employing it for
of Declinations ; Method
Discovery of the Longitude.

Chart

that

the

on

portant
knowledge of this imextremely imperfect.*

LETTER

IT

will

in

unable

were

the

could

to

under

of the variation

constructed

in his

very

's charts

vol. iv. p. 363."

will

Ed.

by Mr.
able

work

be

found

line

that
and

the

dip of

Hansteen
on

the

in the

of

netism
Magburgh
Edin-

ON

there

nor

This

but
parallel,

ran

thence

Carolina;

197

COMPASS.

line
in

neither

was

ridian
me-

tion
very oblique direcleft it near
the coasts

and

America,

North

over

of

none.

then

was

MARINER'S

THE

it bent

its

course

the

across

Africa
and America.
sides
BeOcean, between
discovered
likewise
another
in
this line,he

Atlantic
which

declination

disappeared ; it descended
through the middle of China, and passed from thence
It
through the Philippine Isles and New-Holland.
two
is easy
the track of these
to judge, from
lines,
both
that they have
a communication
near
poles of
the globe.
Having fixed these two lines of no declination,
that
the
Mr. Halley remarked
everywhere between
to east, that is,
first and last, proceeding from
west
through all Europe, Africa, arid almost the whole of
was
Asia, the declination
westerly ; and that on the
other
those
the
side, between
lines, that is, over
Pacific Ocean, it was
whole
easterly. After this,
all the places in which
he observed
the declination
still conand
found
he could
5 degrees west,
veniently
was
draw
a line through all these
places,which
wise
likehe calls the line offive degreeswest.
He
found
lines of this description,the one
of which
two
accompanied, as it were, the first of no declination,
the

'

and

other

the

with

manner

the

last.

He

the

places where
15", 20", "c. ;

10" ; afterward
lines of great declination

regions ;

whereas

the

globe,

the

where
are

the

undoubtedly
even

west

poles, it is

declination
some

he

where

90", and where

R2

to the

declination

polar

passed
encom-

passed through

or

possible

exceeds

was

that these

saw

scarcely ever

equator, whether
the

and

same

declination

confined

of small

those

whole

and

in the

on

the

were

equator.
In fact,the declination
on

went

east;

to arrive

58" and

15"

exceeds
but
at

60".

the

on

proachin
ap-

places
There

it is still greater, exceeding

the northern

extremity

198

ON

of the

MARINER'S

THE

needle

will

COMPASS.

consequently

and

about

turn

point

southward.*
lines through the
similar
Finally,having drawn
eastward
the declination
was
places where
10", 15",
20", and so on, Mr. Halley filled up the whole
chart,
which
represented the entire surface of the earth,
under

lines

of which

each

the

declination

is universally

not
are
provided the observations
Mr. Halley has accordingly scrupulously
erroneous.
from
lines beyond the
abstained
continuing such
had actuallybeen
observations
made
:
places where
for this reason
the greater part of his chart
is a

the

same,

we

such

blank.
Had
should

at

see

chart

glance

each

declination

place

at

at

the

constructed

was

should

question
of

lines

the

with

the

not

traced

declination

on

which

and

15"

the

was

time

though

the

the

in

place

the

more

than

intermediate

the
it.

lines
be

If I found

my

of 10"

and

15"

that

the

certain

10", and

according as I might be nearer

other, I could easily find the means

less
the

; and

indicate

for which

precisely under one

chart, by comparing it
which
it might be situated,

present place to be
of western
declination, I should
there

have

must

found

between

declination

the

easily calculate
corresponds to

could

0we

be

lines between

two

complete, we

what

predominated
chart

and

accurate

which

than

one

or

would

declination.

the true

this you will readilycomprehend, that if we

such
thus
assist us
in
a chart
exact, it would

From
had

discovering the longitude,at

which
In
it corresponded.

least
order

for

This

Captain
Ion.

103"

having

was

us

found

Parry.
44"',and

been

128"

to

On

be

the

north

50'

west

time

to

explain
possessed

that we
are
suppose
chart constructed
for the present year, we
lines drawn
the two
on
it,first,
through
let

method,

the

would
the

to

this
of

see

places

in the voyages
of Captain Ross
and
Martin's
in
Island,
west
lat. 75" 9', the
variation
1R5"
50' east,
was
in west
Ion. 91" 47',and north
!at. 74" 40'." Ed.
the

S.E.

case

point of Byam

there

where
it is

MARINER'S

THE

ON

is

declination

no

5", 10", 15", 20", both

found

from

drawn

were

; then

and

east

the

where

two

west

let

us

ther
fur-

that, for the greater exactness, these

suppose

lines

199

COMPASS.

myself

at

degree

certain

degree,

to

place on

sea,

and
in

or

that
an

known
un-

ridian
country, I would in the first place draw a memuch
pass
line,in order to ascertain how
my comdeviated
from
it,and I should find,for example,

declination

the

that

is

precisely

10"

east

; I should

lines under
my chart, and look for the two
is 10" east, fullyassured
the declination
that
which
the other of these two
under
the one
I am
or
lines,
then

take

greatly relieve my uncertainty.

observe
the height qf the pole,
Finally, I would
which
being the latitude of my place, nothing more
remain
would
but to mark, on
the two
lines mentioned,
the points where
the latitude
is the same
I have
with that which
.justobserved, and then all
tant
to two
points very disuncertaintyis reduced
my

which

must

from

once

each

other

would

voyage

places is

but

and

are

to

power
would

if

had

we

charts

would

method

construct

be of

actuallyam.

of

accurate

longitude ;

of

of my
those two

be

the

such
most

as

modious
com-

all for

ascertaining the
this is preciselythe thing we
want
;
still very far from
in
it
our
having

and

I
that

admit

we

which

easily determine

described, this

as

the circumstances

; now

that where

will

You
have

at

one

the

time

past, which

for the

of
present time, for want
of observations, we
still less
are

use

no

for

sufficient number

respecting all the changes of declination

place undergoes in the lapse of time.
every

instructed
which
The

places
and

that

being

ever

excellent
llth

made

assure

us

that

subject to very considerable

others
scarcely undergo any,

are

interval

same

of

hitherto

observations

of

time

able to

it may

be

October, 1761.

; which

stripsus of
profitby this method,

in itself.

tain
cer-

tions,
variain the

all

hope

however

200

ON

MAGNETIC

THE

NEEDLE.

LETTER

Why

Magnetic

does the

the

Earth,
;

and

Time,

at

the

You

Needle

in every Place of
affect,
certain
in different
Direction, differing
does it change, with
for what Reason

Places

LVIII.

Place

same

will

formed
undoubtedly have the curiosityto be inwhy magnetic needles affect, at every place
the globe, a certain direction ; why this direction
on
is not the same
at different places ; and why, at the
of time.
I
same
place,it changes with the course
shall answer
these
important inquiries to the best
of my
to your
ability,though, I fear, not so much
satisfaction

as

wish.

I could

have
this
remark, first,that magnetic needles
with all magnets, and that it is
property in common
only their form, and their being made to balance and
renders
it more
revolve freelyon a pivot,which
spicuous.
conThe
loadstone, suspended by a thread,
turns
towards
a certain
put in a
quarter, and when
small

make

it swim

supports the

loadstone

vessel

which
certain

to

direction.

one

the

as

variations

same

These
as

will

always

loadstone

Every

opposite points,the
north, and the other

water, the

on

affect

fitted with
is directed

of which

to the

vessel

south, will

the

magnetic

points are
very
by them iron is

remarkable
attracted

be

two

the

to

subject

to

needle.

with

in

all loadstones,

the

greatest

force.

They

denominated
from

borrowed

term
or

are

of the

towards

pole

heavens
the

of the

that

not

poles of

of the

; because

north, and
earth : but

only almost,

the

the
this

the

loadstone

poles of
has

one

other

towards

is to

exactly, the

case

be

the

earth,

tendency
the

understood
;

"

for when

south
as

the

ON

MAGNETIC

THE

201

NEEDLE.

imposed, the declination had not yet been

which
observed.
That
is directed
pole of the loadstone
its north
northward
is called
pole, and that
its south pole.
which
points southward
I have
already remarked, that a magnetic needle,
was

name

as

well

which

the loadstone

as

only when
loadstone,

natural
to it
appears
the vicinityof another

from

this

assumes
itself,

situation,
removed

or

iron.

of

a loadstone,
placed near
its situation
stone
is regulated by the poles of that loadthat the north pole of the loadstone
attracts
: so
the southern
extremity of the needle ; and reciprocally,
the south pole of the loadstone
the northern
ring
For this reason,
in referextremity of the needle.

When

loadstone

one

friendlypoles
the hostile
is

bear

have

each

the

poles
is

needles

magnetic

bringing

on

; for

This

then

we

two

those
property
stones
load-

find,that

not

names

shun

influence.

In order

to

to

The

and

the

mutually attract,
and repel each
same
name
still more
two
conspicuous when
are
brought within the sphere of

other.

This

call those

name.

same

of different

of the

needle

the

other

we

different names,

singularlyremarkable

but that those

mutual

is

another,

to

which

which

near

only do

needle

magnetic

be

consider

of

this, it is of much

the situation

in the

assumes

bar

sensible

AB,

which

portance
im-

magnetic

vicinityof a loadstone.
Fig. Ill, represents a loadstone,
Fig.

111.

202

ON

whose

north

various

see

MAGNETIC

THE

pole is B,
positions of

NEEDLE.

and

south

the

the

pole

magnetic needle,
extremity marked

the

you

under

whose
b is
figure of an arrow,
the north pole, and a the south.
In all these
tions,
posithe extremity b of the needle
is directed
wards
tothe pole A of the loadstone
ity
; and the extremThe
a to the
point c indicates the pivot
pole B.
which
the needle revolves
on
; and
you have only to
consider
the figure with some
attention
in order to
determine

what

whatever

situation

positionround

the

needle

will assume,
loadstone
the pivot

the

in
c

is

fixed.
If there

loadstone

large

very

magnetic needles placed round it

at every
assume
place a certain situation,as
round
the globe.
actually to be the case

would
see

we

therefore, anywhere

were,

the

AB,

if the

that loadstone, we
should
globe itself were
comprehend why the magnetic needles everywhere
Now

assumed

certain

in order

direction.

ingly,
Naturalists, accord-

explain this phenomenon, maintain

that the whole
globe has the property of a magnet,
that we
stone.
or
ought to consider it as a prodigiousloadSome
of them
allege, that there is at the
has
centre
of the earth a very large loadstone, which
exercised
its influence
all the magnetic needles,
on
and

found

on

influence

to

on

even

the

to

all the
surface

to
be
are
loadstones, which
of the earth; and that it is this

which

directs

to the

directions

them

in every
formably
place, conwhich
them
observe
we

assume.

But

is

there

concealed

loadstone
surface

occasion

no

is

so

bowels

in the

replenished with
united

their

the want

huge magnet.

of this

extracted

these

from

substances

are

bowels

of the

powers

furnishes

mines
found

"

mines

In
an

in

the

general

may

of

Its

iron

well

and

supply

fact,all loadstones

infallible

proof

great abundance

earth, and that the

to

recourse

of the earth.

force

loadstone, that
are

have

to

union

force

which

that

in the

of all their

produces

204

ON

in order
in that

parts
a

hope

of

be such
the

be

case

from

law,

the

would

its motion

as

earth

in all its

undoubtedly

follow

we

loadstones

scattered

unite

their

and

up

force

to

down
the

produce

through its
magnetical

always consider the earth itself

may
loadstone, in subserviency to which
every
ticular
parloadstone, and all magnetic needles, assume

phenomena,
a

detached

with
the
might flatter ourselves
there
one
day discovering it. But whether
within the earth,or whether
a magnetic stone

entrails

'as

NEEDLE.

explain the magnetic declination,that this

It must
successively shiftingits situation.

; and

certain

MAGNETIC

to

is

stone

THE

we

their direction.
Certain

naturalists
in

have

enclosed

very

globe, and

powerful
magnetic

having placed a
needle
its surface, observed
similar
on
phenomena
which
take place on the globe of the earth,
to those
by placing the magnet within the globe in several
different positions. Now,
considering the earth as a
must
loadstone, it will have its magnetic poles,which
be
the
natural
poles
carefullydistinguished from
round
which
it revolves.
These
poles have nothing
magnet

in

between

common

from

the

the

vessel

them

but

the

name

; but

it is

magnetic poles relatively

that the apparent irregularities
in the
to the natural
magnetic declination
proceed, and particularly of
the lines traced
the globe, of which
I have
deavoured
enon
to give you
account.
some
In order
more
clearly to elucidate this subject,I
remark, that if the magnetic poles exactly coincided
declination
all
with the natural,there would
be no
the earth ; magnetic needles
would
over
universally
point to the north precisely,and their positionwould
be exactly that of the meridian
line.
This would
no
doubt be an unspeakable advantage in navigation,as
of
should
then
know
with precision the course
we
position

and

at

present

of

the compass

we

of the

the

direction

must

always

before

we

of the
look

are

wind

for the

whereas

declination

able to determine

the

ON

true

furnish

longitude,an objectwhich

natural, and
other

each

sooner

may

the

passed through

were

be

the

if the

case

magnetic
straight line

is, the

of the

centre

magnetic

greatly from the

directlyopposite to

magnetic pole

one

the

if the

very

earth, that

the

from

they

would

which

axis of

drawn

the declination

differed

if

that

"

compass
ascertainingthe

towards

concluded, that

be
it may
of the earth

Hence

poles

the

then

attainable.

later render

or

But

assistance

no

205

NEEDLE.

world.

the

quarters of

could

MAGNETIC

THE

the

other,

then

magnetic
these

to

earth

"

would

universallypoint towards
be easy to assign the
magnetic poles, and it would
magnetic direction proper to every place ; we should
only have to draw for every place a circle which
time
should at the same
pass through the two
netic
magand
the
which
this
circle
would
angle
poles,
of the same
make
with the meridian
placemust give
the magnetic declination.
needles

lines under which

In this case, the two
there is no
would
be the meridians
declination
drawn
through

magnetic poles. But as we

reality,these two lines without
the

meridians, but
it is evident

take

that

no

other
admit

bowels

moveable

declination

and

of the

But

towards

this

direction,

earth, the

the

double

suppose

; of

two

not

actuallytakes place.
and
therefore
difficulty,

consequence,
four poles of the earth, two

the north

are

case

this
Halley clearly saw
thought himself obliged to
in the

that, in

seen

unaccountable

very
such

have

he

one
was

of them

stone
load-

fixed, the

obliged to
towards

tances.
south, at unequal dis-

to me
rather a
hypothesis seems
bold
cause
conjecture : it by no means
follows, that bethese lines of no declination
not meridians,
are
be four magnetic poles on the earth ; but
there must
rather,that there are only two, which are not directly
to the same
opposite to each other ; or, which comes
thing,that the magnetic axis does not pass through

the

centre

VOL.

II"

of the
S

earth.

206

ON

NEEDLE.

MAGNETIC

THE

consider
the cases
remains, therefore, that we
in which
these two
magnetic poles are not directly
the magnetic axis does
not
opposite, and in which
It

brace
through the centre of the earth ; for if we emthe hypothesis of the magnetic nucleus
within
the earth, why should
of its poles be precisely
one
This
nucleus
opposite to the other?
may
very
be
the
of
the
not
in
centre
exactly
probably
very

pass

earth, but
if the

at

considerable

magnetic poles are

distance

from

it.

Now,

diametricallyopposite
to each other, the lines of no declination
actually
may
servation
obsimilar
to that which, from
a direction
assume
find they do ; it is even
we
possible to
assign to the two magnetic poles such places on the
earth, that not only these lines should coincide with
nation,
observation, but likewise, for every degree of decliwhether
lines

not

western

to those

preciselysimilar

find
may
at first seemed

eastern,

or

which

we

unaccountable.

so

In

order, then,

declination,all that
magnetic poles ; and
geometry to determine
which

know

to

is

the

requisiteis

then
the

of

state

magnetic

fix the

to

it becomes

two

problem

in

of all the lines

direction

I mentioned

in my
preceding
the declination
where

Letter, drawn

is the same
:
for every
place
should
be enabled to rectify
too, we
by such means,
where
these
no
lines, and to fill up the countries
observations

have

been

made

; and

were

it

possible
places of the

assign,for every future period, the

edly
undoubttwo
magnetic poles on the globe, it would
the
most
satisfactorysolution of the
prove
problem of the longitude.
to

There

is

within

no

stone
occasion, therefore, for a double loadthe earth, or for four magnetic poles,in

of magnetic needles,
explain the decimation
as
Halley supposed ; but for a simple magnet, or two
magnetic poles,provided its just place is assigned to

order

each.*
*

The

to

It appears
phenomena

render

to me,
it

that, from

absolutely necessary

this
to

reflection,

admit

two

mag-

ON

much

are

we

in

advanced

more

207

NEEDLE.

MAGNETIC

THE

knowledge

our

of

magnetism.
October, 1761.

LX.

LETTER

Inclination

Dip of Magnetic

or

Needles.

please to recollect,that on rubbing a

needle
against the loadstone, it acquires not only the
a certain
point of the
property of pointing towards
horizon, but that its northern
extremity sinks, as if
it had become
heavier, which
obligesus to diminish
that of the other
its weight somewhat,
or to increase
the equilibrium. I
extremity, in order to restore
several
puttingthis in practice,made
have, without
experiments to ascertain how far the magnetic force
brought down the northern extremity of the magnetized
will

You

needle, and
make

ang-leof

an

at Berlin

made

horizon

Hence
double
netic
the

about

afterward, that

you
the

two

is

we

see

effect

on

poles.

The

as

variable

needles

and

the

as

magnetic
one

so

to

as

horizon,

remained

these

; the

northern

poles,A

the

and
It

at rest.

experiments

six years ago

this direction

that the

two

southern

that

it sank

with

the needle

remark,

to

that

degrees

72

that in this situation

is proper

found

I have

were

for I shall show

to

point

magnetic
power
directs

below

tion.
declina-

produces
the

needle

call B and b, and

poles,which we
may
thus situated,
were
according to Hans-

a,

teen, in 1823.
North

Lat.

B in 69"

The

34'

West

and

Long.

271"

38' from

85

142

11

68

48

132

11

78

23

223

pole B

moves

round

the

ft,which

is weaker

round

the

north
vhan
south

Greenwich.

pole of
B, in

the

globe in

1740.
860.

pole
globe in 4609.
1304.
A, in
See the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, vol. iv. p. 117."
moves

a, which

is weaker

of the

than

Ed,

208

ON

towards

certain

quarter

the

inclination towards

it an

the

tion
horizon, the deviawe

the other

extremity under
Let d e, Fig. 112, be the horizontal line, drawn
according to
the
magnetic declination, and
other

the

or

is what

line

impresses on
horizon, sinking the one
it up to a certain angle.

declination

magnetic

call the

of

meridian

the

from

of which

NEEDLE.

MAGNETIC

THE

".

lin,
at Berassume,
b a, which
situation
will

the needle
the
makes

with

angle

horizon

the

b, or

the

a, which

is

consequently with the

/ g an angle b c g, or

72", and
vertical

This second
effect
c/, of 18".
of the magnetic force, by which
affects
the
magnetic needle

towards
first ; and

as

the

horizon, is

the

first is denominated

inclination

declination, to

as

the

all

possiblecare,
inclination

The

or

as

magnetic

the

by

the

find in it

Berlin

has

been

found

greater
needle,
that

so

the

or

the

if

we

we

at

needle
raised
which
of

the

approach it, the

of the magnetic

it

approaches the vertical line ;

reach
the magnetic pole itself,

more

could
would

as

inclination

the

becomes

needle

situation

proportion

with

72",*

only 70", the northern extremity of the

being sunk, and the opposite, of consequence,
This
takes place in countries
to that angle.
to the northern
are
nearer
magnetic pole
in

well

variation.

similar

Basle

earth; and

of

name

dip,which
deserves, as
be everywhere
observed

we

at

inclination
the
as

remarkable

as

is known

second

declination,the

magnetic

certain

there

its northern

downwards,

vertical
a
actuallyassume
extremity pointing perpendicularly
and its southern
end upwards. f

found
Ed.
In 1805, it was
to be 69" 53' at Berlin."
by Humboldt
the
1820,
observed
inclination
18th
needle
of
the
On
the
was
July.
t
in Melville Island, in
Harbour
by Mr. Sabine to be "8" 43' 5" at Winter
*

west

longitude 110" 48',and

74"

47' of north

latitude."

Ed.

ON

THE

209

NEEDLE.

MAGNETIC

The

from the
farther,on the contrary, you remove
northern
magnetic pole of the earth, and approach
the inclination
the southern, the more
diminishes;
it will at length disappear,and the needle will assume
when
a horizontal
equally distant from both
position,
the south pole of
poles ; but in proceeding towards
the earth, the southern
extremity of the needle will
sink

and

more

more

the

under

horizon, the northern

extremity rising in proportion,till at the pole itself

ern
the needle
vertical,with the southagain becomes
extremity perpendicularlydownwards, and the
northern
upwards.
that experiments
It were
devoutly to be wished
had been
as
carefullyand as generally made, with
the view of ascertainingthe magnetic inclination as
of determining the declination
; but this important
article of experimental philosophy has hitherto been
much
too
neglected,though certainlyneither less
tion.
curious nor
less interestingthan that of the declinais not, however, a matter
This
of surprise:
experiments of this sort are subject to too many
difficulties
of
failed.

and

almost

observing
artist

One

all the
the

methods

magnetic

alone, Mr.

hitherto

inclination

of the

of which

at

of 72

curious
French
have

may

put

though
*

One

no

machine

I have

of the
me

two

observed,

ever
degrees ; and howin other
respects the English and
be in prosecuting such
inquiries,they

great value

it is the
of the

under
the direction
purpose,
Daniel Bemouilli.
He
sent

machines, by means
Berlin, this inclination

have

Diterich,of Basle, has

succeeded, having actuallyconstructed

for the
proper
celebrated
Mr.

tempted
at-

only

one

simplest machines

on

Mr.

DitericWs

adapted for
for

measuring

the

this
dip of

machine,

purpose.*
the

needle

is

A bar of iron deprived entirelyof its

Copt. Scoresby's magnetimeter.
magnetism, either by heat, or by hammering it in the magnetic equator,
is placed in the magnetic meridian, upon
inclined plane. This plane
an
is raised or depressed by a wheel
and
pinion, till the iron bar exercises
whatever
action
this
it. When
a
no
compass-needle placed near
upon
the
is
bar
in
the
the
commagnetic equator, and consequently
happens,

S2

210

ON

This

instance

science

the

the

by
only

places

two

magnetic inclination is
prepared for the construction
the

where

globe

obstructed
are

of
progress
prejudice ; hence

how

demonstrates

be
may
and
Basle

Berlin

NEEDLE.

MAGNETIC

THE

Needles

the

on

known.
of

passes
com-

to indicate the quanby no means

proper
tity
of magnetic inclination,though they may
convey
its
idea
of
because
the
northern
tremity
exeffect,
rough
are

in these
to

latitudes

serviceable

render

needles

declination, we

the

of the

weight
of the

that

northern

southern.

To

position, the
usually employed, and

to discover

the

the

restore

last

of

needle

these

small

southern

the

to

In order

stroying
necessity of deinclination,by diminishing
extremity, or increasing

horizontal

affixed

intended

under

are

the effect of the

the

heavier.

becomes

is

methods

morsel

extremity

to

of

of

the

is

wax

needle.

abundantly sensible that this remedy applies

the'inclionly to these regions of the globe where
that
is so much, and
no
more
natory power
; and
You

are

were

we

would

power

with

increase,

should

be

extremity

quantity of

likewise

then

of

affixed

wax

be

the

earth, the incjinatory

prevent the effect

to

increase

to

the

towards

the

quantity of

ling
travelwe
extremity. But were
approaching the opposite pole
the inclinatorypower
the
on

southward, and
of the earth, where
northern

needle

that

so

obliged

at the southern

wax

such

magnetic pole of

northern

we

travel

to

the
to

needle

the

diminished

other
; after

diminishes, the

extremity
that

-must

it must

be

taken

altogether,being wholly useless when

the magnetic inclination
we
places where
disappears. On proceeding still forward to the south
pole,the southern extremity of the needle sinks ; so
away
arrive at

plement

of

inclination

the
of

inclination
needle

the

of
at

the
the

plane

on

place where
measured
by

which
the

it rests
observation

is the

dip

or

is made.

vertical
was
a
angle of inclination
graduated circle,
the
horizontal
had
when
bar
burgh
a
adjusted to zero
position. See the Edinvol.
Transactions,
ix.,and the Edinburgh
PhilosophicalJournal,

This

"

rol.

ix. p.

42, for

full account

of

this instrument."

Ed.

212

POWER.

MAGNETIC

trace

72"

of

and

this will

make

shall

line,which

new

give

the

us

with

it

direction

magnetic
comprehend
other
place

you will
for every
the magnetic direction
be ascertained, provided the inclination
for

Berlin

which

from

Every

exhibits

You
with

covered

the
round
filingsarrange themselves
nearly as represented in Fig. 113,
in which
particle of the
every
be considered
a
as
filingsmay
small magnetic needle, indicating

point round
every
the
magnetic
the

leaves

invisible

pervades

matter

of

which

vortex

going

reconducts

the

pole to the other ; and

doubt, extremely rapid.
continual
other
a

of the

nature

vortex,

bodies

loadstone,

and

must

own

denominated
matter

is

B,

filings

subtile

the

and

particlesof

that

which

this subtile

itself,entering at
at the other, so as
round

the

subtile

loadstone,

matter

from

is, without

motion

consists, then, in

which
the
be

all
distinguishes it from
earth itself,
in the qualityof

surrounded
on

to

direction, which
the

this

loadstone

acting everywhere
making continual efforts
to its

out

motion

one

The

it is

steel

in the direction

the loadstone

poles,and

the

equally clear

form, by its continual

to
a

the

the

see

loadstone

through

runs

It is

observe.

by
that

steel, and disposes them

here

one

doubt

which

matter

will

all these

assumed

to

room

no

table

quire
in-

to

us

of

cause

on

direction.

phenomena.
The
arrangement

we

tion
declina-

stone
load-

the

leads

experiment
into

the

is to

altogether

phenomena
have
only to place one
filingsof steel,and you

magnet

similar.

This

and

how

known.

are

at

angle

an

with

magnetic

similar

needles, and

dispose them
is the

same

tex,
vor-

according
I formerly

magnetic direction : this subtile

continually issuing at one
of the magnetic

MAGNETIC

of

the

213

POWER.

earth, and

having performed a
circuit round
to the other
pole, it there enters, and
pervades the globe through and through to the opposite
it
where
pole,
again escapes.
We
not
are
by which of
yet enabled to determine
the two
magnetic poles of the earth it enters or
issues ; the phenomena
depending on this have suph
a perfectresemblance, that they are
indistinguishable.
It is undoubtedly, likewise, this general vortex
of
the globe which
suppliesthe subtile matter of every
to magnetic iron or
steel,and
particularloadstone
which
keeps up the particularvortices that surround
poles

after

them.
Previous

to

of this subtile

thorough investigationof

matter, and

that its action

and

steel
it

to

others.

be

by

We

experiments,
all other

for when
is

warranted

are

to

matter

in

even

acts

upon
whether

those

marked,
re-

all

must

it bears

maintain, from

that this subtile

loadstone

to

which

same

bodies, and

be

loadstone,iron,

to

it bears
the

means

must

nature

absolutelyindifferent

are

which

no

motion, it

is confined

bodies

relation

the

therefore
fold

;* all other

its

the

to

mani-

freelypervades
directions;

needle, the

action

poses
body interthe interposingbody is not
the filings
of iron.
on
iron, and its action is the same
This
subtile
pervade all
matter, therefore, must
bodies, iron excepted, as freelyas it does air,and
even
ether; for these
experiments succeed
pure
by the air-pump.
equallywell in a receiver exhausted
from
This
is consequently different
matter
ether,
and even
subtile.
of
much
more
And, on account
the general vortex
of the earth, it may
be affirmed
that the globe is completely surrounded
by it,and
*

perfectlythe same
or
not, provided

Professor

whatever

Hansteen

materials

it is

has

lately found

composed,

has

another

that

vertical object, of
every
south pole above, and
fact he has
put beyond a

magnetic

north
This curious
pole below.
magnetic
the
velocity of the oscillations
doubt, by measuring
a

on

different

sides

of the

extremities

Philosophical Journal,

of the vertical

vol. iv. p.

299, 300.

"

of a

magnetic needle
burgh
object." See the EdinEd.

214

NATURE

OF

freelypervaded, as
the

loadstone

steel

and

them

iron

from

MATTER.

bodies

all other
;

for

be denominated

may

But

MAGNETIC

this

the

are

magnetic

such

We

be

concluded

other

passes
this is

bodies.

through
a

out

it

would
But

as

very

it have

can

just observed,
one

of the

at the

other

at

the loadstone

circumstance

relation

have

that

likewise, which
from

tinguish
dis-

freelythrough

passes

enters

vortex

loadstone, and goes

every
it may

and

others.

if this

which

iron

reason

magnetic bodies, to

magnetic matter
all non-magnetic bodies, what
those

excepting

are,

to

that

poles of
;

whence

stones
freelypervades loadnot
distinguishthem
the
magnetic matter
only from pole to pole,

different from

what

takes

in others.

Here, then, we have the distinctive

character.
Non-magnetic bodies are freelypervaded
by the magnetic matter in all directions : loadstones
are
pervaded by it in one direction only ; one of the
poles being adapted to its admission, the other to
its escape.
and
rendered
But
iron
steel, when
they are
magnetic, fulfil this last condition ; when
place

it may
be affirmed
that they do not
transmission
to the
magnetic matter

not,
free

grant
in

any

direction.
This
which

may
appear
transmit
the

strange, as iron
ether, though it

has

open

is not

so

pores,
subtile

the

tinguish
But we
must
carefullydismagnetic matter.
in which
from
the
one
a
simple passage,
magnetic matter
pervade the body, with all its
may
without
encountering any obstacle.
rapidity,
as

31 si

October, 1761.

LETTER

Nature

I
the

AM

LXII.

ofthe Magnetic Matter^ and of its rapidCurrent.

Magnetic Canals.
very

far from

phenomena

of

pretendingto explain perfectly

magnetism ; it presents difficulties

NATURE

which

I did

OF

MAGNETIC

find

in

215

MATTER.

those

of

electricity. The
of it undoubtedly is,that electricity
consists
in
cause
of compression of a
too great or too small
a degree
of bodies,
subtile
fluid which
occupies the pores
is the
without
supposing that subtile fluid, which
magnetism cannot
: but
ether, to be in actual motion
in rapid
vortex
be explained unless
a
we
suppose
penetrates magnetic bodies.
agitation,which
The

not

likewise

much

pervades
even

diffused

subtile

more

than

vortices

ether,

and

is

freely
vious
imper-

of loadstones, which
are
pores
this magnetic matter
is
to ether.
Now,
with
the
ether, as the
through and mixed
the

is with

ether

these

constitutes

which

matter

air ; or, just as

gross
of air, it may
the pores

and

fills up

the

magnetic

be

and

occupies

matter

ether

occupies

affirmed

fills the

that
of

pores

ether.
and iron have
I conceive, then, that the loadstone
small that the ether in a body cannot
force
so

pores

into them,
its way
alone can
penetrate
called

be

found

and

of

the

filtration.

magnetic matter
mitted,
which, on being adether by what
may

In

the

the

alone, therefore, is the magnetic

matter

to

in

else

ether,

this last is with

as

subtile

more

perfectly blended
of

pores

perfect purity: everywhere

easily imagine

can

always

the

of

with

blended
You

kind

loadstone

them

that

itself from

separates
be

and

than

this.

series

another,

together.
Water, we

the
of
and

Nature

know,

it is

air.

fluids, one
which

are

furnishes

stances
in-

contains

in

its

are
particles of air, which
frequently seen
in the form
of small bubbles
discharging themselves
:
air again, it is equally certain, contains
in its pores a
fluid incomparably more
subtile
and
namely, ether
which
occasions
is separated from
on
it,as in
many
we
see
a still further
electricity. And now
sion,
progres-

pores

"

and

that

subtile than

ether

itself

"

contains
the

magnetic

"

much

matter
matter

"

which

more

may

216

NATURE

MATTER.

contain, in its turn, others

this is not impossible.

perhaps
least

at

MAGNETIC

OF

the

considered

Having

still

of

subtile,

more

this

magnetic
the phenomena
I
are
matter, let us see how
produced.
then
that besides
consider
a loadstone,
; and
say, first,
filled with
a
ether, like all other
great many
pores
still much
some
into
more
bodies, it contains
narrow,
matter
alone
the magnetic
which
find admission.
can
are
disposed in such a manner
Secondly, these
pores
communication
with
each
to have
a
as
other, and
constitute
tubes
the magcanals, through which
or.
netic
nature

from
passes
Finally,this matter

the

matter

other.
these

only in
returning

tubes
of

direction, without

one

in

circumstance

more

particular elucidation.
vessels

lymphatic

and

animals

remark,

the

in

the

This

114.

veins

bodies

similar

the

through
the possibility

Fig.
that

of

tubes

are

to

opposite direction.
requires a

an

essential

be transmitted

can

most

First, then,

extremity

one

of
struction,
con-

containing valves, represented

strokes
in Fig. 114, by the
m
n, which,
grant a free pasby raising themselves,
sage
to

B,

to

and

For

to A.

blood

the

to

it flows

when

its reflux

from

attempted

to flow

prevent

if the

blood

Jffi

from
B

down
the
A, it would
press
moveable
extremity of the valve m on the
side
of the vein
totally obstruct
o, and

from

the
in

aqueducts,
I do

supposing

when

I say

which
sire

Valves

passage.

water.
as

to

of

not

prevent

thus
the

consider

employed

reflux

of the

myself, then,

any thing contrary to nature,

in loadstones,
that the canals

admit
the

to

are

same

the

magnetic
construction.

matter

only,

NATURE

MAGNETIC

OF

217

MATTER.

Fig. 115, represents this magnetic canal,Fig.115.

it
according to my idea of it. I conceive
furnished
inwardly with bristles directed
\o/
from A towards
B, which
present no opposition
from

but

course

at
pass
immediately obstruct the

would

were

it to

from

B to A.

channel

case

at n, to let the

they

in its passage
they open of

matter

B, for in this

to

themselves
o;

magnetic

the

to

matter

attempt
The

retrograde

of

nature

netic
mag-

in

consists, then,

canals

granting
admission
to the
magnetic matter
only at
the possiB, without
A., to flow towards
bility
of returning in the opposite direction
from

towards

how

v
n

A.

construction

This

the

enables

to

us

explain

into

these

magnetic
V
tubes, and flies through them with the greatest
when
the whole
ether is
rapidity,even
is the most
in a state of perfect rest, which
surprising; for how can a motion so rapid be
produced 1 This will appear perfectlyclear
will please to recollect that ether is a
to you, if you
matter
extremely elastic ; accordingly,the magnetic
is scattered
about, will be pressed by
matter, which
the magnetic canal
it on every side.
Let us suppose
A B stillquiteempty, and that a particle
of magnetic
matter

presents itself

enters

at the

A ; and this
particlepressed on every side at the opening of the
force admission,
canal, into which the ether cannot
matter

it will there be

pressed forward

itself,and

be

driven

and in like

manner

entrance

with

prodigiousforce,
and enter into the canal with equal rapidity: another
particleof magnetic matter will immediately present

will thence

result

all the
a

VOL.

II."

with

the

same

force

There

followingparticles.
flux of magnetic matter,

continual

which, meeting with

from
will escape
at A.
it enters

forward

no

it at B

obstruction
with

the

same

in this

canal,

rapiditythat

218

My idea then
great multitude
magnetic ; and
magnetic matter

is,that

with

it very

and

thus

magnetism.
November,

have

several

now

of Magnets

in what

seen

consists

canals, of

the distinctive
; and

that

I have

which

with

will flow

rapidity,entering
marked
those
indeed

with

each

the

blended

with

great obstructions
motion

in the

motion

be

sides

c.

entrance, towards
of the
matter

will

utmost

at

escape
with

the

air,

the grosser
will oppose
direction

The

the
and

the

force

their

quicklyovertake

extremities

which
way

the
into

of its

continuation

only

not

thing will

same

rapiditywith

give a

Fig. 116.

retarded, but its direction diverted

c

to

rapidity;

same

same

contains

ties
extremi-

it will

character

attempted

escaping

immediately meeting

ether

the

the

at

and

a,

marked

the

each other.

upon

description.
Fig. 116 represents a loadstone
A B, with three
magnetic canals
the magnetic
a b, through which
matter

theory

LXIII.

Action

loadstone

the

in the

1761.

Magnetic Vortex.

but

surmounted

occur

can

LETTER

You

I have

hope

greatest difficulties which

3d

of

contains

I denominate
canals, which
naturally follows, that the

of these

of the loadstone
the

loadstone

every

enter
dispersed in the ether must
them
at one
extremity, and escape at the other,
shall have a pergreat impetuosity; that is,we
petual
of magnetic matter
current
through the canals

into

of

MAGNETS

OF

ACTION

take
a

will the
towards

place at
; on

the

aecoimt

particlesof magnetic
them,

those which

are

the

circulation

stilltowards

the

220

Now,
terms

the

though

these

south, yet

whether

it is

magnetic

by

matter

in the

that

magnetic matter
pole or by the south.
this

each

which

to indicate

form

to

by

phenomena

escape

whether

enters

duced
pro-

such

that

suppose
by the

escapes
with

the

matter

of these

how

judgment

or

we

north

letter A

enters, and

vortices, in order

loadstones

two

act

upon

other.

Let

each

total

A,

a,

will be

in

which

matter

will enter

and

at A and

of

""3ZZk*vt^

*!'

J I

""~i;

these

vortices

other, the

attempting mutually to destroy

which
matter
proceeds by E to enter

will

meet

at D

by

to enter

of

the

two

other

two

vortices, in which

the

which,

repel
But

and

each

thus

to

for this

denominated

will
the

take
other

at A

collision

repel

the

loadstones

situated, undergo

same

loadstones

are

one

each

returning

result

thing would
presented to each

The

repulsion.

name

loadstone

must

a:

from

other

this

at

themselves,

poles B

of the

this effect will extend

and

that

and

^3--.*

magis at C

a, and

pio-, 117.

their

state

The

opposition.

netic

loadstones

two

are

name

vortices

the

presented to
by the poles of the

other

same

that

suppose

us

5, Fig. 117,

two

fect
per-

without
it escapes,
pretending
which
is north or south.
I proceed

consideration

the

to

You

have

it may,
I shall mark
which
the magnetic

that

thereby

as

pole by
B

loadstones.

it appears

the

with

that

pole

all the

and

indifference

of

matter

the

into

enters

south

or

tainty
cer-

mine
impossible to deterquestion by experiments. It is therefore

the

Be

north

the

affirm with

cannot

sequel, that

resemblance

distinguishedby

are

we

the

the admission

by

MAGNETS.

poles

north and

will see,

OF

ACTION

mutual

place

if the

the

other

the

poles of the same

because
hostile,
they actually
reason

other.

if the

loadstones

present

to

each

other

tha

poles

of
and

ensue,

different name,

an

effect

opposite

perceivethat they have

will

you

221

FORCE.

MAGNETIC

will

mutual

attraction.
the
Fig. 118, where
loadstones
two
present to
each other the polesB and
the
magnetic matter
a,
which
issues from the pole
B, findingimmediately free
In

admission

into

loadstone

by

other

pole

its

diverted

be

will not

the

and

a,

towards

the

sides

in order

to

A, but will pass directlyby C

into the other loadstone,and escape
from it at b, and
will perform the circuit by the sides d d, to re-enter,
not
by the pole "z, but by the pole A, of the other
return

re-enter

at

loadstone, completing the circuit by

of these

vortices
but

were

all sides
towards

one

by

will

f.

Thus

the

unite,as if there

and

this vortex, being compressed on

ether, will impel the two loadstones

the

each

loadstones

two

other, so that they will exhibit

mutual

attraction.

why the poles of different names

name
are
denominated/n'end/y,and those of the same
hostile,the principalphenomenon in magnetism, in
much
as the poles of different names
as
attract,and
those of the same
name
repel each other.
is the

This

7th

reason

1761.

November,

LETTER
Nature

of

Iron

Steel.

and

to them

HAVING
canals

the

the

magnetic

direction,because
its return

in the

Method

of communicating-

Magnetic Force.

settled the nature

which

only one
prevent

LXIV.

of the loadstone
matter

can

pervade

in

they contain
contrary direction,you can

T2

the valves

in these

222

METHOD

longer

no

of
they are the continuation
fibres
(see Fig. 115, p. 217), whose

doubt

those

pores
in
the
point

COMMUNICATING

OF

that

direction

same

several

that

; so

of these

particles,
being joined in continuation, constitute one
It is not
sufficient,therefore, that
magnetic canal.
the

similar
such

the

of

matter

loadstone

particles; they

manner

extremity

transmission

be

to

many

disposed

continued

canals

other, in order

to the

contain

likewise

must

form

to

as

should

from

grant

in

one

rupted
uninter-

an

to the

magnetic matter.
such parIron and steel,then, apparently contain
ticles
in great abundance
are
not, however,
; these

originallydisposed
but
this

they want to become

they still retain all
not
distinguishable

In that case,
qualities,and are
of iron

besides

the

needle

have

of the

steel, except that

properties of
the
the

want

takes

which

and

answer

or

the whole

over

all

dispositionis

place

the loadstone

particlesin the

other

from

knife

the

and

they
change

The

which

order

real nets.
magtheir other

whether

interior,from

and

they have
;

purposes,
magnetic virtue.

scribing
de-

mass,

now

same

in the

been

I have

manner

scattered

are

masses

in the

ment
arrange-

magnetism

externally perceptible; and the iron

has acquired the magnetic force
is
steel which
or
denominated
to distinguish it
an
artificial
magnet,
resembles
from
the natural, which
a
stone, though
requires,is

not

magnetic propertiesare the same

will have
no
doubt, to
a
curiosity,
the

what

manner

iron

and

steel

may
and

be

You

in both:
be

informed

brought

to

in
ceive
re-

become
artificial
so
magnetic force,
be more
simple; and the
Nothing can
magnets.
is capable of rendering iron
vicinityof a loadstone
somewhat
magnetic : it is the magnetic vortex which
stone
though the iron and loadproduces this effect,even
the

should
However

hard

come

into contact.

iron may

which
particles
formerly represented are

appear,

magnetic pores
pliantin substance, and

contain
very

the

not

the

the

smallest

force

is

sufficient to

THE

MAGNETIC

change

their

223

FORCE.

situation.

The

into the

of the vortex, entering

dispose the first magnetic

matter

easily
meets

following its

whose

situation

directions

own

"

magnetic
iron,will then

which
it
pores
those
at least

very different ; and having run

it will act in the same
the
manner
on
is not

through them,
adjacent pores, till it has forced a passage
quite
magnetic
through the iron,and thereby formed some
of
the
iron
contributes
canals.
The
figure
greatly
to facilitate this change ; a lengthened figure,and
direction with the vortex, is most
placed in the same
adapted to it, as the magnetic matter, in passing
length, disposes there a great
through the whole
particles in their just situation,in order to
many
form
longer magnetic canals ; and it is certain,that
of forming canals, and
the more
there is the means
the longer they are
without
interruption,the more
of the magnetic matter, and
rapid will be the motion
the greater the magnetic force.
likewise

It has

placed

in

remarked, that when

been

the

iron

is violentlyshaken
or
magnetic vortex
acquires a higher degree of magnetism
a

struck, it
from
this,because

the

minute

particlesare by such
concussion
agitated and disengaged, so as to yield
more
easily to the action of the magnetic matter
which
penetratesthem.
Placing accordingly a small
Fig. 119.
bar of iron a b, Fig. 119, in the
of

vortex
so

the

loadstone

B,

that its direction

may nearly
that of the current

agree with
d cf of the

magnetic matter,

will

ease

with

it

through

pass
form
in

the

it magbar, and
netic
canals, especiallyif at

the

same

or

time
struck

the

bar

is shaken

to facilitate the

transmission.

observable, that

It is likewise
the

magnetic

matter

which

enters

224

METHOD

at the

pole

pole B,

will

OF

of the

loadstone, and

the

enter

COMMUNICATING

bar

with

same

B.

Then

extremity a, and
that the extremity a

so

A, and

name

same

this bar

taking

the

the

at

at the extremity 6,
escape
will become
the pole of the

at

escapes

b the
of the

out

magnetic vortex, it will be an artificial magnet,

will supply its own
tex,
vorthough very feeble, which
and preserve
its magnetic power,
as
long as its
magnetic canals shall not be interrupted. This will
take place so much
the more
easilythat the pores of
iron are
circumstance
which
pliant; thus the same
assists
the
contributes
production of magnetism
likewise
not

its destruction.

to

easilyenfeebled,

so

closer,and

them.

derange

because

considerable

more

1 shall go

natural

is

magnet

the pores are

much
efforts are
requisiteto

largely into

more

the

tail
de-

afterward.
of mbst
explain ,the manner
naturallyrendering iron magnetic ; though the force
which
it thence
acquires is very small, it will assist
in comprehending
and
almost
this remarkableus
universal
It has been
observed, that
phenomenon.
other
are
implements of iron which
tongs and
well
bars
as
usually placed in a vertical position,as
of iron fixed perpendicularlyon
steeples,acquire in
time a very sensible magnetic force.
It has likewise
been
in a
perceived that a bar of iron, hammered
vertical positionor heated
red-hot, on being plunged
becomes
in the same
into cold water
what
someposition,
stone.
magnetic, without the applicationof any loadI here

In order

only
and

to

propose

for this

to account

that the

to recollect

phenomenon,

earth

consequently encompassed
of which

the

magnetic

needle

If then

bar

there

no

is

magnetic.

of

reason

We

declination

everywhere
iron

with
and

show

loadstone,

magnetic

inclination
the true

tex,
vor-

of the

direction.

long in that position,

surprisedshould it become

remain

to be

have

itself is

have

you

likewise

seen

that the inclina-

225

FORCE.

MAGNETIC

THE

is at Berlin
72 degrees ;
magnetic needle
all over
and
it is nearly the
same
as
Europe, this
from
the vertical
inclination
differs only 18 degrees
position, accordingly, differs
position; the vertical
of the magnetic
but
little from
the direction
vortex
:
in that
bar of iron, long kept
position, will be at
a
last penetrated
the magnetic
must
with
vortex, and
consequently acquire a magnetic force.
the

of

tion

In

is imperceptib

inclination

the

where

countries,

other

equator, it is
horizontal
the
rather
not
the vertical, but
position,
which
renders
bars of iron
magnetic ; for their position
must
to the
inclination, if
correspond
magnetic
I
them
would
have
acquire a magnetic force.
you
for the
speak here
only of iron ; steel is too hard
is the

which

and

purpose,

November,

Captain

bar

392

Scoresby

soft

of

grains,

the

and

in

When
end

up,

its

magnetism

Scoresby

blade

compass-needle,
by
may

hair

or

guide

Transactions,
and

Edinburgh

shown

the

limb

which

slender

himself

his compass.

have

thread.

in

For
vol.

will

his

further
ix.

boat

most

how

we

as

p. 243

of

this

great

weight,

after

hammered

in

held

accurately
on

this

of 20

grains;

188

grains.

of
with

as

this

; Philosophical
Journal, vol.

or

even

shipwrecked
been

other

application.

facility when
had

the

the

convert

process

if he

6"
resting
of

grains

previously

the

means

metal

end

88

scissors,

of

lifting power

its lower

when

by

may

that

weighing

surface

liftingpower
lifting power

bar

with

traverse

By

and

the

pair

infonnaiion

Philosophical

been

found

He

entirely destroyed.
important
practical

of

of

bar

produced

with

nail
had

upon

on

artificial

making

diameter,

in

blows,

the

gave

almost

was

has

penknife,

ployed
em-

it.*

to

steel

direction,

poker

blow

struck

results

Captain

lifted

blows

ten
was

inch

an

hammered,

the

single

blow

curious

These

of

instance

single

it

of

seventeen

was

When

position,

one
a

bar

soft

hammering

of

method

vertical

after

poker,

small

blows.

vertical

in

similar

top of

twenty-two
a

process
inches
long,

acquired,

When

grains.
on

of

hammered

ferruginous,

not

Virtue

magnetic

lately discovered

the

steel, 6"
when

be

must

1761.

has

solely from

magnets,

the

communicate

to

10"A

efficacious

more

means

the

near

case

nail, into
mariner
able

to

use

subject see the Edinburgh

Transactions,
1822, p. 241

ix. p. 41.

"

Ed.

suspended

226

ACTION

LOADSTONES

OF

ON

LETTER
Action

LXV.

Iron.
on
of Loadstones
placing Pieces of Iron

on

the

THOUGH

whole

loadstone, and

IRON.

earth

Phenomena

be

may

Loadstone.

near

observable

considered
with

magnetic
which
vortex
dle,
everywhere directs the magnetic neeits magnetic power
is,however, very feeble,and
vast

much

less than

encompassed

as

as

that

of

from

every
appearance,
the surface : now,

depth below
loadstone
when

the

this

enormous

tance
disundoubtedly from our very remote
the real magnetic poles of the earth,

from

which,

loadstone

considering

strange,
very
magnitude of the earth.
appears

It arises

small

very

it is very

; and

near

great

powerful a
considerable
only

it removes,

as

at

however
Is

be, its force

may

buried

are

that force

graduallydiminishes, and at length disappears. For

this reason
the magnetic force
acquired in time by
of iron suitablyplaced in the earth's
vortex
masses
is very small, and indeed
hardly perceptible,unless
it is very soft, and of a figureadapted to the production
remarked.
of a vortex, as has been
already
This

effect is much
of moderate

acquire from

they

are

whereas

it

likewise
this

their
A

only

either

near

of iron

masses

speedily

magnetic

imperceptible

the

stone
load-

force

"

loadstone

in the

earth's

only in directing magnetic

ing
increasor
attractingthem

weight.

mass

plunged

of iron

likewise
which

is

consists

needles, without

small

very perceptible
towards
attracted

effect

and

vortex,

size
a

considerable

more

well
is this

presents very

deserve
mass

butjt

too

into the vortex

curious

of

phenomena,

particular explanation.

at first attracted

attracts

other

stone
load-

towards

pieces of

Not

the loadstone,
iron.

Let

228

ACTION

stone

OF

feet, the

of iron C

mass

considerable
In

explain

to

that

consider

to

of

mass

In like

pervades.
it will there

into

mutual
before

attracted

and

between

two

that

from

one

the

continual
of the

of

as

we

of

into
and

"

bodies
same

each

so

iron, we*

dergo
unas

reason,

an

with

may

on.
one

must

other,

observe

it

freely
the bar,

loadstones,

two
to

enters

issuing from

on

which

must

be

attraction

certainty

is

which
issues
magnetic matter
entering into the other, from the
which

with

it

all of them

these

penetrates

that, in the preceding disposition

of iron, the magnetic

|jars
mutual

which

the

It is thus

pervades
their

matter,

often

as

motion

bodies.

canals

another, these two

attraction, for the

pieces

conclude

entering

on

proved, that
friendlypoles

their

it afterward

magnetic

magnetic

body, enters

which

manner,

form

too

the

present

very
have

B
pole of the loadstone
iron, and disposes the pores

magnetic canals,

I have

the

to form

to exert

phenomena, you
magnetic matter

the

rapidly at

as

of several

even

continued

these

escapes
into the

And

IRON.

force.

order

only

ON

that at the distance

powerful

so

LOADSTONES

and

matter

this is the

in its motion

only reason

of

attraction.

still present themselves

on
phenomena
turning the other pole A of the loadstone, by which
the mass
the magnetic matter
of
enters, towards
becomes
iron.
in this case
The
motion
retrograde,
and
the same
course
; for the magnetic
preserves
The

same

contained

matter

in the

mass

of iron will then

the

escape
and
in

loadstone,
rapidlyinto
efforts to
making its escape will employ the same
the pores in the mass
suitablyto the current,
arrange
To this
if it were
as
rapidlyentering into the iron.
soft and
end, therefore, the iron must be sufficiently
these pores pliant to obey the efforts of the magnetic
A
to
matter.
difficultywill no doubt here occur
from

you

it, to pass

it will

change

be

asked, How

of direction

of the

do

you

magnetic

for the

account
matter

on

enter-

LOADSTONES

OF

ACTION

ON

229

IRON.

tion
ing into another bar of iron ; and why is that direcregulated according to the length of the bars,
is represented in the figure?
This is
its course
as
a very
important article in the theory of magnetism,
the figure of the pieces
how
much
and
it proves
of iron contributes
to the productionof the magnetic
phenomena.
subtile

matter

magnetic
and

this,it

elucidate

To

that

us

considerable

them, with

ether

and

the

the

that

that this
in the

ease

separated from

very

from

suppose

the utmost

it is

pores, where
it encounters

it escapes
into the
re-enter
Let

with

moves

when

be recollected

must

the

obstacles

all its velocity,

to

air.

magnetic matter,

having pervaded the bar C D, Fig. 121, enters

iron ruler E F, placed perpendicularly.
It would
cerFig. 121.
3? P
tainly, on its first admis_

the

direction,in order
at m,

easier

an

continue

unless
road

same

to

cape
es-

it found

in which

its motion:

continuation

into the

to

but

meeting at m the greatest

obstruction, it at first
its
changes
direction,
small
though in a very
F, where
degree, towards
finding pores
adapted to
the

after

'"

sion, preserve

ether;

of its

more
motion, it will deviate
and more
from its first direction, and travel through
the ruler E F in all its length ; and, as if the magnetic
loath to leave the iron,it endeavours
matter
to
were

its motion

continue

itself of the
were

But
run

there

length

as

long

ing
possible,avail-

as

of the ruler

but if the ruler

undoubtedly escape at m.
very short, it would
the length of the ruler presenting it a space to
through, it follows the direction E F, till it is

under
VOL.

the

necessity of escaping

II." U

at F. where

all the

230

ARMING

LOADSTONES.

OF

canals, formed

magnetic

according to the same

direction, no
longer permit the subtile magnetic
and return
matter
to change its direction
along the
canals
ruler ; these
being not only filled with succeeding
of

in

receiving motion

Uth

their very

but, from

matter,

November,

nature, incapable

opposite

an

direction.

1761.

LETTER

LXVI.

Arming of Loadstones.
You

have

magnetic

just

of

current

iron

how

seen

receive

may

it to

loadstone, convey

the
siderable
con-

change its direction.

distances, and even
To
unite a loadstone, therefore, to pieces of iron, is
with
much
the same
increasing its size, as the iron
with
nature
acquires the same
respect to the magnetic
matter
to

means
as

it

and

conduct

direction

change the
the poles are

the

and

the loadstone

enters

further

being

of

places
escapes,

possible by
the magnetic
where
we

such
rent,
cur-

this matter
enabled

are

to

the

poles at pleasure.
the arming, or mountOn
this principleis founded
ing,
of loadstones
a
subject well worthy of your
thus brought to a higher
are
attention,as loadstones
degree of strength.
the mine, are
from
Loadstones, on being taken
to the figure of a parallelepiped,
or
usually reduced
rectangularparallelogram,with thickness as A A, B B,
"

Fig.
face

the
and

which

is the

B B

sur-

Fig.

122.

which

matter

enters,
which
it es-

that

by

It is

filled,
then,

length A

b, which

the

pole by

magnetic

capes.
whole
a

122, of

B with

the

canals

the

ter,
magnetic matimpelled by the elastic power

of the

ether, freely

with

pervades
such

is

loadstone

To

Let

without

in what

see

now

us

usually

surface,

each

rapidity,and

the utmost

of that fluid.

mixture

231

LOADSTONES.

OF

ARMING

any

manner

armed.

B, Fig. 123, the two

poles of the loadstone, are
and

applied plates of iron a

and b b,terminating below
feet

the

B' called

A' and

in the knobs

this is what

the

denominate

we

ar-

loadstone, and
this is done, the

of the

mour

when

said

is

loadstone

be

to

In this state, the

which
would
magnetic matter
armed.

surface

into

passes

the

have

the

escaped at
plate b b1 where

iron

the

of flying off into the air,in its own

tion,
direcdifficulty
obliges it to take a different one, and to flow
along the plate b b into the foot B', and there it is
the necessity of escaping, as it no longer finds.
under

iron
same

thing takes
will

matter

from

continuation

assist the

to

place

there

be

it will

which

its direction

to

on

of

the other

conducted
pass

enter

into the
into the

its motion.
side

the

through
plate a

The
subtile

the

foot

A',

changing
loadstone, and to fly
a,

For the subtile matter

magnetic canals.
contained
in the plate enters
stone
first into the loadis the foot A',
by that which
; it is followed
replaced in its turn by the external magnetic matter,
which, being there impelled by the elasticityof the
ether, penetrates the foot A' and the plate a a with a
vehemence
is capable of arranging
rapidity whose
the poles, and of forming magnetic canals.

through

Hence
same

on

its

it is evident

both

that

sides, with

find the

poles of

the

the

difference, that
by the foot A', and

the

motion

must

this

will enter
magnetic matter
by the foot B', so that
now

be

the

in

armed

these

two

loadstone

feet
;

and

cape
eswe

as

232

ARMING

the

poles formerly diffused

B B

and

A' and

are

LOADSTONES.

OF

collected

now

surfaces

basis

of

the

feet

that the netic

magconsiderably greater in these

be

must

the

on

B',it is naturallyto
force

the

over

be

supposed

poles.

new

accordingly,the vortex will be more

The
matter
escaping from the foot
the utmost
foot
to the
B' will, with
return
facility,
A', passing through C ; and the rest of the body of
will not be encompassed
the loadstone
tex,
by any vorsmall
unless
perhaps a
quantity of magnetic
the plate b b, from
from
its
should
matter
escape
not being able to change the direction
so
suddenly ;
small
and
unless
a
quantity should find admission
in that case
might produce
by the plate a a, which
would
feeble
a
vortex, whereby the subtile matter
the plate b b to a a ;
from
be immediately conducted
be well
fitted,this second
however, if the armour
almost
will be
vortex
quently
imperceptible, and conseIn this state,
easilyformed.

the

the

between

current

feet is

much

so

the

stronger.

principaldirection
carefullyto polish both

for

The

and

applying

B,

as

them

by
a

or

vacuum,

and

the

all its

any
a

the

to

plates,the magnetic
motion, its

current

the

will

be

softest and

,br the

most

construction

ductile
of

such

be

loadstone

will lose

matter

structed
unob-

if there

; but

almost

interrupted,and
through
passage

incapable of forcing its

iron, by forming magnetic canals

The

loadstone

iron, when

intervening matter
body of air,between

rendered
the

of the

is

the

as

it in every
easilyfrom the loadstone

touch

surfaces

loadstones

plates of iron, so that on

the loadstone, they may
exactly
passing
point, the subtile matter

well
to

arming

in it.

iron is to be
armour,

preferred

because

its

themselves
in
easilyarrange
of the magnetic matter.
conformity to the current
well
Iron of this description,accordingly,appears
adapted to the production of a sudden change in

,x"res

are

pliant,and

OF

ARMING

direction

the

too,

of

long

of

motion

its

in

the

formed,

easily

so

But

yield

when

they

canals

not

retain

force
with

being

it

do

exerted

in

steel,

longer
soft

iron,

its

during
almost

not

current.

whereas

it

canals

much

and

deranged,

mature
pre-

place

pores

formed

once

loses

take

magnetic

tion
junc-

entirely

on

disjoined.

Experience

it

plates,
great

or

has

too

best

nth

is

small

much

very

we

great

November,

that

to

are

not

thickness

quantity
1761.

U2

for

but

very
know

of

the

it.

either
the

which

that

the

ether,
is

too

most

thin,

than

plate

thinnest

cumstances
cir-

other

the

Respecting
a

subtile

more

the

as

injurious

plates
did

consequently
a

found

been

adapted

is

matter

consulted
loadstones.

arming

strange,

appear

be

must

of

the

are

have

may

loadstone,

of

longer

no

magnetic

whose

steel,

as

ance
continu-

to

not

the

force

magnetic

their

whatever

easily

so

the
is

does

which

efforts

the

to

till

circuit

that

in

nor

these

are

in

it

matter,

direction

medium

that

making

itself,

that

quit

not

thing

"

loadstone

already

are

does

magnetic
in

progress

prefers

departure

the

through

it

practicable:

and

possible,

as

current

affect

to

seems

the

233

LOADSTONES.

sufficient

part,
would

magnetic
that

and
to

ceive
re-

234

LXVn.

LETTER
Action

and

of armed

Force

then,

the

AT

OF

FORCE

AND

ACTION

feet of its armour,

its greatest force, because

there

Loadstones.

loadstone

exerts

its

lected
poles are colfoot is capableof supportinga weight
; and each
lence
iron, greater or less in proportion to the excel-

of

of the
Thus
iron

loadstone

Fig. 124,
a

loadstone.

with

the feet A' and

by

the

iron

foot

ruler

Pig. 124.

platesof
b, terminating in

armed

and

A, B B,

B',will support

A'

only

not

D,

but

the

this last

will support another

er
of smallsize E F, this again another
still smaller
in its turn
I

will
H, which
support a needle
G

will
K, which, finally,

tract
at-

cause
filingsof iron L; bethe
magnetic matter
runs
through all these pieces
to enter
at the pole A' ; or if it
the other pole by which
were
the magnetic matter
issues
from

the

in like

loadstone, it would

manner

through

run

the

pieces CD,EF,GH,
Now, as often as the

is transmitted
to

another, an

from

of the

matter

one

attraction

piece
tween
be-

servable
pieces is obrather they are
each
; or
impelled towards
the current
by the surrounding ether, because
them
diminishes
the
magnetic matter between
the two

other

IK.

pressure

of that fluid.

236

ACTION

from

pole A,
be

loadstone

the

issuing

on

attracted

adhere

how

to the

from

the

poles

at

great

middle

at the

supporter,

till the loadstone

sustaining it ;
the
is what

you
loadstone

and

then

that

magnetic
to

are

carries

power
understand

ten

into the

enters

other

supporter, the iron will

and

once,

force.

the loadstone

power

is increased

B, and

with

to them

much

at

at both

OF

FORCE

AND

consequently

In order

to know

exerts, there is affixed

weight P, which
is no longer capable of
terbalance
weight is said to counE,

of the loadstone
when

told that

pounds weight,

such

this
such

another

Mahomet's
coffin,they pretend,
thirty,and so on.
is supported by the force of a loadstone
a thing by
have
means
no
impossible, as artificial magnets
which
than 100
already been constructed
carry more
pounds weight.
"

suppprter loses nothing

of the magnetic matter, which
performs its complete
within
and the
the loadstone
vortex
iron, so that
A

none

loadstone

of

on

its

it escapes
into the air.
Since
then
netism
magfar
the
in
its power
matter
exerts
as
so
only
stone
from one
body to enter into another, a load-

escapes
whose
the

with

armed

magnetic
the plate

is shut

vortex

power
at

up

should

nowhere

nevertheless, when

with

attraction

is

direction, in order
loadstone, finds a

to

the

point

of

exert

it is touched

needle,

very

the

because
perceptible,
netic
magmatter, being obliged suddenly to change its

powerful

enter

into

the

commodious

canals

of

the

by
running through the needle, which will consequently
be attracted
But by that very thing
to the plate a a.
the vortex
will be deranged inwardly ; it will not
flow so
to
copiously into the feet ; and if you were
apply several needles to the plate,or iron rulers still
the feet would
towards
more
powerful, the current
be entirelydiverted, and the force which
attracts the
would
altogether disappear, so that it
supporter
it is evident
would
drop off without effort. Hence
that the feet lose their magnetic power
in proportion
more

passage

thus

and

exercises

loadstone

the

as

its force

enabled

are

we

237

LOADSTONES.

ARMED

in other
for

account

to

places ;
variety of

without
which
the theory,
surprising phenomena,
be absolutely inexplicable.
would
This
is the proper
place for introducing the ment
experiwhich
demonstrates, that after having applied

very

its

to

supporter

armed

an

loadstone, you

may
which

day to day increasing the weight

to sustain, till it at length shall

from
able

it carried

double

of what

show,

therefore,

how

increased

in

time

be

vortex,

assures

the

It is necessary
magnetic force may

the
the

feet

of

that

us,

exceed

at first.

described,

above

case

go on
it is

the

in
The

armour.

of

derangement

the

at

the

of

to

the

when

moment

the

of the
applied, the current
magnetic
able
is still abundantly irregular,that a considermatter
part of it is still escaping by the plate b i, and

supporter

is

that

require

the

it will
iron

shall

it is likewise
have

formed

as

iron

from
and

their

free, new

more

these

canals
the

rent
cur-

canals

itself,considering

in

be
maythat

it

fixed

canals, moveable
poles,
But
on
violently separating the supporter
the
turbed,
loadstone, the current
being dis-

these

these

canals

new

destroyed, the force

at the beginning ;
as
before

magnetic

probable that, when

loadstone

besides

does.

form

to

become

in the

contains,

time

is

suddenly

and

state.

magnet, which
pounds weight; and

at

the
once

some

great

rendered

measure
as

can

recover

constructed

an

support
time

small

intervene

must

vortex,

first could

after

time

some

canals, with

preceding

in

ficial
arti-

only
was

ten
prised
sur-

than thirty.
support more
It is remarked,
chieflyin artificial magnets, that time
alone
strengthens them
considerably ; but that this
increase
of force lasts only tillthe supporter is separated
to

from
21st

find that

it could

it.

November,

1761.

238

METHOD

COMMUNICATING

OF

LETTER
The

LXVIII.

Method

of communicating to Steel the Magnetic

Force, and of magnetizingNeedles for the Compass:
the Simple Touch, its Defects; Means
of remedying
these.

HAVING
article

an

curious

as

of

magnets in general,
as
interesting still remains ;
of communicating
to iron, but

explainedthe

nature

namely, the manner

and
even
especiallyto steel, the magnetic power,
the highest degree possibleof that power.
You
have
seen
that, by placing iron in the vortex
of a loadstone, it acquires a magnetic force,but which
almost
it is removed
as
totallydisappears as soon
of the vortex
that the Cortex
; and
alone is capable, in time, of impressing

of

out

iron

power
upon
iron, and almost

steel

; now,

the

earth

slightmagnetic

harder

being

than

entirelyinsensible to this action of

the magnetic vortex, more
powerful operations must
be employed to magnetize it ; but then it retains the
magnetic force much
longer.
For

this purpose
must
we
and
to friction.
even

explaining

the

have
I

the needles

of compasses
in rubbing them
naked

good loadstone, whether

The
was

needle
laid

B of the

on

table

loadstone

it,from

b c,

b towards

the whole

at
or

Fig. 125,
; the pole

was

ing,
touch-

begin, therefore, with

formerly employed for magnetizing

method

consisted

to

recourse

drawn

the

tion
opera-

pole with

armed.
p^

135
**

nB

IJ

and,
c
arrived
the
at
being
extremity
loadstone
raised
was
a, the
aloft,and brought back
through the air to b ; this operation was
repeated
several
times
together, particularcare
being taken
that^he

other

pole of

a,

the loadstone

should

not

come

the

near

the

this would

as

have

Having several
process.
the
of the loadstone
over

whole
B

pole

needle,

needle

b of the

had

it had

which

that

with

name

same

rubbed.

been

and

order

the

the
b to a,

extremity

loadstone

north

the

with

render

to

have
pole, it would
with
the pole of this name
to rub
necessary
b to a ; but in
the loadstone, proceeding from
must
be
with the south pole,the progress

extremity

the

drawn

needle, from

of the

In

disturbed

times

magnetic,

become

239

FORCE.

MAGNETIC

THE

the

been
in
bing
rubfrom

b.

to

This

of

method

nated
touching, is denomithe operation is performed
pole only; but it is

rubbing, or

simple touch, because

by touching with one

the

extremely defective,and
to
power
excellent

the

communicates

needle, let the

but very little

loadstone
be ever
so

when
the
accordingly, it does not succeed
steel is carried
to the highest degree of hardness,
though this be the state best adapted to the retention
;

yourselfreadilydiscern the
defects
of this method
by the simple touch.
that B is the pole of the loadstone
Let us suppose
from which
the magnetic matter
issues,as the effect
of the two
poles is so similar that it is impossible to
perceive the slightestdifference ; having rested the
pole on the extremity b of the needle, the magnetic
into it with all the rapiditywith which
matter
enters
it moves
in the loadstone, incomparably greater than
of

magnetism.

that

of the vortex

what

will become

will

You

which
of

this matter

in the

air.

needle

But
?

It

extremity ", it will therefore

effort to force its way
make
an
through the needle
towards
tion,
direc"z, and the pole B, moving in the same
will assist this effort ; but as soon
the pole
as
of escaping at the
B shall arrive at a, the difficulty
extremity a will occasion a contrary effort,by which
will be impelled from a towards
the magnetic matter
the first effect is entirelydestroyed
before
b ; and
take place. Afterward, when
this last cannot
the
cannot

get

out

at

the

is in the external

240

FORCE.

MAGNETIC

again brought back to the extremity ",this

last effect is again destroyed, but without
producing,
however, a current in the contrary direction from b
the pole B shall
towards
consequently, when
a \ and
have
towards
got beyond c in its progress
a, it will
from a to b, especially
more
easilyproduce a current
pole

is

hard
press more
clear, that the needle can
if you

on

the

half

have

hence

acquired only

it is
small

magnetic power.
Some, accordingly,rub only the half c a (Fig. 125,
others
touch
c to
a, and
p. 238), proceeding from
only the extremity a of the needle with the pole B
of the loadstone, and with nearly the same
success.
But
that the magnetic matter
which
it is evident
enters
by the extremity a only is incapableof acting
the pores of the needle, for
with sufficient vigour on
conformably to* the laws of magarranging them
netism
this
force
the
and
that
method
impressed
by
;
if
the steel
be extremely small,
must
any thing,when
degree

of the

hardened.

is very much
Tt appears

simple
manner

to

the

of

be

might

touch

in my

not

which

of

yet

defects

in

remedied

success

I have

doubt, though

these

then, that

me,

the

of

following

I entertain

tried it ; but

am

which

opinion by experiments

the

no

firmed
con-

I have

made.
I would

126, in
and

it proper
ruler very thin, and
possible; but the

I should

make

of

ruler

that

straightas

extremity b
soft iron E F;

the

case

think

of the
p-

needle, Fig.
126

to

MB _g
dfcqfi

as

tremity
ex-

exactly applied in all points, and

fitted to a groove
even
perfectlyadjusted for its reception.
the
of
On resting
the loadstone
pole B
upon
the extremity b of the needle, the magnetic matter
which
into it,meeting scarcely
enters
any difficulty
in its progress
through the iron ruler, will at once
be

must

pursue

its
as

course

the

in the

pole

direction

advances

b d ; and

towards

", the

in proportion

mag-

OF

netic

only

MAGNETIC

PRESERVING

matter, in order
the

to arrange

acts; and
least

far

by

the

a,

the

afterward

you

is

direction.
friction

the

destroyed
of

at

or

them, will be

that

to

recommence

extremity 6, nothing

immediately
pores,

of

number

greater

has

course,

all these

already disposed conformably

When

it

which

on

pores
reached

having

this

continue

to

241

MATTER.

but

at

tinue
con-

you

magnetic matter,
direction b d, by likewise
ging
arranresisted the first operation ; and
the pores which
will always
thus the magnetic canals in the needle
become
more
perfect. A few strokes of the pole B
will be sufficient for the purpose,
stone
provided the loadperfectthe
following the same

current

to

is not
best

weak

too

and

I have

would

yield to this
unspeakable advantage in
it has

method
the

found

been

as

of

But

reserve.

tempered
much

to

be

apprehended
render

requisiteto
the

preserve
24th

of

steel, accidents
them

November,

netic matter

INSTEAD

of

of

an

passes,
com-

all their
would
had

kind
a

netic
magbe

posed
ex-

others

not

well

of

are

not

greater force
in return

so

is

they

1761.

Touch.

the Double

this

magnetic,

LXIX.

LETTER
On

operating;

made

are

for if

sible,
pos-

tenaciously.

more

power

as

ordinary needles

that

needles

when

hard

construction

frequently lose, by a slight accident,

ships at sea
; by which
power
to the greatest dangers, if they
in

that the

doubt

no

steel,that is,rendered

tempered

as

the

this

Means
in

method

of preservingthe
Magnetized Bars.

magnetizing iron or
steel by the simple touch, by rubbing with
one
pole
now
only of the loadstone, we
employ the double
rub with
both
we
touch, in which
poles at once,
VOL.

II."

of

242

MEANS

which

is

Let

OF

easily done

by

F, Fig. 130, be
bar of iron or steel,which
wish

you

on

magnetic
the

it the

diffuse

armed

an

this

which

itself in all

take

and

poles

Then

the

bar, in

the

not

magnetic
to

bar

is of

soft

penetrates it.

the

iron,
But

from
force

the

observe

if the

the

each

other.

its way
to the

in the

canals

this is

never

magnetic

pole A,
;

and

it

taking place

loadstone

bar, which

as

at

by the pole
d, provided the

pole B
magnetic

from

to form
pores
whether
to discover

to

by

would

therefore

towards

will

disposing its

attracted

loadstone

enters

remote

too

current

pass

is very easy
have
only to
you

the

which

from

are

the

bar, and

evacuation

matter

course

that

see

the

from

into

This

the

order

issues

easily

directions,did not the foot A, on

contained
in the
magnetic matter

bar.

its

will

penetrate

of the
pores
will determine
to

130.

stone.
load-

state, you

must

its side, attract

Fig.

stone.
load-

feet

two

matter

foot

armed

table, you

In

an

magnetic.
fixed "it

Having
press upon
A and B of

of

means

render

to

steadily

PRESERVING

matter

easily

if the bar is of steel,the attraction

the magnetic
a proof that
frequently very small
is incapable of opening for itself a passage
matter
is

from

"

to

loadstone
distance
too

great

d ; hence
it is to be concluded
is too feeble, or that the

Fig.

between
:

in this

its two
case

poles

it would

is
be

employ a loadstone
feet are
more
powerful, or whose
of
nearer
finally,the armour
; or
the loadstone
ought to be changed
into the form
reoresented
in Fig.
necessary

129.

to

is fully
powerfails if the

that
129.

the

244

disposed in pairs of exactly

size.
the same
They are placed on a table,in
parallel situation, so that the friendly poles, or
bars

air, these
a

PRESERVING

OF

MEANS

those

of different
side

same

where

in

as

6, 6,
same

turned
To

way.

mistake,
made

each

on

extremity

131.

a,

prevent
is

bar,

at the

where

the

to
pole is, and
is applied a
ends

north

both

piece
F

of

soft

iron

F, for receiving-the magnetic

the whole
this manner,
the bar M M, and
into the

J, passes
other

b, into

the

of

which
other

it into the

circulate,

and

there

which

enter

reconveys
Thus
a.

the

magnetic

piece

its way,
to
bar N N, from

makes

case

Pig.

the

mark

to the

turned

bars,

two

are

a,

be

resent
rep-

friendly poles

whose

should

names,

Fig. 131,
N

and

the

and

always

are

at

the

not

vades
per-

extremity
it easily
E, where
extremity a of the

it will escape
at the extremity
piece of iron F F, which

first bar

be

In

at the

by

will
magnetic matter
no
part of it escape;

should

which

matter

issues

iron

current.

at first

the

extremity

continue
and

sufficient

even

to

in

quantity

to supply the vortex, the air will supply the deficiency,

will preserve
all its force in the two
and the vortex
bars.

dispositionof the two bars may likewise be

at once.
employed for magnetizing both of them
The
be drawn
must
over
two
poles of a loadstone
the two
the one
to the other
by
bars, passing from
be several
,the pieces of iron ; and the circuit must
times
performed, carefullyobserving that the two
the
A
and
B be turned
as
poles of the loadstone
figuredirects.
of magnetizing two
at once
bars
This method
This

be

much

245

MATTER.

MAGNETIC

THE

efficacious

than

the

preceding1,
stone,
as
performed by the loadwill
begin to flow
of the two
pieces of
through the two bars by means
iron.
Afterward, by repeated circuitous applications
must

the very first circuit

the
magnetic matter

from

of the
pores

more

loadstone

bars,

greater quantityof

arranged in them conformably to magnetism,

canals
will
be
more
opened, by
magnetic

will be
and

which

will be

the vortex

without

undergoing

and

more

strengthened,

more

diminution.

any

If the bars

are

in the
be proper to turn and rub them
the other surfaces, in order that the
on

thick, it would
same

the

to

manner

penetrate them thoroughly.

may
obtained
these
magnetic bars M M, N N,

action

magnetic
Having

be

Fig. 132, they may

ployed in place of

Fig.

em-

132.

the natural

loadstone, for

magnetizing
are
They

others.'

joined together at the top,

so that the two
friendlypoles
touch
may
other
and
the

ab

below,

and

far

as

each

other;

two

poles

are

a,

it is

as

rated
sepa-

thought

Then
rub
we
proper.
ties,which
supply the

loadstone,
I have
As

above
these

passes, we
extremities
be

current

will

bars

have

the

done

to

you may
bars
double

under

two

of the

two

F, in the

extremi

poles of

which

manner

easilypass
the

in the

form

of

com

opening the lower

little as we
as
please,which
loadstone
the magnetic
; and
at top, where
the bars touch

advantage
or

joined

are

with

soft iron

the better

place

bars

much

other, from

piece of

the

explained.
two

as

cannot

each

other

two

with

to

one

might

of

the

likewise

keep up

other.
be

small

there,
applied

the current
in this manner
; and
easily and speedilymagnetize as many
as

you

November,

please.

1761.

X2

246

MAGNETIC

COMMUNICATED

FORCE

LXX.

LETTER

of communicating to Bars of Steel a

of other Bars
very great magnetic Force, by means
which have it in a very inferior
degree.

The

Method

this method

of

magnetizing by the double

touch be preferableto the preceding, the magnetic
be carried beyond a certain
however, cannot
power,
we
degree. Whether
employ a natural loadstone
two
or
magnetic bars for rubbing other bars, these
last will never
force as the first ; it
acquire so much
being impossible that the effect should be greater
THOUGH

than

the

cause.

If the

bars

those

which

bars

as

have

rub

we

will have

rubbed

are

evident; for

is
force

which

with

little

stillless

destitute

of

force,

the

son
rea-

magnetic

produce it in others, so a moderate

is incapable of
degree of force
producing one
which
greater than itself,at least by the method
I have been describing.
could

never

But

this rule is not

taken

to be

in the strict interpretation

words, as if it were
literally
sible
imposforce
produce a greater magnetic
by the
of the

to

assistance

by

which

which

am

going

to

point out

much

the nature

of

Supposing
loadstone, or,
of the

that

for

want

which

receive

the

much

the
a

difficult

very

possessed

am

of

attention

more

natural

of

that

subject
"

very

magnet,

feeble
of bars

magnetic merely by the

earth, as I explained it in a preceding
provide myself with eight bars of steel,

Letter, I then
small, and
very

easilyto

so

light on
magnetism.

iron rendered

vortex

the

merits

it throws

of

smaller.

creased
be inmagnetic power
may
far as you please, beginning with
almost
as
smallest degree possible. This is a late discovery,

method
the

of

feeble

somewhat

not

hardened, in order

the small

degree

loadstone,

or

of

the

more

magnetic power
slightlymagnetized

TO

BARS

247

STEEL.

OF

capableof communicating, by rubbingeach

I formerly described.
pair or couple in the manner
Having then eight bars magnetic, but in a very
small degree, I take two
pair,which I join together
in the manner
represented in Fig. 133.
bars by the
By uniting the two
oq
pI form
but
poles of the same
name,
the
of double
one
thickness, and
bars, are

with
and

which

I form

the better

the

compass

keep up the
magnetic current, a piece of soft
iron P may
be appliedat the top C D.
The
be
legs of the compass
may
separated as far as is judged proper,
and
I rub with
them, one after the
other, the remaining bars, which will
than they
thereby acquire more
power
because
have

to

of

the powers

the

first

are

had

before,

united.

now

join these two pair newly rubbed

in the same
and by rubbing with them, one
manner,
after the other, the two
pair first employed, and the
now

of
power
afterward

only

these

to

will

I
considerably increased.
join these two
pair together, and go on
their magnetic
rubbing others, in order to augment
and
force, and stilltwo pairwith two pair alternately;
by repeating this operation,the magnetic power may
be carried to such a degree as to become
tible
insuscepof further increase,even
by continuing the operation.
When
of
such
have more
than four pair
we
bars, instead of two pair,three may be joined together
for the purpose
of rubbing others ; they will thereby
be sooner
carried to the highest degree possible.
The
greatest obstacles are therefore surmounted
;
and by means
of such bars, joined together by two
more
or
pairs,we may rub others of steel properly
be

be either of the same

size,
hardened, and which
may
still greater than the first,to which
the greatest
or

of which
power
communicated.

Beginning

with

they

are

small

susceptiblemay
bars

such

as

be

I have

thus
d"

248

FORCE.

MAGNETIC

scribed,these operations may

bars

to

of

is less liable to

steel, which

of the hardest

size, and made

enormous

an

successivelyapplied

be

the

lose

magnetic

Only it is to be observed, that for the purpose

of rubbing large bars, several pairs ought to be
united
joined together, whose
weight should be at

power.

least

that

double

of the

always be better
each" species of

to

bars

than

themselves,

most

pair:
two
pair,the
is performed

passes

being

the

bar that is rubbed

bar

directed

horizontal

In order

which

that

in

it

going

are

we

magnetic
and

tion
fric-

the

direction

the

to

of

that it enters

rather

it

necessarily

direction.

facilitate this

to

that the
proper
in a small space,
which

the

at

netic
magwill itself prevent

that way

and

the

far, and

too

conformably

join
join more

which

with

perpendicularly,whereas

take

to

obliged to

are

will extend

smaller

much,

not

sufficient to

be

extremities

its

should

bars

or

which

matter

the

with

it may
for when
we

two

than

it would
But
large one.
proceed by degrees, and to rub

change

matter

direction

ought

to rub.

of

should

be led to it

ing
already approach-

to take

The

direction,it is

within

the bar

following method,

think, might be effectual for this purpose.

Fig. 134 represents
Fig. 134.
five pair of bars M
M,
N
N, joined together,
I

but

not

of

in the form

is at

There

compass.

top a bar of soft iron

C D, to keep up the vortex;
I

below,
rub
the

not

with

immediately
of

extremities

bars,

but

in

each

on

foot

the

these

case

extremities
side

do

of

soft

iron, fastening them

it with
O.

screws

Each

foot

to

marked
is bent

!" f"
V

y/

*v

B,

and

at

approximation

considerable

that

bar

the

in

magnetic

freelypervades these feet,already has

matter, which
a

of the

direction

the

that

so

249

MAGNETS.

ARTIFICIAL

to

rubbed

be

the

to

horizontal
it has

; so

need

no

I have
no
doubt,
greatly to change its direction.
of these feet the bar E F will receive
that by means
if we
than
rubbed
a much
greater magnetic power
of the bars, the depth
immediately by the extremities
the
vertical direction
of whose
naturally opposes
of horizontal
formation
magnetic canals in the bar
E
F.
It is likewise
possible, in practising this
to contract

method,
feet A

and

in time
the
1st

at

magnetic
operation.

December,

the

these

it is

power,

of

the

bars

lose

easilyrestored

1761.

LETTER

LXXI.

of ArtificialMagnets

Construction

distance

observe, that when

their
same

extend

pleasure.

further

I must

by

or

in

the

Form

of

Horse-shoe.
wishes

to

make

experiments on the
ought to be provided
properties of the loadstone
of magnetic bars, from
with a great number
a very
Each
small
be considered
up to a very large size.
may
a particular
as
magnet, having its two poles,
WHOEVER

the

one

You

north

and

the

other

considered

south.
it

able,
extremely remarkof the magnetic power,
that by the interposition
be supplied by a wretched
the feeblest which
can
natural loadstone, or by a pair of tongs in the chimney
which
have acquired by length of time a
corner,
should
small portionof magnetism, we
be enabled
to
that power
to such
increase
to commua degree as
nicate
to the largest bars of steel the highest degree
of magnetic force of which
they are susceptible. It
must

have

as

250
would

be

needless

are

enabled

not

only

of

renders
add

to

much

which

have

must

no

have

of

magnets

favour,

that

the

are

same

ones,

purposes
with this advantage
them

have

can

we

They

much

sufficient

magnitude.
tempered steel,and the figure

of well

horse-shoe

magnets,
horse-shoe, as you

natural

the

as

powerful, by giving them

made

words

artificial

answer

more

which

seen.

occasion
in their

of

highest degree,
I have only a few

common,

of

form

usually the

artificial

every

made

construction

doubt

These

durable.

more

the

on

the

to

but

the

than

larger

hardened

them

we
add, that by this method
the best magnetic needles,

to

construct

to

steel

on

MAGNETS.

ARTIFICIAL

the

seems

When
up the vortex.
his work, we
communicate

most

proper

for

keeping

mejchanic has finished

to it the greatest degree
of magnetic power
of which
it is susceptible,
by means
of the magnetic bars, of which
I have
scriptio
given a deIt is evident, that the greater this magnet
be the bars we
is, the larger must
employ : and this
is the

why

reason

the

should

we

be

provided

with

bars

of all sizes.
In order

to

magnetize

horse-shoe

HIG,

Fig. 135,

which

ought to be of steel well ternpered, we

place on the table a pair
of magnetic bars A C and B D, with
their

supporters

both

sides,
figure represents only
on

other

but

having been
graduallyfor

way
the

feet of

see.

In

matter

the

this

which

applied

of soft iron

which

of

one

applicationof

horse-shoe,
state, the

pervades

F, the

to make

removed
the

the

as

you

magnetic

the bars

will

make

strong efforts to pass through

the horse-shoe, the poles of the bars
being adapted magnetically to those
of the horse-shoe
; but considering
the hardness
of tempered
steel,it will

not

be suffi-

252
takes

which
the

to

MAGNETS.

ARTIFICIAL

much

place chieflyin
of

vortex

less

the

bars
The

earth.

flexible,and

of iron
pores

long exposed
of

support the

better

steel

into

state

they have been forced : they are however

force ceases
as
some
derangement, as soon
this derangement
is less in
them
; but

are

which

liable

to

to act

on

to the

of

hardness

the

steel.

For

tion
propor-

this

reason

of the hardest
magnets ought to be made
of iron, they would
steel : were
they to be made
immediately acquire,on being applied to magnetic
bars, a very great degree of power
; but the moment
would
detach
them, all that power
disappear.
you
artificial

therefore
be
precaution must
employed in
separating from the bars magnets composed of well
the sepaFor this purpose,
before
tempered steel.
ration,
Great

you press the

iron, in the direction
bars

particularcare
with
it,for

whole

is of very soft
supporter, which
of the line M N, Fig. 136, taking

not

to

touch

this would

the

pig.

135.

the

mar

and oblige you

to repeat
process,
the operation. On the application
of the

portion of

supporter,

considerable

magnetic matter which

is circulating
in the magnet G H I will
make
its way
through the supporter,
and form a separate vortex, which
will continue
the

the

is detached

magnet

Afterward, you
the legs of
over
for

settle.

to

some

The

the

bars.

press the supporter

the magnet
to the

represented in the
to rest

from

figure,and

after

slowly

forward

extremities,

in this state

time, that the vortex may be allowed

with
supporter is likewise furnished

be increased
weight P, which
may
every day
that the supporter is to
being always understood
so
perfectly adjusted to the feet of the magnet as
them
in all points.*
touch

ten

December,

The
years,

laws
and

of

it

permit

5th

as

it

be
to

1761.

magnetism have been ably investigatedduring

highly interestingfacts have been added to
many

the
our

last
pro-

ON

LETTER
On

253

DIOPTRICS.

LXXIT.

Dioptrics; Instruments which that Science supplies.'

of Telescopes and Microscopes. DifferentFigures
given to Glasses or Lenses.
THE

wonders

of

dioptricswill

now,
attention.

nish
think, fur-

This science
subjectworthy of your
provides us with two kinds of instruments
composed
of glass,which
to
extend
serve
our
sphere of vision,
by discoveringobjects which would escape the naked
a

eye.
There
vions

two

are

knowledge

of

shown

the

that

department

this

with

it as

peculiaritiesof

some

the eye

of

to

mode

or

sively
conclu-

the

electric,

thing modified

the same

of

assist-

been

with

identical

to be

appear

motion

needs

It has

physics.

fluid is,if not

magnetic

intimately associated

so

only by

in which

cases

The

excitement.

portant
im-

CErsted, of Copenhagen, that

by Professor
when
of Voltaic
a current
electricityis passing along the surface of a bar
of copper, tin,lead, iron, or other metal, the bar possesses
magnetic properties,
of a magnetic needle
and
will cause
immediate
deviation
pended
susan
it ; that
it has
its north
and south
poles, the situation of
near
which
; that these
poles
depends on the direction of the electric current
of
the
direction
the
current
are
immediately changed by changing
; that
the bar of metal, which, thus conducting the electric fluid,will attract iron

discovery

and
filings,
as

of
an

in short

made

was

iron

convert

loadstone

a natural

steel into

or

or

producing artificial magnets that

experiment performed by himself

iron bent

being
the

in the

surrounded

wire

with

galvanic batteries

of surface, the iron became

instantly so
around
current
of the electric
Ibs.
lifter of 2000
to its armature
or

revolution

Science, vol. xx.

The
discovery
of the

have

p.
of

CErsted
the

laid the foundation

spark, similar

Henry,

of

Eyck,
weighing 59 j
728

feet

same

ner
man-

is this

mode

Albany,
in which
Ibs.

VOL.

theory of

II."

bar

of

and

the ends

of

containing 4 7-9ths square

powerfully magnetized by
it as
to sustain
a weight

feet

"

long,

(Vide American

the
tached
at-

Journal

and

the

connexion

of

new

to the

numerous

between

of

branch-of
electric

and

successful

our

author

spark, has

of course

tions
investiga-

electricityand magnetism
physics, called netism.
electro-magbeen

obtained

with
electric or
an
alone, unconnected
galvanic
magnet
vol.
xxii.
Journal
of Science,
(American
p. 410.)
therefore be no
Of the identity of the two
agents there can

The

avoirdupois,

iron

doubt.

relates

201.)
of

nature

effectual

Dr. Ten

form
of a horse-shoe, and
with a coil of copper wire

connected

So

Professor
and

in the

magnets,

artificial magnet.

is untenable."

Am.

from

an

battery.
"

longer
Ed.

254

ON

the

first

discoveries

have

DIOPTRICS.

objects are too distant to

admit
of our
seeing them
distinctly; such are the
heavenly bodies, respecting which the most important,
ance

instruments.

is, when

,made

been

by
please

will

You

of

means

to

dioptrical

recollect

what

concerning the satellites of Jupiter,which

assist us in the discovery of the longitude ; they are
the aid of good telescopes; and
visible only with
those of Saturn
require telescopes of a still better
have

said

construction.
There

of

to examine

and

telescopes,

same

manner

if

other

If

for

earth

for

of

wished,

in

us

These

for

the

cal
dioptri-

distant

bodies

"

eye

needs

examination

distinct

to

us

assistance

to

viewing

the

in which

the

near.

were

the

assistance
is too

object,though sufficiently
near,

to admit

small

they

of

impossible

detail,without
represent them

telescopes.
case

the

is when

surface

it is

instruments

denominated
The

in

which

as

glasses or
are

the

on

distant, which

objects very
see,

besides,

are,

of its

to discover

parts.

all the

example,
parts
the leg of a fly,or of any insect still smaller,
if
the minuter
were
disposed to examine
particles
the human
body, such as the smallest fibres of the
we

of

"

we

of

of

muscles,

or

sueceed

without

same

manner

thousand

times

then,

Here,

the

help

as

if

and

the

are

by means
microscope.
These

certain

impossible to
instruments

represent small

they

were

kinds

two

the

from

of

of

the

wonderful

our

these

era

important

most

of

be

objects in

hundred

or

greater.

assisting the weakness

only have elapsed since
;

of

microscopes, furnished

and

dated

it would

nerves,

microscopes,which

called
the

the

of

the figuregiven to bits of

scopes
tele-

by dioptrics for
sight. A. few ages

instruments

were

that invention

discoveries

telescope, and
effects

instruments,

in

in

must

vented
inbe

astronomy

physics by

the

produced merely by
glass,and the happy comare

ON

bination

of

two

or

glasses, which

more

Dioptrics
principles on which
lenses.

the

the

and
and

you

will

to

which

the direction

on

is the
such
to

uses

please

255

DIOPTRICS.

nate
denomi-

we

science

that

unfolds

instruments

which

they

recollect

that

structed,
con-

are

applied ;
chiefly

are

it turns

of light take
rays
media
of a different

passing

on

quality; on
glass or water,

through transparent

air into
passing, for example, from
and reciprocally,from
glass or water into air.
As
long as the rays are propagated through
for example air, they preserve
as
same
medium,
same
direction, in the straight
lines L A, L B, L C, L D, Fig. 128,
drawn
from the luminous
point L,
whence

these

issue

rays

the
the

and

meet
an
they anywhere
into it,and there
eye they enter
paint an image of the object from
which
they proceeded. In this

when

the

case

is

vision

simple, or natural ;
as
they really are.
the principlesof
us
But

when

the

denominated
and
The

represents
science

this vision

to

us

which

is termed

the

objects
explains to
optics.

before

they enter into the eye,

reflected
are
on
a finelypolished surface, such
as
a
is no
mirror, the vision
longer natural ; as in this
the objects differently,
and in a different
we
see
case
The
which
science
place,from what they really are.
explains the phenomena
presented to us by this
vision from
reflected
is termed
catoptrics. It,
rays
calculated
to extend
too, supplies us with instruments
vision ; and
the sphere of our
are
acquainted
you
with
such
of
sorts of instruments, which, by means
two
the same
services
or
one
us
mirrors, render
as
those

rays,

constructed

with

properly denominate
them
are

composed

from

only

lenses.

telescopes;
the
of

common

These
but

in

what

are

order

we

tinguish
to dis-

perspectives, which

glasses, it

would

he

better

to

256

DIOPTRICS.

ON

call

them

mode

of

for

the

the

same

This

reflectingtelescopes.

catoptric or

accurate
expression would at least be more
;
in
before
the
covery
disword
use
was
telescope
and
then
meant
of reflecting instruments,
thing with perspective.

I propose

at

confine

to

present

myself entirelyto

we
dioptricalinstruments, of which
In
telescopes and microscopes.
of both
we
employ glasses formed

various

the

of

have

two

the

after

which

sorts,

construction

different

going to
explain. They are principally three, according to
of the glass.
the figure given to the surface
the surface
of a glass
first is the plane, when
The
manners,

is

plane

If you

take,

to

were

glass, and

sides,

both

on

to

sorts

that of

example,

as

for

from

separate

it the

piece of lookingquicksilver which

surface, you would

surfaces
both
of whose
are
plane, and
thickness
throughout.
The
second
is the convex
; a glass of
is

more

raised

in the

middle

mirror

common

to its farther

adheres

am

than

have
of

the

glass
same

this denomination
towards

the

edge.
The

third

towards

the

Of these

of

; such

concave

middle, and

three

to the surface
of

is the

rises

and

the

produced
Fig. 133.

glass,are
in

Fig.

II. The

towards

different figureswhich

glasses represented

I. The

glass

is hollow

the

edge.
maybe given

the six species

133.

plane glass has both its surfaces plane.

surface
plane
plano-convex glass has one
other

convex.

DIFFERENT

III. The
the

other

IV.

plano-concavehas

surfaces

double

convex,

and

the

both

surfaces

meniscus, has

or

convexo-concave,

Finally,the

other

and

has

both

one

face
sur-

concave.

December,

what

FROM

concave,

concave.

the

figure represents

lenses.

1761.

LETTER

Differenceof
Surfaces.

double

or

concavo-concave,

It is proper
to remark, that
the section
of these
glasses or
8th

plane

convex.

convex

has

surface

one

or

convexo-convex,

The

VI.

257

LENSES.

concave.

The

V.

OF

KINDS

Lenses

LXXIII.

with

respect

Distribution
I have

to

of Lenses

the Curve

of their

into three Classes.

said

and
respecting the convex
surfaces
of lenses, you will easily compreconcave
hend
that their form
be
varied
without
end,
may
according as the convexity and concavity are greater
is only one
There
or less.
species of plane surfaces,
because
be plane in one
a surface
can
manner
only;
but

surface

convex

considered

as

making

sphere, and according as the radius or

diameter
of that sphere is greater or less, the convexity
will differ ; and
as
we
represent lenses on
by segments of a circle, according as these
paper
part

of

be

may

circles

infinite,with

be

concavity
As
all

of their

to the

circular

on

or

or

to

the

of

lenses

must

convexity an"J

to

spherical;
formed

sphericalsurface, both
Y2

and

polishingglasses,
their figure exrender
actly

forming

is taken

of metal

form

surfaces.
of

manner

possiblecare
basins

less, the
respect both

greater

are

for this purpose

by the turning

inwardly

and

we

ploy
em-

machine,

outwardly.

258

DIFFERENT

Let

of such

form
of

which

piece

acquired the
species of emery,
polish.

surface

of

true

on

measure

part.
Thus, when

that

with

radius

of three

of the

formed

was

and

concavity
or
sphere

circle

t"f which

they

make

the radius

of the

vex
con-

inches, the

B, Fig. 138, is three

E B is

fine

surfaces

the radius

the

and

them,

it the last

the

that lens
of

Fig.

meaning is,that

of

convexity

radius
to

figure

which

it is said

surface

after that

measure

of the

corresponds

the

; and

D,

is
emery,
basin, till it

coarse

or

glass on

real

only to

surfaces, is the

which
a

the

of the basin

for the

Sand,
form

side C F

convex

pumice-stone, to give

or

have

B, it will become

the

on

proper

know

to

lens,you

of

in rubbing the

has

of

separate raglass is rubbed

concave.

at first used

In order

its

if it is rubbed

it will become

137-

D, each

C F

side of the basin

; but

convex

and

have

may

dius ; when
the concave
on

Fig.

shall have

basin, which

surfaces,

two

C, Fig. 137, be the

LENSES.

OF

KINDS

138.

arch

an

of

inches, the

circle described

other

surface

being plane.
That

or

I may
still clearer idea
a
convey
of convexities, when
their radii

less, I shall here

of different

present

you

convexity, Fig.
Fig.

Two

with

of

several

figures

139.

139.

Inches.

Icch.

an

Third

of

an

Inch.

Sixth of

an

Inch.

Inch

Fifth of

""^

"Z"

Eighth

of

an

Inch.

ference
dif-

greater

are

One

Half

the

an

Inch

260

DIFFERENT

faces

be

the

or

plane

one

KINDS

and

each

parallelto
and

convex

LENSES.

OF

other

the

other, Fig. 140,

but

concave,

con-

Fig-.140.

centric, or
141,
the

that

so

described
the

thickness

It is to

same.

round
be

the
shall

remarked

Fig.

Fig.
remain
everywhere
respecting glasses
centre,

same

141.

they produce no change in the

of the objects which
view
we
through
appearance
if
the objects appear
as.
them;
exactly the same
of no
nothing interposed ; accordingly, they are
is not because
in dioptrics. This
the
of use
manner
into these
enter
fraction,
glasses undergo no rerays which
of

this

class,

but

that

the

because

refraction

at the

entrance

perfectly straightened on going off, so that the

rays, after having passed through the glass, resume
which
the same
direction
they had pursued before
it.
Glasses, therefore, of the other
they reached
effect which
of the
account
two
classes, on
they
constitute
the
of
produce,
principalobject
dioptrics.
is

The

second

thicker

are

class
at the

of

lenses

middle

than

Fig.

Their

effect is the

the thickness
the

same

lenses

same,

of the middle

relation

to the

of this class

are

contains
at the

those

which

edge, Fig.

142.

142.

as

long

over

the

excess

that of the

magnitude

commonly

as

of the

edge

lens.

denominated

of
has

All
con-

EFFECT

CONVEX

OF

26

LENSES.

vex,

as

convexity predominates, though

one

of

their

surfaces

third

class

The

thicker

are

at the

all

produce

middle.

of

12th

of these

towards

the

IN order
two

the

They

are

must

second

of the

ject
sub-

the

to be

cases

must

it is

before

say
lens.

segments of
line through

effect

from

both

produced by

in the appearance
be distinguished; the one
the

of objects,
when

lens, and

the

nearer.
on

words
the two

As

the

far distant

I enter

few

deavour
en-

Lenses.

Convex

lenses

concave

when

is named

those

lenses,

LXXIV.

explain

object is very

But
must

to

and

other

all such

I shall
following Letters, in which
to explain their effects in dioptrics.
December, 1761.

Effectof

the

that in the

over

-concave.

the

on

my

LETTER

convex

edge

last classes

two

which

lenses

effect,depending

they are simply denominated

be carefullydistinguishedfrom
the convex.
are
class,which
Lenses

cave.
con-

middle, Fig. 143,

concavity prevails in

As

even

143.

similar

of thickness

excess

in the

than

Fig.

which

all those

contains

edge

plane,and

be

may

otherwise

on

the axis

what

surfaces

circle,you

the centres

the

have

explanation
is called

the

this, I
axis

of

represented by
only to draw a straight
are

circles ; this line

In Fig. 144, the cen-

of the two

of the lens.

of

262
tre

EFFECT

of the arch

the

lens

that

this

middle

and

axis

of it.

if

to

see

the

through

passes
The
same

thing would

of the lens

were

is

,"

the

plane,
perpendicularto it,pass-

But

concave.

axis of

the

it is easy

surfaces

apply if the
axis

D,the straight

A F B at

is denominated

LENSES.

CONVEX

B being at C, and

that of the arch

line

OF

will be

the

ing through

one

of

centre

the

vr

jf

other

surface.
it is obvious

Hence
the

axis

through

passes

perpendicularly, and that

light coming in the direction

surfaces

two

ray of
axis will suffer
a

from

that the

refraction, because

no

medium

one

another

into
when

refracted,except

are

do

they

not

ingly
accordof

the

passing
rays
broken
or
not
in

enter

pendicular
per-

direction.
likewise

It may

through
refraction,or

be

proved

middle

the

rather

of

that

that all other

the

lens

rays

ing
pass-

undergo

no

parallel

they again become

to themselves.

be

considered, in order to comprehend the

of this, that at the points E and F the two
reason
surfaces
of the lens are
parallelto each other, for
It must

the
arch

angle
of

the

circle

equal to
produced,

ray
circle A
such

F,

or

B which

the

B,

or

angle

or

the

ray
its
P

makes

its tangent at F
denominated
are

makes

tangent

F A, which
the
with
:

you

with

the

E, is perfectly

at

this
arch

recollect

same

of

the

that two

alternate, and that it is

angles
the alternate angles are
demonstrated, when
equal,
that the straight lines are
parallelto each other;
consequently, the two tangents at E and at F will be
parallel,and it will be the same
thing as if the ray
M E F P passed through a lens whose
surfaces
two
have already
were
Now
we
parallelto each other.
seen

that rays do
through such

not
a

change

lens.

their direction

in passing-

made

Having
a

F P ; and

let

us

consider

now

us

is

axis

B, Fig. 145, whose

straightline O E

the

263

LENSES.

remarks, let

these

lens A

convex

CONVEX

OF

EFFECT

p-

sup-

U5
^

is in this line, at a
that there
pose
the lens, an
distance
from
object

point O,
all directions

of

some

diffuses

which

these

great
minous
lu-

or

in
rays
will pass

M, 0 E,
that in the middle, O E,
and O N ; of which
will undergo no
tinue
refraction, but will con-

through

lens

our

B, such

as

same

through the
produced straight line F

other

two

its direction

through

the

in the

I P.

The

rays, O M and O N, in passing

the lens towards
the edge, will

be refracted

both

that

so

lens

axis, as

at

they
at

entering

will

I, and

and

ing,
depart-

somewhere"

afterward

meet

continue

in the direction I Q and I R.

their progress
be demonstrated
It might likewise
that
all the rays which
fall between
will be refracted,so as to meet
axis

in the

same

and

with

N
the

point I. Therefore, the

lens interposed, would
no

which, had
pursued their rectilineal direction
0 M
and
O N, will, after the refraction,
other directions,as
if they had
taken
their
pursue
the point I: and
if there
departure from
were
an
be affected just as if
at P, it would
eye somewhere

rays
have

the

luminous

point were
realityin this.

actuallyat I, though there

be no
You
have
for
only to suppose
that there
is at I a real object, which
a
moment,
diffusingits rays, would be equally seen by an eye
the object at O by means
sees
placed at P, as it now
of the rays refracted
there is at
by the lens, because
1 an image of the object 0, and the lens A B there
represents the object O, or transports it nearly to I.
The
no
point 0 is therefore
longer the object of
vision, but rather its image, represented at I ; for
this is

now

its immediate

obiect.

264

DISTANCE

THE

OF

This

lens, then, produces

change : an object very remote
to

receive

I, from

which

very

different

would

the

considerable
very
O is suddenly transported

undoubtedly

must

eye

from

impression

what

it

do

to view
if,withdrawing the lens, it were
the object O immediately.
O be considered
Let
as
a star, the point O
being supposed extremely distant,
the lens will represent at I the image of that star,
but an
it is impossible to touch, and
image which
which
has no reality,as
nothing exists at I, unless
it be that the rays proceeding from
the point O are

there

collected

is it to be
to

us

How
than

in the

same

could

earth

the

by the refraction
imagined that the
manner

body

as

the

star

lens.

ther
Nei-

would

appear
really existed at I.

thousands

many

exist

if it

of

of

times

bigger

I?

Our senses
would
point
be very
must
differentlystruck by it. We
carefully
that
is
an
remark, then,
image only
represented at I,
like that of a star represented in the bottom
of the
eye,
which

that

or

has

at

which

we

nothing

to

15th December,

see

employ
by convex

to

MEAN

produced

of

LXXV.

Distance

the Focus

of

Lenses.

effect

1761.

Subject:

same

mirror, the

surprise us.

LETTER
The

in

this Letter

of

Convex

'

in

explainingthe

lenses, that

is, such

effect

as

are

at the

middle

than

when

it is at

edge. The whole

consists
in determining the change which
dergo
rays unin their progress,
on
passing through such a
glass. In order to place this subject in its clearest
must
be carefullydistinguished; the
light,two cases
when
the object is very
distant from
the lens,
one
thicker

and

the

at the

other

no

great distance.

LENSES.

CONVEX

OF

FOCUS

265

considering the first case, that is,when

from
the lens.
the object is extremely remote
In Fig. 146, M N is the convex
lens, ^v.
145
and the straightline O A B I S its axis,
passing perpendicularlythrough the

begin with

middle.

by-the-way,

remark,

that

property of the axis of every

lens, that of passing perpendicularly
through its middle, conveys the justest
this

idea of it that
Let

conceive

now

us

this axis there

capableof

are

we

I here

that
at O

is somewhere

object O P, which

ing.
formon
an

represent as
figureit may

straightline,whatever
really have; and as every point of
tions,
this object emits its rays in all direca

confine

we

those

which

fall

remarks

My

limited
the

point O,

of

the

our

on

attention

to

the lens.

shall be at

present

ther
fur-

rays issuingfrom
situated in the very axis

to the

lens.

The

figure represents
A, O M, and O N,
passingthrough
of the lens,undergoes no
the middle
but proceeds, after having passed
change of direction,
through the lens, in the same
straightline BIS, that
three

of these

rays, O
the first cf which, O A

is, in the axis of the lens ; but the other two rays,
O M and 0 N, undergo a refraction both on entering
into the glass and
leaving it, by which
they are
turned aside from their first direction,so as to meet
somewhere
at I with the axis, from
which
they will
direction, in the straightlines
proceed in their new
M I Q and N I R ; so that afterward, when
they shall
meet

an

if the

as

they will produce in it the same

point 0 existed at I, as they preserve

eye,

direction.

the

this reason,
the convex
lens is
said to transport the object O to I ; but in order to
distinguish this point I from the real point O, the
same

VOL.

II."

For

effect

266

DISTANCE

former

is called

the

This

point I is very remarkable, and

is extremely distant, the image

denominated
shall

O,

THE

image of the latter,which

the object.

is denominated

turn

OF

explain

the

the

of

the

If the

reason.

fall

which

rays

focus

the

the

on

I ; and being endowed

with
is natural
that the concourse

the

should

heat

produce

fire any combustible

matter
there.
Now, the place where
call the

focus ; the
respect to convex

with

Hence,

too,

glass,the

they

likewise

stars, and
force

object at

all collected

at

so

many

capable

at. I
rays
of setting

that

be
may
much
heat

so

placed
is collected

of this denomination

reason

lenses

is

is denominated

evident.

burningare
undoubtedly well
you
I only remark, that this property
in a certain
point,
rays of the sun

acquainted with.
of collecting the
their

it is likewise

of which

effects

called

lens

convex

ject
ob-

qualityof heating,it

on

we

of

be the

are

of

of

degree

the

lens, of which

sun

lens

when

in it*

focus, is

common

collect

the

all

to

lenses

convex

of the
rays of the moon,
distant bodies ; though their

of

all very
small to produce

is too

less
nevertheany heat, we
of
term, focus : the focus
employ the same
glass,accordingly,is nothing else but the spot where
the

of very
distant
this condition
must

image

which

object ought

be

to

represented

occasion
It may
1.

speak

to

As

very

the

of

the

axis.

The

M, O

each

focus

glass where

or

the

A.

other

axis

of

; to

the
the

will likewise

I shall

have

of this afterward.

point 0,

rays

axis

axis, its image

be

parallelto
parallelto the
as

the

in the

to
still further
proper
remarks
respecting the focus

the

2.

represented
added, that

still be

of the
out

is

objects

situated

lens ; for if it be out

be

of the

and
;

subjoin

rays

lowing
fol-

"

tant,
disobject, is infinitely
O N

and,

be considered
may
for the same
reason,

lens.

I, therefore, is the
the

the

parallelto

point behind
the axis which

268

DISTANCE

LETTER
Distance

LXXVI.

of the Image of Objects.

remarked

HAVING

THE

OF

is represented by

that
a

distant
object infinitely

an

lens

convex

in the

very

focus,

provided the object be in the axis of the lens, I proceed

in
the
but
situated
to nearer
objects,
always
axis of the glass; and I observe, first,
that the nearer
the object approaches to the lens the farther the
image retires.
Let
that F,
us
accordingly suppose
Fig. 147.
Fig. 147, is the focus of the lens MM,
that when
tant
disan
so
object is infinitely
before
the glass,or at the top of
the figure,the image shall be represented
at F ; on
bringing the pbje*ct
to the glass,and placing it successively
nearer
at P, Q, R, the image will be
* fS
represented at the pointsp, q, r, more

the

of

the

lens

than

the focus

words, if A P is the

in other
of

the

from

distant

object,B

p will

be the

distance
distance

image ; and if A Q is the disof the object, B q will be that of

tance
the image ; and the distance
B r of the
image will correspond to the distance
A R of the object.
There
is a rule by which
it is easy
to calculate
the distance
of the image
behind

the

the

object

you

with

it will be
that
the

lens
before

for

distance
of
every
it,but I will not tire

dry exposition

of this rule

sufficient to remark,
the

more

the

in ral,
genedistance
of the

glass is diminished, the more

it increased.
of the image behind

object

fore
be-

is the distance
I shall to

this

subjointhe

is six

distance
if the

inches,

or

of the

distance

distance

of

instance

of

six inches
the

to

gradations marked

Thus, the

lens, the
that

inch

distance

is

so

formed

that

infinitely
great, the
lens

the

shall

be precisely

bringingthe object nearer

image will retire,according to the
in the following table :

from

of

inches

the

beyond

focus

the

inches,
object is

If the
beyond the focus.
of 24 inches, the image will

inches

is,two

focal

on

distance

the

to

that

lens

whose

object being 42 inches distant

image will fall at the distance of

is,one

at the

of

behind

; now,

lens,the

lens

convex

object

image

the

269

OBJECTS.

OF

IMAGE

from

the

; and

so

be

moved
re-

lens,
of the

rest.

lens

numbers

are

distance

is 6

these

Though

focal

whose

consequences
may,
1. If the distance
the
2.

falls

image
If the
of

likewise

focus, the

be double
the

lens.

the

focus.

object is

distance

the distance
the

In

from

them.

object is infinitely
great

of the

words, the object and

from

the

exactly in

distance

the

be deduced

however,
of

applicable only to a
inches, some
general

of

double
the

of the focus

the

image
;

tance
diswill

in other

tant
image will be equally disthe example above
exhibited;
.""

270
the

distance

the

image

of

that

the

the

lens.

the

object being

is likewise

When

3.

the

OBJECTS.

OF

IMAGE

inches, that of

12

12 inches.

object is brought

the

near

so

lens

preciselyequal to that of the

focus, say 6 inches, as in the preceding example,
then the image retires to an infinite distance
behind
is

distance

general,that the
distance
of the object and that of the image reciprocally
correspond ; or if you put the object in the
place of the image, it will fall in the place of the
object.
5. If,
therefore,the lens M M, Fig. 148,
It is likewise

4.

collects
the

at I the

point O, the

collect

at

observable

rays

which
lens

same

rays

in

issue

from

will likewise

issuing

the

from

I.

point

of a great
consequence
in virtue of which
principlein dioptrics,
6.

It is the

it may
be maintained
the refractions
which

that whatever
have

gone
under-

rays
through several

in

passing
media, they may

always

are

ing
refract-

return

in the

direction.

same

This

truth

is of much

of lenses
that

thus, when

know,

in

the

for

ledge
know-

example,

represented, at the distance of 8

inches, the image of an object 24 inches distant,I
8 inches
infer,that if the object were
may confidently
lens would
distant,the same
represent its image at
the

lens

importance

distance

has

of 24

It is further
distance

of

the

inches.

essential

object

is

remark, that
equal to that of
to

when
the

the

focus,

the

image will suddenly retire to an infinite distance ;

with the relation existing
which
perfectlyharmonizes
between
the object and the image.
You

will

no

doubt

place the image will

is brought stillnearer

be
be

curious

to

represented
to the lens,so

know
when

in
the

what

object

that its distance

OF

MAGNITUDE

less than

shall become

that of the focus.

embarrassing, that
be, the distance of the image will
since the nearer
greater than infinity,
is the

more

the lens

farther

does

This

the

answer

in

this
the

tion
quesmust

be

case

object approaches

the

image retire.
But the image being already infinitely
distant,how
1
The
is it possiblethat distance should be increased
question might undoubtedly puzzle philosophers,but
The image
is of easy solution to the mathematician.
will pass from
an
of the lens, and

infinite distance

consequently
object. However

the

side with

the

271

IMAGES.

it is

confirmed,

will

to the
be

on

side

other
the

strange this

same

answer

only by reasoning,
by experience, so that it is impossible to doubt
is the same
of its solidity
beyond infinity
; to increase
thing with passing to the other side : this is unquestionably
a real paradox.
appear,

may
but

22d

not

December, 1761.

LXXVII.

LETTER

Magnitude of Images.
You
must

can

no

longer doubt

that every convex

the image of an

represent somewhere
to it ; and

that

in

lens

object

the

case
presented
place
every
much
of the image varies
tance
as
according to the disof the object as according to the focal distance
of the lens : but a very important article remains
the magnitude of the
yet to be explained I mean
image.
When
such a lens represents to us the image of
"

the

sun,

of the

foot,you

moon,

or

of

star, at the distance

of

abundantly sensible that these images

be incomparably smaller than the objects themmust
selves.
A star being much
greater than the whole
earth, how is it possiblethat an image of such maga

are

272

OF

MAGNITUDE

nitude

IMAGES.

represented to us at the distance of

But the star appearing to us only as a point,
a foot 1
the image represented by the lens likewise
resembles
smaller
than
a
point, and consequently is infinitely
the object itself.
There
representationmade by
are, then, in every
lenses,two things to be considered
respects
; the one
the
the place where
the image is represented, and
other the real magnitude of the image, which
may
be very different from
first
that of the object. The
elucidated, I proceed to furnish
being sufficiently
a very
simple rule, by which you will be
you with
should

enabled
the

be

in every

of

magnitude

to

case

the

what

determine

must

represented by

image

be
the

lens.
Let

P, Fig. 149, be

whatever

situated
M

convex

lens

for the

place

the

on

Fig.

149.

image, which is
that the point I shall be the
at I, so
representation of the extremity O of
the object, as the rays
issuing from
the point O are
there
collected
by
the

of

of the

first look

must

; we

object

any
axis

refraction
the

object

of

in what

see

now

for

this

which

the

the

in

rays
in other

the

will be

object,the

us

sented
repreof the

the

image

point

the

on

ray P
middle

A,
of

its direction,

its progress
in the
S ; it will be fore
there-

other

will meet

Let

fall

through the
not change

somewhere
that

point P,
that

but continues

straightline

lens.

let us
sider
conpurpose
M, P A, P N, which,

I observe
passes
lens, does

the

place will be
extremity P

other

the rays P
issuing from the
lens.

the

this
P

line, at K,
M

and

words,

the

of the

other

point
extremity

being

that

of the

of the-

extremity 0

MAGNITUDE

hence

273

IMAGES.

it is easy to conclude
that I K will be the
of the object 0 P represented by the lens.

image
In

OF

to determine

order, then,

the

magnitude

of this

image, having found, the place I, you have only to

draw
from the extremity P of the object,through A,
the middle of the lens, the straightline P A K S, and
to raise from
I the line I K perpendicularto the axis,
and this line I K will be the image in question ; it is
evident
from
this that the image is reversed, so that
if the line O R were
horizontal, and the object O P
the image would
have the head
K undermost,
a man,
and the feet I uppermost.
On this I subjoin the following remarks
:
1. The
the image is to the lens,the smaller
nearer
it is ; and the more
remote
it is,the greater its magnitude.
Thus, O P, Fig. 150, being
i50.
the object placed on the axis before
the lens M N, if the image fell at Q,
it would

R, S,
P

be

or

smaller

T.

For,

", drawn

than
the

as

from

the

evident

distance

that among
t, the first

S s, T
and
that the

middle
the

q is the
increase

they

of the

it may
the lines

others

as

straightline

summit

object P, through the

lens, always terminates
at whatever

if it fell at

remove

of

the

image,
be, it is
Q y, R

r,

smallest,
in portion
profrom
the

lens.
2.

There

image

is

is

takes

to

the distance
that

place,

of

the

as

when

object A
of

to

the lens

distance

in which

case

preciselyequal to

it is when

equal

one

consider

have

the
the

is

of the

object ;

is double
;

two

object :
image is
this

and

already

distance

of

marked,
re-

the

that of the focus

image
equal to

the

the

the

will then- be T
A

O.

ou

triangles GAP

r,
have

so

that the

only
and

then
A

",

274

MAGNITUDE

IMAGES.

OF

which

having the opposite angles at the pointA, as

well as the sides A O and A T, equal each
to each,
likewise
the angles at O and T, which
as
both
are
right angles ; these two triangleswill be every way
is the
equal, and consequently the side T t, which
is the
image, will be equal to the side O P, which
object.
twice farther from
3. If the image were
the lens
than the object,it would
be double
the object ; and
in general, as many
times
the image is farther
as
from
the lens than
the object,so many
times will
it be
greater than the object. For the nearer
bring the object to the glass, the farther the
you
comes.
image retires,and consequently the greater it be-

nearer

times
lens
the
of

contrary takes

The

4.

the image is
place when
the object ; it is then as many
the lens than
smaller
than
the object as it is nearer
the
than
the object is. If,then, the 'distance
of

image
the

thousand

one

were

object, it would

less

times

likewise

be

than

that

thousand

one

smaller.

times

this

burning-glasses,which,
being exposed to the sun, represent its image in the
nous
focus, or rather represent the focus, that is,the lumiLet

5.

and

the

brilliant

to

burns, and which

circle,which
of the

is

representedby
will no longer be surprised,then, at
lens.
You
of the image, notwithstanding the prosmallness
digious
magnitude of the sun, it being as many times

nothing
the

apply

us

smaller

in the
of

of the
6.

the
more

else but

the

the

image

focus

than

from

sun

the

sun

real
is

the lens

greater

tance
dis-

the
than

that

image.

Hence

likewise

distance

of

brilliant

it is

the

also

evident, that the greater is

focus
is the

of

circle

burning-glass, the

diameter

of

smaller

the lens.

the

focus

than

the

is

always

distance

focus, that

in the

is,the greater will be the image of the

times

as

sun,

sun

about
of the

one

; and

the

hundred

focus

from

276

BURNING-GLASSES.

times

many

the

natural

heat

observe

how

the

glass

would

be

not

the

glass, it is not
that

it should

must

besides

exceeds

sufficient

the

focus,

than

anywhere
that in order

burning-

be

the

; it

sun

several

which

or

convex,

of

image

surface

the

by

it should

only to
glass is

the

focus

heat

the

times

the

is smaller
magnitude of the focus, which
to the glass.
proportion as it is nearer
excellent
is in possession of the most
5. France

in

it is three

burning-glass:
surface

is calculated

greater than

the

represents.*
focus, a heat two
which

It

are

and, in general, the

capable

of

with

vehement

the
The

6.

about
of

heat

thrice

the

than

the

of
to

melt

thrice

greater

than

is

lens

here

Duke

the

alluded

to

was,

we

purchased

of Orleans

powerful burning lens, however,

more

Mr.

Parker,

diameter.

Its thickness

6 feet 8 inches

lens

is

now

which

at

Instruments,

cost
at

in diameter.

Pekin."

above

See

the rays
to the

amounts

is thrice
in

blood

believe, one
for

the

of

\cademy

afterward

was

It had

2 feet

be

greater

the

human
have

must

we

requisiteto

700Z.

Edinburgh
Ed.

compared

feel from

lead,

the centre
was
It was
made

vol. v. p. 141."

be

are

we

to

we

the

in order

The

that

heat

natural

minutes;

is calculated

boilingwater

But

body.
heat

of

that

moment

few

to

which

; or,

heat

in the

of this focus.

summer

thing,the

is in

once

boilingwater
greater than what

same

which

ingly
accord-

are

fire which

of

in

sun

is not

heat

in

ardent

most

producing

kind

of every
melted

its

times

greater than

Its effects

sun.

wood

fire; metals

on

times

thousand

prodigious :
set

must

the

diameter, and

in

nearly two thousand

the image of the sun
produce, therefore,

to be

feel from

we

feet

focus, or

it

by

that

represent
have

at the

strong

of

conclude,

must

of

production

have

greater than

stronger

we

exceed

must

rays : we
the surface

not

were

else ; hence
to

sun's

times
many
the focus.

If the
heat

at the focus

of the

greater than
4.

heat

make

water

Tschirnhausen's,
of Sciences.
made

8"

in

inches

England
of clear

3^ inches, and its focal length

flint-glass.This celebrated
Encyclopaedia, article Burning
of

277

BURNING-GLASSES.

boil ; and

copper, a heat still thrice

To melt gold requiresa much

to melt

greater

is necessary.
degree of heat.

higher

Heat,

greater than that of

far then

how

gold ;

greater exceed
7. But

the

how

force

of

respect

divided.

Those

emanation

the

velocity which
embarrassed

I
for

times

capable of melting
thousand

two

times

ordinary fires 1
prodigious effects produced
our

is

in the

philosophers
sun,

that

darted

are

the

with

of

question,

very

much

an
rays are
the amazing

formerly described,are
solution

focus

difficult

very

maintain

who

from

is

collected

to which

hundred

one

heat

must

by the rays of the sun

burning-glass? This
with

blood

our

these

are

then,

greatly
only to say
not

have

they
of the
that the matter
with
rays, strikingbodies
break and destroy their minute
violence,must totally
particles. But this opinion is no longer admitted in
sound
philosophy.
of
other system, which
makes
the nature
8. The
lightto consist in the agitationof the ether, appears
little adapted to explain these
surprising effects of
burning-glasses. On carefullyexamining, however,
all the
the
as

circumstances,

we

shall

of this.
The
possibility
they fall on bodies, excite

the surface

which,
and

by

to

concussion,

soon

be convinced

natural

rays
minute

the
or

motion

of the sun,
of
particles

of

vibration,

in its turn, is capable of exciting new

rays ;
these the body in question is rendered
visible.

body is illuminated
only so far
of
particlesare
put into a motion
proper
so
rapid as to be capable of producing new
And

of

as

these

vibration
rays

in

the ether.
9.

It is
have

sun

of
focus
into

must

rays of the
sufficient force to agitatethe minute
particles
those
which
collected
in
the
bodies,
are

clear,then,

that if the natural

put the particleswhich

they

meet

there

sion
adheagitationso violent that their mutual
is entirelydissolved, and the body itself completely
which
is
the effect of fire. For if
destroyed,

an

VOL.

II." A

278

THE

the

body

these

is

CAMERA

OBSCURA.

combustible,

minute

the dissolution

wood,

as

of

rapid agitation,
makes
considerable
of
it
off
into
to fly
a
part
air in the form
of smoke, and the grosser
particles
of ashes.
remain
in the form
Fusible
bodies, as
the
of
their pardissolution
metals, become
liquidby
ticles,
whence
how
fire
acts
we
on
comprehend
may
bodies

are

of

the

particles,
joined to

most

; it is

only the adhesion of their minutest particles

which
is attacked,and the particlesthemselves
thereby afterward
tion.
put into the most violent agitaing-glasses
Here, then, is a very strikingeffect of burnwhich
derives
its origin from the nature
lenses.*

convex

There

besides

are

ful
wonder-

many

effects to be described.
28th

December,

1761.

LETTER

The
WE

likewise

Camera

employ

obscura, and
are

LXXIX.

by means
presented in the
in their natural

Obscura.

of

in the

lenses

convex

all external

them

darkened

room

colours,

on

in such

camera

objects

white

face,
sur-

that

manner

landscapes and publicbuildings,or objects in general,

are
represented in much
greater perfection than
of the pencil is capable of producing.
the
power
Painters
of this method,
accordingly avail themselves
in order to draw
with exactness
landscapes and other
The
camera
objects which are viewed at a distance.
is the subject of this Letter,
obscura, then, which
is represented at E F G H, Fig. 152, closely shut up
*

In the

work

lenses

may

of separate

ground

and

zones,

already quoted, in
be

constructed
each

zone

p,

of any

262, note,

consistingof

polished separately.

By

I have

shown

size,by building them,

this

different
means

segments,
the

central

ing
burn-

how
as

it were,

which

parts

are

of

the burning lens are much

the lens is of one
less thick than when
piece,
of the spherical aberration
and the error
be
in
rected."
cora great measure
may
See the Edinburgh
Philosophical Journal, vol. viii. p. 160." Ed.

THE

CAMERA

Fig.

all

on

in

sides,except
of the

one

279

OBSCURA.

152.

little round

one

window-shutters,

aperture

in which

made

is fixed

lens, of such a focus as to throw the image

of external
objects,say the tree O P, exactly on the
white
A
and moveable
opposite wall F G, at o p.
table is likewise
employed, which is put in the place
of the images represented.
be admitted
into
The
rays of light,therefore, can
the
chamber
only through the aperture M N, in
which
total darkness
which
the lens is fixed,without
would
prevail.
consider
the point P of any object,
Let us
now
convex

of
say the stem
P N, will fall on

it,so

as

to

our

the

tree

P.

lens

N,

again

meet

at the

Its rays
P M, P
be refracted
and

point p

on

the

A,

by

wall,

or

placed there for the purpose.

other rays
This point p will consequently receive
no
but such
as
proceed from the point P ; and in like
other
manner
point of the table will receive
every
only the rays which proceed from the corresponding
to every
point
point of the object ; and reciprocally,
on

The

white

table should

tmnoothly, and
distant

table*

from

be

made

to

be concave,

ought

the lens.

"

Ed.

of stucco, or

plasterof Paris,ground

that every

part of

it may

very

be equally

280

THE

of the

external

table,which
the

lens

the

CAMERA

OBSCURA.

object will correspond

receives
to be

were

table would

those

rays,
from

removed

illuminated

be

for in that case

manner;
would
diffuse its rays over

and

point on

the

other.

If

no

the

aperture M N,
in quite a different
point of the object

every
the whole

table, so

that

be illuminated
at
point of the table would
at present
by all the external objects,whereas
it receives
so
:
by one
only, that whose
rays
this you will easilycomprehend
that the effect
be quite different from what
it would
be if the

every
once

it is
from
must

rays entered
chamber.
Let

examine

this difference
that

the

simply by

now

us

wherein

the

somewhat
consists

point

aperture M

of

the

which

here
will

merits

please

manner

as

first suppose

us

these, reuniting on
For

the
the

formerly

'impression,
this purpose

following propositions,
of explainhonour
ing

"

Colours

1.

closely

let

certain

recollect

to

the

is green ; the
receive only those

consideration.

I had

which
to you

make

table, will

or

into

object

the table p will therefore

rays of the object P, and

green
the wall

more

and

point of

you

differ
musical

from
sounds

each

other

; each

of

in

the

is

colour

same

produced

vibrations, which

in a
number
by a determinate
The
in the ether.
given time are excited
green
P
is
colour of our
point
accordingly appropriated to
of vibrations,and would
number
no
a certain
longer
less rapid.
be
these vibrations
or
more
were
green
of vibrations
do not know
the number
Though we
ever
which
produce such or such a colour, we may howbe
twelve
affirm

be

here that green requires

suppose
vibrations
in a second
we
; and what

permitted to
thousand

of this

thousand, may likewise

of the jeal number,
whatever

number, twelve

easilyunderstood

it be.
2.

This

being

laid

table will be struck

down,

by

the

motion

point p
of

on

the white

vibration,of which

CAMERA

THE

twelve

Now,

I have

remarked

are

all of such

surface
sort

of

of

coloured

excited

to

or

surface

are

as

to receive

less

whereas

rapid ;
adapted to receive

white
every
those

only that

corresponds to their colour.

table is white, the point p in it will be
of vibration corresponding to the
a motion
green ; in other words, it will be agitated

colour

of

twelve

thousand
As

nature

second.

rapiditywhich

of
our

long

surface

white

completed in a
that the particlesof

agitation,

as

3.

be

more

degree
And

will

thousand

281

OBSCURA.

times
the

as

in

point

which

second.

j", or

the

there, is

exists

particleof the
agitated with a

to the parmotion, this will be communicated

ticles
of the ether which
surround
this
and
it;
motion,
diffusingitself in all directions,will generate rays of
the same
nature, that is to say green; just as in
music, the sound of a certain note, say C, agitates a

similar

stringwound
a

sound

up to the

without

The

being

point p

tone, and

same

makes

ifremit

touched.

of the

white

table will

accordingly
died or painted that
produce green rays, as if it were
I affirm of the pointy will equally
colour ; and what
take place with respect to all the points of the illuminated
table, which will produce all the rays, each
colour with
that of the object whose
of the same
image it represents. Every point of the table will
therefore
become
visible,under a certain colour, as
if it were
actuallypainted that colour.
the table, all the
will perceive,then, on
5. You
of the external
colours
objects,the rays of which
will be admitted
into the chamber
through the lens ;
of the colour of
each point in particularwill appear
that point of the object which
corresponds to it,and
4.

you

will

see

the

on

table

colours, disposed in the

in the

objects
or
on

before

the

same

themselves

of various

combination
order

; that

as

you

see

them

is to

sentation,
say, a reprethe perfect picture,of all the objects

rather
outside

the lens N

of the

N.
Aa2

dark

chamber

which

are

282

THE

All

6.

the

on

these

in my

tree

will

be

for,

in

on

the

white

represented

the

will

in

the

middle

the

of

is to

drawn

be

is
the

that

the

will

be

to

at

nation
termiP

object

which

represented

left

the

represented

from

lens

consequently

summit

be

which

I have

part of the

the

must

place

line

under

and

o,

object

straight

which

word,

each

what

from
The

at

reversed

appear

conclude

Letters.

table

the

that

will

you

general,

of

through

as

foregoing

p;

and

objects will, however,

table,

said

OBSCURA.

CAMERA

is upward

downward,
the

right

in

in the
thing will be reversed
picture ;
the
will nevertheless
be
exact
more
representation
and
the
most
accurate
perfect than
more
painter is
capable of producing.
will
further
this
7. You
that
remark,
picture will
be so
much
smaller
the
in
than
objects themselves
the
focus
of the lens is shorter.
Lenses
as
proportion
of a short
focus
will
accordingly
give the objects in
have
if you
wish
to
and
would
them
miniature;
of a longer focus,
lenses
must
magnified, you
employ
a

every

"

which

or

In

8.

order

to

ease,

the

at

more

from
the
of

the

represent

rays

they
picture on

peculiar

at

reflected,

are

when

advantage

so

as

table

horizontal

greater distance.
representations

intercepted

be

may

these

contemplate

which

whole

images

we

wish

by

to

represent
and

ror,
mir-

to

this

is
the

copy

images.*
2d

of
the

January,

The

lens

glass,
axis

the

of

is sometimes

posterior
the

table, without
as

the

light

1762.

lens.
the

is

use

totally

ground

surface
The
of

of

is

picture
a

mirror,

reflected."

the

on

which

and

Ed.

anterior

is

ground

therefore
the

image

surface

flat,and
reflected
is

much

of

thick

inclined
on

more

piece
45"

to

horizontal

perfect)

284

OBSCURA.

CAMERA

THE

Fig.

the

153.

continue

by refraction, and thence

their direction
if they proceeded from
as
O,
o, though they really originated from
lens, meet

from

means

4.

the

Hence

is visible

image

within

eye will
it from
the

actually receive

an

no

towards

it

at F

the

if

But

at this

similar
this

to

spot

render

visible

at

is

rays

which

nothing
at

to

come

situated

eye
see

S, where
of

out

all of

at

it,

is directed

0,

is

placed at

o, and

to

an

in the

its

face
sur-

agitation
object 0,

generates rays which

everywhere. Here, then, is the

itself

image

the

between

only

to eyes
Q, as at

really excited
takes
place

of the surface

representation made
is

situated

only

collected

rays

table

which

it visible

difference

and

therefore, differs very

real object,and is visible only in

white

that

an

V, will

image

point

the

But

or

angle

o.

of the

one

essentiallyfrom
certain
places.
5.

the

point

angle, as

because

point
by no

o.

somewhere

this

the

in

in

camera

certain

of

an

object

obscura

and

the

places, namely,

its

image
those

the rays that originally

through which are transmitted
the picture,
proceed from the object ; whereas
the white table, is seen
on
or
representation formed
by its own
by the agitationof the parrays, excited
ticles
of its surface, and
visible
in
consequently
obscura.
every place of the camera

THE

CAMERA

It is likewise

6.

285

OBSCURA.

evident

that

the

white

table must
of the image

absolutely be placed exactly in the place

formed
by the lens, in order that every point
table

receive

may
from

likewise

the

except such

rays
of the

single point

were

rays

other

no

the

former,

as

object; for if
it,they would

to fall upon

effect of

of the

render

or

the

ceed
proother
turb
dis-

sentation
repre-

confused.
Were

7.

the

admission
white

the

lens

to be

given

to the

table

would

rays into the dark

be illuminated
by

The
picture would be visible.
rays
would
fall
on
objects
every point of
determinate
expressing any one
we
see
picture,accordingly, which
on

scura,

lens

fixed

anew,

in

from

one

3.

white

in

the

no
on

the

this

single point, all the

point of the object.
very singular phenomenon
the

out
table,withThe
image.

in

chamber

with

natural

convex

collects

that

proceed
however

in the window-

is very small
nevertheless
may

their

ob-

camera

is here

applied you
opposite partition,the images
even

different

the

rays

aperture made

be

and

of the

it is which

of the dark

lens

shutter

free

chamber,
it,but no

surface, is the effect of the

observable, when
shutter

and

entirelyremoved,

for

though
perceive,

of external

colours

; but

jects,
obthe

representation is very faint and confused, and if the

aperture is enlarged, this representation entirely
disappears. I shall explain this phenomenon.
In
the

Fig. 154,
small

objects are
wall

The
the

of
rays
admitted

chamber

dark

aperture

better

E
G

is

to receive

external
into the
F

M,

H.

opposite to
white, the
the impression

of rays of all sorts.

the point O be an
Let

is

aperture through

the

which

alone, with

object, of which
those

which

the

rays
fall between

286

OF

them,

be confined
will

to the

illuminate

smaller,

small

space

This

space

it.

the

approach

or

LANTERN,
These

rays

will

of the

wall,

and

into the chamber.

enter

can

MAGIC

THE

will
to

nearer

be

much

so

point,in

portion
pro-

this
:
aperture
the effect
have
should
aperture were
very small, we
point
already described, according to which
every
M

the

as

of th,e white

table

is small

if then

only the rays proceeding

from
be
a
single point of the object: there would
a
produced, of consequence,
representation similar
is produced by the application of a
to that which
convex

But

receives

aperture in the window-shutter.

in the present case, the aperture being of a certain
lens

to

an

certain

small

it by its rays.
take place, as

The
if

the

have

of

point O

extent, every

space
same

the

object will

nate
illumi-

wall, and agitate

thing,then, nearly, would

the

on

painter,instead of making points

make
with
fine pencil,should
with a coarsS
one
a
spots of a certain magnitude, attending, however,
on
to design and colouring : the representationmade
wall

daubing

will
;

but it will

smallness
5th

of the

January,

resemblance

be

clearer

the

this

the rays

of

sort

proportion

aperture by which

to
are

the
mitted.
ad-

1762.

LETTER

Of

in

to

LXXXI.

Magic Lantern,

and

Solar

Microscope.

properlyno effect except

on
hend
very distant objects,but you will easilycomprebe
extended
that its application may
equally
to nearer
objects. For this purpose, the white table
be removed
farther from the lens, conformably
must
the object is
to this general rule, that the
nearer
lens, the farther does the
brought to the convex
the white
table ought to be placed,
image, where
THE

retire

camera

from

obscura

it ; and

has

if the

chamber

is not

of

suffi-

SOLAR

AND

depth, a different
be employed.
place,then,
may

cient
must

You
the

aperture

to which

lens,

the

of it

on

greater

white

smaller

or

the distance

of the

it would

be

more

object could

be

to its

in order
But

table
than

of

shorter

of the

out

you will
within
the dark

would

before

fitted,any
see

copy

chamber,

original,according

as

is

greater or smaller; but

commodious,
undoubtedly,if the
exposed within the dark chamber,

image

being moved

and

changed

great difficulty
occurs,
in this case
be darkened, and

here

is

and

the

focus,

chamber,
lens

convex

object or picture whatever,

the

287

MICROSCOPE.

the

"

at

pleasure.

object itself
consequently

rendered

incapableof producing the effect we wish.

The
thing wanted, then, is to illuminate the object
much
as
as
possible within the dark chamber, and
time to exclude
the light. I have found
at the same
the means
of doing this.
You
will recollect
out
that

I constructed

mentioning, which
to you

machine

I had

the

to

the honour

six years
ago ; and
the structure, and

now

effect
of

am

presenting

will

prehend
easilycomprincipleson which

you

the

it is founded.
This

machine

sides, nearly of

consists
a

of

box

figure similar
Fig. 164.

very
to

close

Fig.

164.

on

all
The

288
farther
in

side

which

OF

THE

of

which
be

to

are

MAGIC

LANTERN,

has

fitted the

opening I K,
objects,portraits or
an

other

to represent ; on
pictures,0 P, which you mean
the other side, directlyopposite, is a tube M N Q R,
lens M N ; this tube is movecontaining a convex
of bringing the lens nearer
to
able, for the purpose
of removing
the object, or
it,at pleasure. Then,
provided the object O P be well illuminated,the
somewhere
the image of it o p, and
lens will throw
if you there place a white
tablet,you will see upon
of the object, so much
it a perfect copy
the clearer
illuminated.
the object itself is more
as

For
side

contrived
this purpose
I have
in this box
wings, for the reception of lamps with

two

large

wicks, and in each wing is placed a mirror to reflect

the light of the lamps on the objects O P ; above, at
the smoke
of the lamps
E F, is a chimney, by which
off.

passes

is the

Such
which

within

construction

the

object

strongly

illuminated, while

chamber

suffers

proper
to the

may

'the darkness

machine,

In

attention

order
must

this
be

chine,
ma-

of

very
the

to

the

be

paid

following remarks.
slidinginward

On

1.

diminution.

no

of this

use

of

tube

the

Q R, that is,
the object O P, the

to
bringing the lens M N nearer
fore
thereimage o p will retire ; the white tablet must
be removed
backwards, to receive the image at
the just distance ; the image will thereby be likewise
magnified,and you may go on to enlarge it at
and nearer
pleasure,by pressing the lens M N nearer
to the object 0 P.
tance
2. On
removing the lens from the object,the disof the image will be diminished
white
: the

tablet

in this

must

in order

to

have

but the image

3.

have

but this

only

clear

will be

It is obvious
;

you

to

be

case

that

moved

and

distinct

to

the lens,

representation

reduced.
the

image

inconvenience
reverse

nearer

the

will be

versed
always reis easily remedied
;
turnobject O P itself,

ing

it upside down,

and

the

upright on

289

MICROSCOPE.

SOLAR

AND

the

white

image

will be

sented
repre-

tablet.

general remark, that the more,

the image is magnified on the white
tablet,the less
uminous
and distinct it will be ; but on
reducing
the image, it is rendered
distinct and brilliant.
more
The
is plain" the lightproceeds wholly from
reason
the illumination of the object ; the greater that the
is over
it must
which
it is diffused^the more
space
be weakened, and the more
contracted
it is,the more
It is

4.

further

brilliant.

Accordingly, the more

you wish to magnify the
must
representation,the more
strengthen the
you
illumination
of the object,by increasing the light
of the lamps in the wings of the machine
; but for
small
illumination
is
representations a moderate
5.

sufficient.
The
called

machine

which

I have

been

describingis

the

magic lantern,to distinguish it from the

common
camera
obscura, employed for representing
distant objects ; its figure,
undoubtedly,has procured
it the name
of lantern, especially
it is designed
-as
to contain
light; but the epithet magic must have
been an invention of its first proprietors,
who
wished
to impress the
vulgar with the idea of magic or
witchcraft.
The ordinary magic lanterns,however,
are

not

constructed

in this

other

objects

represent

no

glass,whereas

this machine

manner,

but
may

and

serve

to

figures paintedon
be

applied to

jects
ob-

of all sorts.
It may
smallest

employed for representing the

objects,and for magnifying the representation
to a prodigious size, so
that the smallest fly
shall appear as
large as an elephant; but for this
the strongest lightthat lamps can
give is
purpose
ffir from being sufficient;the machine
be disposed
must
in such a manner
that the objects may
be illuminated
by the rays of the sun, strengthened by a
burning-glass
; the machine, in this case"
changes
VOL.

IL"

even

B b

be

290

USE

its name,
and
have
occasion

is called
to

OF

EFFECT

AND

the

microscope. I shaH
at large in the
more

solar

of

speak

it

Sequel.
8th

January, 1762.

LETTER
Use

WE

Effect of

and

employ
looking through

their

uses,
nature.

we

must

but

in order

into

go

for

lenses

convex

Lens,

simple Convex

likewise

different
of

LXXXII.

to

closer

diately
imme-

explain their
investigation

of such
the
focal
distance
a
Having observed
ject
the obglass, I have
already remarked, that when
is very
remote, its image is represented in the
focus itself;but on bringingthe object nearer
to the
it :
lens, the image retires farther and farther' from
that if the distance
of the object be equal to that
so
of the focus of the lens, the image is removed
to an
infinite distance, and consequently becomes
infinitely

great.
The

is,that

reason

the

rays

Fig.

155.

OM,

OM,

Fig. 155,

which

lens, so
N

of

to

as

F ; and

forward
the

from

come

as

point O, are refracted by the

become
parallelto each other, as N F,
parallellines are supposed to proceed

and
infinity,

to

place where
the object, are
; in

that

the

of the

the

case

focus

the

as

of the

image

is

always in
one
point

issuing from
tion
again after the refracthe object O A is equal to
lens, the place of the image

rays,
collected

when

the

292

USE

real

one

OF

the term

"

SIMPLE

CONVEX

LENS.

imaginary being opposed

to that

of real.

Nevertheless, an eye placed at E receives the same

the rays
impression as if the object O P, from which
It is of great importance,
originallyproceed, existed at o.
then, to know, as in the preceding cases,
the place and the magnitude of this imaginary image
As to the place, it is sufficient to remark, that
o p.
of the object A O be equal to the disif the distance
tance

present
the

the

nearer

less that
focus

has

case

in

the

lens, the image will be

it ; and
with

common

object

distance

the

of

the
from

distance

infinite

an

of

focus

of the

the

is

brought

lens, the

is what

the

preceding
the

to

becomes

lens, or

than

does

nearer

the

this

the

that

at

but
the

of

the

imaginary

lens

same
image approach to
; though, at the
time, it remains
always at a greater distance from
the lens than the object itself.
To
elucidate
this by an
example, let us suppose

that
for

the
the

different

table

image

of

focal distance

distances
the

indicates

the

is 6 inches

lens
of

the

distance

of

; and

object, the
the

nexed
an-

imaginary

op.

ascertaining

the

magnitude of this
imaginary image o p is easy and general ; you have
only to draw through the middle of the lens, marked
C, and through the extremity of the object P, the
it meets
with
the
straight line C P p ; and where
The

line

rule

p drawn

for

from

at

right angles with

the

axis

USE

OF

CONCAVE

293

LENS.

of the

the magnitude of
lens, you will have found
it is evident,
imaginary image o p : from which
this image is always greater than
the object

the
that
O

itself,as

lens

than

that

times

many

the

object

P.

image is not reversed,

but upright as the object.
will easily comprehend,

You

said, the benefit that may

this

view

of

be

whose

sort, by persons

in the

as

from

from

sight is

not

who

can

preceding
I have
lenses

of

adapted

to

them

see

distance.
advantage at a considerable
only to look at objects through a convex

more

have

in order

them

the

evident

what

derived

objects,but

near

from

It is likewise

this

case,

the

it is farther

as

to

They
lens,

if

they were
very distant.
defect
of sight with
The
objects
respect to near
occurs
usually in aged people, who
consequently
make
of spectacles with
use
convex
glasses,which,
exposed to the sun
produce the effect of a burningglass, and this ascertains the focal distance of every
have
occasion
for spectacles
glass. Some
persons
of

to

see

focus, others

near

very

according

as

to the

state

of

of

their

more

sight ;

but

for my
to have
present purpose
idea of the use
of such spectacles.
12th

Use

of old
a

have

and

how

eral
gen-

Concave

Lens.

glasses assist the sight

people, by representing to them
objects as at
seen

the

on

; and
;

convex

than

they reallyare

contrary, which,

vision, require
nearer

given

LXXXIIL

Effectof a

greater distance

eyes,

it is sufficient

January, 1762.

LETTER

You

distant,

one

the

concave

which

in

order

there

to

distinct

objects to be represented
this
them
glasses procure

leads

me

Bb2

to the

are

as

vantage
ad-

explanation of the

294

USE

effect

of

of that of
the

EFFECT

OF

is

lenses, which

concave

When

AND

directlythe

trary
con-

ones.

convex

object O P, Fig. 157,

Fig.

157.

is very distant,and its rays O M,

O M, fall almost
parallelon the

instead

of

the

by

T T ; in this case,

lens

concave

they,

becoming

refraction

convergent
of

the

lens,

the

contrary, become
divergent, pursuing the

on

more

direction

F, N F, which, produced
the
meet
at
backward,

point o ; so that an eye placed,

for example, at E, receives
these
refracted

rays

in the

same

ner
man-

if

they proceeded from

the point 0, though they really
proceed from the point O ; for
this reason,
I have
in the figure
as

dotted

the

straight lines

o.

supposed

to

No.
As

the

object

is

be

distant, were
infinitely
lens convex
the point o would
what

call the

we

there

is

no

real

focus

likewise

; but

be
as, in the

of

concurrence

point the imaginary

authors

the

focus

of the

denominate

present

rays,

we

case,
call this

lens ;

concave

some

it the

pointofdispersion,
because
the rays, refracted
to
by the glass,appear
be dispersed from
this point.
Concave
lenses, then, have no real focus, like the
but only an imaginary focus, the distance
of
convex,
which
from
the lens A o is, however, denominated
the focal distance
of this lens, and serves,
by means
of

rule similar

lenses,
when

the

to

to that which

determine

the

is laid down

place

of

the

for

vex
con-

image,

distant.
object is not infinitely
Now, this
in the case
of
image is always imaginary ; whereas
the objectis
convex
lenses, it becomes
so
only when

the

than

nearer

distance

295

LENS.

CONCAVE

of

the

focus.

Without

explanation of this rule,

respects calculation merely, it is sufficient
entering

mark

into

the

which
to

re-'

"

distant, the
object O P is infinitely
tance
imaginary image o p is represented at the focal disof the concave
lens, and this,too, on the same
the
side with
object. Nevertheless, though this
image be imaginary, the eye placed at E is quite as
affected
much
real, conformably
by it as if it were
the subject of convex
to the explanation given on
its
the object is nearer
the lens than
lenses, when
1.

focal

When

the

distance.

to the lens,
bringingthe object O P nearer
its image o p will likewise
approach nearer, but in
such
that the image will always be nearer
a manner
to the lens than the object is ; whereas, in the case
of convex
distant from the
lenses, the image is more
lens than the object. In order to elucidate this more
cave
clearly,let us suppose the focal distance of the con2.

On

lens to be

6 inches.

always determine
the imaginary image o p.
You
the
the middle
of the lens a straightline,to
draw
from
will pass through
the extremity of the object P, which
the extremity p of the image.
For, since the line
P A represents a ray coming from the extremity of
the object,this same
ray must, after the refraction,
through the extremity of the image ; but as
pass
3.

By the same
magnitude of

rule

you

may

296

USE

OF

CONCAVE

LENS.

this ray PA
through the middle of the lens,
passes
it undergoes no refraction
it must
itself
; therefore

through

pass

point

of

extremity
is not

image

reversed,

position with the object ; and

whenever
as
a general rule, that
the

side

same

of

the

convex

or

take

in

place only

It is evident

of

in

but

at

be

the

same

laid

down

image falls on
object is, it is

the

whether

the

Ions

represented
always reversed ;

.be

on

the

and

this

lenses.

convex

lenses

that

the

always

are

is obvious

the

"

images
smaller

be

to

These

remarked

lenses, and the

sented
reprethan the

image is always
only lp look at

have
you
satisfied of this truth.

object;

concave

the

when

figure to be
principal properties

the nature

that

therefore

the

than

nearer

the

but

concave;

by concave
objects ; the reason
the

lens

side of the lens, it is

other

5.

image,

it may
the

upright,

always represented

can

the

p.

This

4.

the

are

respecting
in which

manner

may
whose

represented by them.
how
is now
concave
glasses
easy to comprehend
be rendered
to persons
essentially serviceable
You
are
acquainted with some
sight is short.

who

can

very

near

objects are
It

neither

read

write

without

bringing the
In order, therefore,
close to their nose.
paper almost
the object must
be brought
to their seeing distinctly,
the

to

remarked
Concave

myopes.

of vision : I think I have

merly
fororgan
that such
denominated
are
persons
of great
lenses, then, may be made

them, for they represent the

to

use

nor

as

very

near

than

such

glasses

most

part, is only

the

their
a

few

image
focal

most

distant

jects
ob-

being farther from

distance,which, for the
not

inches.

it is true, are
much
than
smaller
the objects themselves
prevents
; but this by no means
of vision.
small
A
distinctness
object near
may
These

images,

greater than
appear
of
In fact,the head

very

pin

large body
appears

at

to the

eye

distance.

greater

than

297

GENERAL.

heavens, though that

in the

star

IN

MICROSCOPES

OF

star far

ceeds
ex-

magnitude.
Persons
whose
sight is short, or myopes, have
occasion, then, for glasses which
represent objects
the earth

as

in

such

nearer;

lenses.

concave

are

And

sight is long, or presbytes,need

glasses,which represent to them objects at
whose

those
convex

greater

distance.
16th

January, 1762.

LETTER

LXXXIV.

Of apparent Magnitude, of the Visual Angle, and

Microscopes in general.
I

of

been

are
remarking, that myopes
obliged
to make
of concave
use
glasses to assist their vision
of distant objects,and that presbytesemploy convex
distant vision of such as
glasses in order to a more
are
near
sight has a certain extent, and each
; each
shall represent objects perrequires a glass which
fectly.
This
distance
in the myopes
is very small,
in the presbytesvery
and
great ; but there are eyes
and
to see
so
nearer
more
as
happily conformed
distant objects equally well.
nature
Nevertheless, of whatever
person's
any
sight may be, this distance is never
very small : there
is no
tance
at the discapable of seeing distinctly
myope
HAVE

of less than
that when
it has
the

the

objects are
are

nearer.

seeing
at

the

as

To

not

is

to

brought

admit

insects,on

while
invisible,
I do

not

believe

stars, because

the distance

of the

of

the

it

tenth

have

must

you

appearance
which
organ,

of the

species
near.

object
confused

very

structure

very

inch

an

close

too
;

this

is such
their

observed,
to the eye,

depends

on

man
in the hu-

seeing objects

contrary, very

distant

such as
they easily see
that a flyis capable of
can
see
extremely well

part of

an

inch,

dis*

298
tance

at which

the human

nothing.

can

eye

leads

This

GENERAL.

IN

MICROSCOPES

OF

to

me

lutely
distinguishabsoan
explanation of

the

microscope, which represents to us the smallest

object as if it were
very great.
In order to convey
entreat
a just idea of it,I must
the apparent
carefully to distinguish between
you
and the real magnitude of every
object. Real magnitude
constitutes
the object of geometry, and is invariable
state.
as
long as the body remains in the same
But apparent magnitude
of infinite variety,
admits
The
though the body may remain always the same.
to us
extremely small,
stars, accordingly, appear
though their real magnitude is prodigious,because
we

it

at

are

immense

an

possible

to

from

greater;

distance

from

them.

they

would

approach

them,

which

will conclude

you

that

Were
appear
the apparent
in our

magnitude depends on the angle formed

proceed from the extremities
eyes by the rays which
of the object.
Let P O Q, Fig. 158, be the object of
vision, which, if the eye were
placed
at A, would
under
the
angle
appear
P A Q, called
the visual
angle, and
which

indicates

magnitude
on

to

of the

inspectingthe

the

us

object ; it is evident,
ther
figure,that the farfrom

the

withdraws
eye
the smaller
this

and

that it is

bodies
small

eye
and

angle becomes,

possible for

the

greatest

under
to us
appear
visual
angle, provided

case

them

with

nearer

a
our

great,

very

the stars.

approaches
looks

be

ject,
ob-

the

to

from
the

apparent

But
to

when
the

very
tance
disas

is
the

object,

B, it will appear
under
the visual angle P B Q, which
is evidentlygreater than P A Q.
Let the eye advance
still forward
to C, and the visual angle P C Q is still

greater.

at

it from

Further, the eye

being placed

at

D,

the

300

OBJECTS

render

this

us

which
Let

Fig. 159, the

too

small

if you

distance

lens

convex

focal distance

will

be

place before

On

it

sufficient

the

placing

lens,the object will

of objects

be

seen

be

employed,

shall be half

an

159.

small

object O P,

half

represent the image of it

wished.

of which

less than

somewhat

image

near.

Fig.

inch

the

service,by removing

are

very

THROUGH

VIEWED

an

far off

as

p,

inch, the
as

at

lens
could

the
eye, then, behind
if it were
at 0, and at
as

if its

o p :
magnitude were
the eye is supposed very near
the lens,the visual
as
P, t O, under
angle will be p I o, that is,the same
as
which
the naked
the object O P in
see
eye would
that proximity ; but the vision is become
distinct by
of the lens : such is the principleon
which
means
microscopes are constructed.
IQth January, 1762.

distance, as

LETTER
Estimation

LXXXV.

of the Magnitude of Objectsviewed

the Microscope.
several

WHEN

through

persons
microscope, the

view

the

foot of

through

object

same

fiy,for

example,
theyall agree that they see it greatlymagnified, but
their judgment
respecting the real magnitude will
will say, it appears to him as large as that
Vary ; one
of

horse

that of
on

he views

cat.

another,
No

one

as

that

then

of

advances

goat

tive
any thing posiat what
distance

subject,unless he adds
the feet of the horse, the goat, or

the

third,as

the cat.

They

301

MICROSCOPE.

THE

all mean,

therefore,without
expressing it,a
certain distance,which
is undoubtedly different ; consequently,
there is no
be surprised at the
to
reason
as
variety of the judgments which they pronounce,
foot of

the

well

much

object 1

of

the

question

microscope

of another

nature, which

sometimes

and

near

the

which

comparison

we

method

seems

to be

that which

treat

of the

object viewed
which

appearance

ances
appear-

with

objects

at

to view

distance.

The

of

certain
who

the

accustomed

are

we

sometimes

most

the

to

expression, and particularly

improper, therefore,to compare

presented to us by the microscope

small

is to
nify
mag-

ourselves

accustom

It is

near

institute.

to

mean

very

cat viewed

the

does

specify the distance, in

to

distance, may

that of

must

we

mode

accurate

more

at

Accordingly, when

decided, How
an

viewed

bigger than

no

appear
to the eye.
be

horse

regulatingthis estimation
is actually employed by authors
microscope. They compare
through the microscope with

it would

present to the naked

certain distance; and

to a
being removed
they have determined, that in order to contemplate
such a small object to advantage by the naked
eye,
it ought to be placed at the distance of eight inches,
which
is the standard
for good eyes, for a shortsighted
would
bring it closer to the eye, and
person
would
one
it. But this difference
remove
far-sighted
does not affect the reasoning,provided the regulating
distance be settled ; and no
be assigned
can
reason
for fixingon
than that of eight
any other distance
received
inches, the distance
by all authors who
have
treated of the subject. Thus, when
it is said*
that a microscope magnifies the object a hundred

eye

on

times, you
of such
times

if you

eight inches

idea of the

effect of

II." "

that, with

microscope, objects appear

greater than
of

VOL.

to understand

are

; and
a

viewed
thus

them
you

microscope.

the
a

ance
assist-

hundred

at

will form

the

tance
dis-

just

802

OBJECTS

THROUGH

VIEWED

general,a microscope magnifies as many times

viewed
as
an
larger than if it were
object appears
of eight
the aid of the glass at the distance
without
will readily admit
that
the effect is
You
inches.
to
a
even
surprising,if an object is made
appear
In

hundred

it would

greater than

times

of eight inches
: but
eye at the distance
farther ; and microscopes
much
carried
which
constructed
magnify five hundred

thing

incredible.

almost

In such

that

naked

it has

been

have

been

times

"

it

might be
fly appears

case

leg of a
greater than that of an elephant. Nay, I have full
it is possible to construct
that
conviction
scopes
microcapable of magnifying one thousand, or even
truth

with

the

undoubtedly
hitherto

that

affirmed

it is

when

would

things

of many

discovery

But

the

times, which

thousand

two
to

affirmed

the

to

unknown.

object

an

lead

16
'

the

microscope
through
appears
viewed
times
greater than when
of eight inches, it is to
tance
that

in length
each

the
in

as

breadth

dimensions

of these

times

You

greater.

conceive

the

at

another

is

the dis-"

at

be

stood
under-

a hundred
appears
have
only, then, to

of

inches

eight

but whose
first,

to the

times

hundred

magnified as much
and
depth, so that

distance

object similar

length

is

object

hundred

greater,

well

as

depth, and such will be

the image viewed
through the microscope.
Now, if the length, the breadth, and depth
of an
times
object be a hundred
greater
fthan those of another, you will easily per'ceive that the whole
will be much
extent
as

its breadth

than

more

order
us

and
the

to

put

and

hundred
this

in

times
the

greater.

clearest

parallelograms A
E F G H, Fig. 160, of the same
A B, shall be
length of the first,

conceive

two

In

light,let
B

D,

breadth, but
five times

that

greater

than

the

the

area,

length

of the

in fact

other,

it is evident

the

contained

that

that

first,is five
in the other, as

in

last is contained

this

contained

or

space
greater than

times

303

MICROSCOPE.

THE

in the

five times

first.

render, then, the parallelogram A D five times

greater than the parallelogram E H, it is sufficient
that its length A B be five times
greater, the breadth
were
if,besides, the breadth
being the same
; and
five
likewise
become
five times
greater, it would
five times, or
times
ttfat is, five times
greater still,
surfaces,
twenty-five times
greater. Thus, of two
To

if

the

be

one

broader

times

five

the other, it is in fact

than

and

longer

times

five

twenty-five times

greater.
If

take, further,the

we

account, the increase

apartments,
longer, five times
than

other

the

times,

that

it is said

which
and

broader,
its contents

times

is, 125

that

of

one

times

five

times

higher

five times

be

When,

greater.

the

Conceive

is

five

will

into

depth

or

will be still greater.

the

two

height

25

therefore,

microscope magnifies 100 times, as

this is to be understood, not only of length, but of
breadth, and depth, or thickness, that is, of three
extent
of the object will be
dimensions, the whole
increased

100

times

make

make
100

times

times

100

100

now

again 100 times

a microscope
1,000,000 ; thus, when
magnifies
the
whole
extent
of
the
times,
object is represented
selves,
1,000,000 times
satisfy ourgreater. We
100

10,000, which

times;

100

with

however,

magnifies
all the

100

three

times

taken

saying
but

that

it is to be

dimensions,

namely,

the

microscope

understood

that

length, breadth,

and

depth, are represented 100 times greater. If,

then, a microscope should
magnify 1000 times, the
whole
of the
extent
become
1000
object would
times

1000

times

1,000,000,000,
effect!

or

1000
a

times

thousand

This

remark

greater, which
millions
is

most

necessary

makes
ishing
astonto

the

304

PLAN

formation

of

is said

of what

just idea

MICROSCOPES.

SIMPLE

OF

respecting

of microscopes.*
power
23d January, 1762.

the

LXXXVI.

LETTER

the Construction
of Simple
Propositionfor
Simple Microscopes.
Microscopes. Plan of some

Fundamental

explained in

HAVING

what

we

manner

enabled

are

of microscopes, it will be easy

of the power
unfold
the fundamental
struction
principle for the con-

judge

to
to

be

And

simple microscopes.

of

remark, that

to

necessary

there

here

it may
kinds
two

are

of

single lens,
of two
others
named, accordingly,simple
or
more,
require paror
compound microscopes, and which
ticular
I shall confine
elucidations.
myself at present
which
consists
of a
to the
simple microscope,
lens, the effect of which is determined
singleconvex
by the following proposition: A simple microscope
times as its focal distance is nearer
magnifiesas many
follows.
demonstration
The
than eight inches.
Let M N, Fig. 161, be a conjvg-.161.
of

microscopes

vex

lens, whose

at which

be

see

eye may
shall be C O

perceived

eye,

As

the

as

it is in

it may

ought

be
to

this

under

inches, it would

must

be

o|

distinctly,
object will
the angle

appear
distance

realityonly
questioned

that

if it be viewed

But

smaller

it

distance, p^

nearly,in order

the

OOP.

focal

object 0

the

placed

be

consisting

some

at the

under
of

the surface
whether

estimated

at

an

angle as

eight
of bodies

the

distance
many

inches
that is

magnifying

thus, if it magnify 100 times in

times greater tb.au to the naked
eye.

"

Am.

Ed.

eight
times

surpasses
presented

power

higher rate than that

length, the object will

of

of

to

the

of

scope
a micro-

the

square

appear

10,000

the distance

O:

many
distance

the

305

MICROSCOPES.

object will

greater than

times

as

SIMPLE

OF

PLAN

appear, therefore,
if it were
viewed
at the

Now, in conformity to
eight inches.
the rule already established, a microscope magnifies
times as it presents the object greater than
as
many
of eight inches.
if we
viewed
it at the
distance
Consequently, a microscope magnifies as many
is less than eight inches.
times
its focal distance
as
of

lens, therefore, whose

focal

distance

magnify preciselyeight times

focal distance
is only half an inch

will

times.
called
lines

lines

The

inch

half

an

line

twelve

distance

accordingto

of the lens

the

parts,

lens

convex

six

whose

focal

given

following

4
192

lines,
times.

distance

and

magnifies ninety-sixtimes;

how

in lines.

12, 8, 6, 4, 3, 2, 1,
8, 12, 16, 24, 32, 48, 96,

magnifies
a

into

to determine
easy
focal distance
is
lens, whose

Focal

teen
six-

magnify

be

times every
many
in lines,must
magnify ;
table :"

Thus

lens whose

will

inch

an

inch, accordingly, contains

it would

hence

is divided

; and

is

is

one

if the distance

dred
line,the microscope will magnify one hunthat is,near
and ninety-two,
hundred
two
times.
Were
greater effect still to be desired,lenses must

be half

constructed

be
has

been
a

of

lens

of any
certain
the radius
to make

distance,

equally convex
to place before
No.

inch,

lenses

both

that

in

Now,

order

to

it

struct
con-

given focus, it is only

of each
face equal to
the

sides.

lens

Fig. 162,
microscopes :
you,

or

I. The
or

on

so

focus.*

that

already remarked,

necessary
that focal

these

still smaller

now

the

become

may

proceed, then,
form

of

of

some

"

focal distance

twelve

lines.

This

of

this lens A

is

one

microscope, therefore,

magnifies eight times.

*

Lenses

one-fiftieth

have

of

been
an

ground and polished having only a

inch, consequently their magnifying

times. -Ed.

Cc2

focal
power

length of
is 400

306

PLAN

II. The

No.
lens

OF

MICROSCOPES.

distance

is

III. The
M

scope
No.

focal

eight lines.
magnifies twelve

scope
No.
lens

SIMPLE

focal

of

This

"

distance

magnifies

sixteen

times.

lens is four

lines ; and

scope
No.

magnifies twenty-four

three

lines.

V.

focal

The

This

micro-

distance
such
distance

VI.
lines.

two

The

of
a

No.

VII.

y**^

^v^

this

'o~l^_

micro-

times.
here

is

H)
distance

here

is

;fcp

^^

microscope magnifies

^^

forty-eighttimes.
The

Ji

fies
microscope magni-

focal

This

"
r

thirty-two times.
No.

"

of the

This

focal

-rfl
jb-

'.

162.

M"*^

times.

lines.

The

Fig.

micro-

is six

IV.

the

focal

distance

of

this

only one line ; and such a microscope magnifies

times.
ninety-six
It is possible to construct
microscopes still much
smaller.
They are
actually executed, and much
considerable
effects are
it
more
produced ; whence

lens

is

carefullyremarked, that the distance of the

smaller
and
smaller,
object from the glass becomes
be
it must
as
nearly equal to the focal distance of
I say nearly,as every
the lens.
eye brings the glass
closer to it somewhat
more
or
less, according to its
formation
; the short-sightedapply it closer, the farYou
perceive, then, that the effect
sighted less so.
is greater as the microscope or lens becomes
smaller,
be applied:
and the closer likewise
the object must
this is a very great inconvenience, for, on
the one
to look
hand, it is troublesome
through a glass so
the
the object
other, because
very small ; and, on
be placed so
the eye.
must
near
Attempts have
to remedy this inconvenience
been made
by a proper
facilitate
of it ; but the
the use
mounting, which may
vision of the object is considerablydisturbed
soon
as
of it undergoes the slightestchange :
the distance
as
of a very small lens the object must
and as in the case

must

be

308

DEFECTS

of the

lens

figure.
effect

represented

Hence

we

to

mean

lens, as well
O

it is

applied behind
smaller

order

to

it

lens

almost

the

greater
be

must

the

lens, while

the

eye is
be made

to

were

the

object

described,

now

times, it would

hundred

two

preceding

at which

I have

what

magnify

the

if the

and

than

the

smaller

the

produce,

of the

evident, that

placed before

twice

VII.

in No.

the focal distance

as

be

must

OF

in

come
be-

require a microscope
be necesthe lens itself; besides, it would
to
see
sary
close
almost
the
to approach so
to touch
as
be
lens, which, as I have already observed, would
The
effect of the microscope,
inconvenient.
very
dred
therefore, could hardly be carried beyond two hunis by no
sufficient for the
times ; which
means
of the minuter
productions
investigation of many
minute

so

of

as

The

nature.

purest

which,
times, still appear
be necessary
of a rat; and

small

contains

water

and

their appearance
far from reaching this

to

magnify

to

croscope
mi-

would

times

magnify 20,000

malcules,
ani-

hundred

though magnified two

no
bigger than fleas ;

should

which

to

the size

degree, even
of the compound
with the assistance
microscope.*
But besides
the inconveniences
attending the use
been
have
which
of simple microscopes
already
pointed out, all those who employ them with a view
able
considerto very
great effect complain of another
the more
that objects are
defect; it is this
obscure
they appear ; they seem
magnified, the more
if viewed
in a very faint light or by moonlight, so
as
that you
can
hardly distinguish any thing clearly.
lect
You
will not
be surprised at this, when
you recolthan
is more
that the light of the full moon
we

are

"

thousand

hundred

two

times

fainter

than

of the

that

sun.

It is
*

of

It is not

much
probable

importance, therefore, to
that

perfectlypure

water

the

slow

and

that is, water

contains

careful

prepared by
cnlae,
tresh rain-water, and preservedin close vessels.
"

"

Am.

explain
any

animal-

distillation of clear
Ed.

THE

whence

SIMPLE

309

MICROSCOPE.

of

this diminution

lightproceeds.

We

can

easily comprehend, that if the rays which

proceed
from
small object must
a very
represent it to us as
if it were
much
larger,this small quantity of light
would

be

not

But

sufficient.

however

well

founded

it wants
solidity,and
reasoning may
appear,
throws
only a false light on the question. For if
the lens, as it proceeded in magnifying, necessarily
wise
likeof clearness, this must
produced a diminution
this

effects, even
perceptible in the smallest
not to so high a degree ; but you
supposing it were
perceiving
magnify up to fiftytimes, without
may
the least apparent diminution
of light,which, however,
ought to be fiftytimes fainter,if the reasons
adduced
were
just. We must look elsewhere, then,
for the cause
of this phenomenon,' and
resort
even
to the first principles of vision.
be

I must

entreat

then,

you,

to recollect

already suggested respecting

that black

aperture which

middle

the

the

of

iris.

It is

the

we

what

through

this

eye

We

here

must

consider

at the

aperture

admitted
into the eye
rays of light are
the larger this aperture is,the more

admitted.

pupil,or

ot the

use

in the

see

I have

two

that

ingly,
; accordrays
cases

are

in.

which

and brilliant,
and
objects are very luminous
in which
they are illuminated
by only a very faint
the pupil contracts
without
of itself,
light. In the first,
on

has bestowed
any act of the will ; and the Creator
it this facultyin order to preserve
the interior of

the

the too dazzling effect of light,which

eye from
would
fore,
Whenever, thereinjurethe nerves.
infallibly
we

are

observe

that

exposed to a
the pupil of

powerful light,we

very
every

eye

prevent the admission

of

than

paint in it an

are

in the

admit

is

the

more

rays

into the

eye

image sufficiently
we
contrary takes place when
dark; the pupil in that case
expands, to
lightin a greater quantity. This change

necessary
the
luminous.
But
are

any

contracts, to

to

easilyperceptibleevery

time

we

pass

from

dark

310
to

DEFECTS

luminous

before
the

OF

SIMPLE

situation.

rays

more

luminous

retina

and

which

of

myself
light are

admitted

image

the
reciprocally,
the

eye,

to the

subject
circumstance, that

respect

to this

will be the

enter

MICROSCOPE.

With

us, 1 confine

more

rays

THE

into

the

eye, the
transmitted
to the

smaller

the

quantity of

fainter does

the

the

image

obscure
does
become, and, consequently, the more
it appear.
It may
happen, that though the pupil is
mitted
abundantly expanded, a few rays only shall be adYou
have only to prick a little
into the eye.
hole

in

the

with

it ; and

through

by

card

sun,

pin, and

then, however

the

object

will

look

at

object

an

strongly illuminated
in

dark

appear

tion
propor-

aperture is small ; nay, it is possible to

look
at the
sun
itself,employing this precaution.
The
is obvious, a few rays only are admitted
reason
into the eye ; however
expanded the pupil may be,
as? the

pin-hole in the card determines

the eye, and not
enters
light which
usually performs that function.
The
same
thing takes place in
the

which

magnify

much

very

few

small, a very
asm

the

Fig. 165,

n,

much

so

that

place only

the
the

only

microscopes
the

; for when

rays

quantity of
pupil,which

are

lens

is

tremely
ex-

transmitted,

being smaller than

pig. 155.
make
the
object
pupil,

which

aperture of the

appear
evident

the

obscure

more

the

when

lens

lighttakes

of

this diminution
M

it is

hence

N,

or

rather

its open,

possible
part, is smaller than the pupil. If it were
of a
to produce a great magnifying effect,by means
take
not
place ;
greater lens, this obscurity would
and

is the

this

true

of

solution

the

question.

In

this inconvenience
in the great
remedy
is taken
nate
to illumieffects of the microscope, care
the object as strongly as possible,to give greater

order

force

to

To

eye.
sun

the

to

few

rays
this effect

itself; mirrors

reflect

on

them

the

which

objects
likev/ise

light of

are

conveyed

into

the

are

illuminated

by

the

are

the

employed,
sun.

These

which
are

ON

all the

nearly

311

TELESCOPES.

circumstances

be

to

simple microscope,
easily form a judgment of the
the

will
which

3CM

have

may

you

January,

occasion

and

by

specting
re-

these

you
effect of all those

inspect.*

to

1762.

LETTER

LXXXVIII.

Telescopes,and

On

considered

their

Effect.

of
proceed to explain the construction
microscopes, a digression respecting the
compound
two
perhaps be acceptable. These
telescope may
intimate
have
instruments
a
connexion; the
very
of the other.
As
one
greatly assists the elucidation
to aid us in contemplating nearer
microscopes serve
objects,by representing them under a much
greater
viewed
at a certain
distance, say
angle than when
eightinches ; so the telescope is employed to assist
of very
distant
observation
our
objects, by representing
under
that which
them
a greater angle than
Instruments
of this
they present to the naked
eye.
known
sort are
according to their
by several names,
be carefullydistinguished
size and use
; but they must
from
the glasses used by aged persons
to relieve the
decay of sight.
times
it repreA telescope magnifies as
as
many
sents
under
than
is
an
angle greater
objects
sented
prenaked
The
for example,
to the
moon,
eye.
to the naked
an
angle of half a
appears
eye under
degree ; consequently, a telescope magnifies 100 times
under
when
it represents the moon
an
angle of fifty
is 100 times
degrees, which
greater than half a deI

BEFORE

For

the reader
vol.

xv.

For

an

of various

account

is referred

to

the

improvements

article

p. 631, and Ferguson's

still later improve/rents,

Transactions,

for

May,

1830."

on

the

single microscope,
Encyclopaedia,

Optics, in the Edinburgh

Lectures, vol. ii.p. 294."

Am.

see

Ed.

paper

by

Dr.

Ed.

Roget,

in

Phil,

312

TELESCOPES,

ON

If it magnified 200 times, it would

gree.
the moon
hundred
under
an
angle of one
and

the

than
is

half of the

only

in that

would

moon

visible

represent

degrees ;

to fillmore
appear
whole
whose
extent

case

heavens,

degrees.*
common
language, we
say that the telescope
This
is a very equito us.
brings the object nearer
vocal
mode
of two different
of expression, and admits
significations. The one, that on looking through a
consider
the object as
times
telescope, we
many
it is magnified.
But
I have
nearer
as
marked,
already rethat it is impossible to know
the distance
of
and that
such
objects but by actual measurement,
be
measurement
can
applied only to objects not
remote
so
greatly remote
; when, therefore,they are
is here supposed, the estimation
of distance
as
might
other
which
The
us.
greatly mislead
signification,
the idea that telescopes represent objects as
conveys
if we
approached nearer
great as they would
appear
180

In

them, is

to

that

the

becomes

conformable

more

nearer

we

come

to truth.

You

know

object, the greater

to any

the

which
it appears;
this
angle under
explanation,accordingly, reverts to that with which
I set out.
When, however, we look at well-known
objects,say men, at a great distance, and view them
through a telescope under a much
greater angle, we
led
such
be
to
to
a great deal nearer,
are
men
imagine
as

in that

an

angle

case

them
under
would, in effect,see
jects
greater. But in examining ob-

we

much

so

less approachable, such

of

measurement

no

is

case

entirelydifferent

submitted
*

The

of the

end
the

magnifying
object-glass,and

of the

to you,
power
that

from

take

can

and

sun

that of

is ascertained

moon,

place.

that which

This

I have

merly
for-

lens, em-

concave

by measuring

of the little image of it which

the
these
will
eye-piece ;
proportion between

magnifying

When

distance

the

as

the

aperture

is formed

give

at

the ratio

the

of

power.

single lenses

are

used, the

power

of

glass

by dividing the focal length of the object-glassbv

Ed.
Am.

is

readilydiscovered
eye-glass.

that of the

"

AND

the

THEIR

313

EFFECT.

near-sighted
persons,

by
images

small

represents

distance.

The
very
I use, for example, represents
lens which
to
concave
the images of all remote
me
objects at the distance
of four

imagine

of

which

objects at

; it is

inches

the

that

impossible for

sun,

and

moon,

me,
stars

however,
are

so

near

to
:

conclude
do not
that objects are
accordingly,we
where
their images are found representedby glasses ;
we

believe

objects in
there.

this
our

You

as

little

as

we

do the

existence

of

painted
eyes, though their images are
mation
will please to recollect, that the esti-

of the real distance

depends

on

and real

magnitude

of objects

particularcircumstances.

of telescopes,then, is to
principalpurpose
increase, or multiply,the angle under which
objects
division of
eye ; and the principal
appear to the naked
telescopes is estimated by the effect which they procure.
Accordingly, we say such a telescopemagnifies
five,another ten, another twenty, another thirty
here I remark, that pocketAnd
times, and so on.
glasses rarely magnify beyond ten times; but the
for examining very disusual telescopes employed
tant
terrestrial objects magnify from
twenty to thirty
to six feet or more.
times, and their length amounts
similar
with
A
effect,though very considerable
nothing with
regard to terrestrial objects,is a mere
require an
respect to the heavenly bodies, which
effect inconceivably
greater. We have, accordingly,
astronomical
50
telescopes which
magnify from
would
be difficult to go further,
to 200 times ; and it
mode
of constructing
as, according to the usual
them, the greater the effect is the longer they
become.
A telescopethat shall magnify 100 times
of 100 feet
be at least 30 feet long : and one
must
in length could
You
scarcely magnify 200 times.
of
be sensible, therefore, that the difficulty
must
pointing and managing such an unwieldy machine,
insurmountable
obstacles
must
to pushing
oppose
The
famous
the experiment further.
Hevelius, the
The

VOL.

II." D

314

POCKET-GLASSES.

OF

astronomer

at

feet

long ;

have

been

but

such

instruments
the

defective, as

very

discovered

now

This
and

is

of

much
shorter.
by instruments
brief general description of telescopes,

the

kinds

different

of

them, which

importance carefullyto remark,

detail of their

telescopes 200
must
undoubtedly
same
things are

Dantzic, employed

which

two

enter

we

construction, and of the

lenses

more

all the

produce
2d

or

before

different

it is of
in

manner

united,in

are

into

order

to

effects.

February, 1762.

LXXXIX.

LETTER

Of Pocket-glasses.
We

have

to whom

person
of the

we

telescope:

Italian of the

an

certain

no

it is almost

hundred

one

so

possible,without
to

or

farther from

and

first
the

To
much

were

of Porta.*

name

concave.

of

he

whether

lenses, of which

other

indebted

are

pocket-glasses were
two

information

pure

respectingthe
for the discovery
a Dutch
or
artist,
Whoever

fiftyyears

he was,
since small
of

constructed, composed
one

was

convex,

and

the

very
chance, perhaps,a disco-

It was
is to be ascribed.
utility
design, to place two lenses nearer
each other,tillthe object appeared

distinctly.
The

convex

If the

Leonard
mirrors

lens PAP,

Fig. 166
Fig. 166.

telescope was
Digges, they at

which

not

least

produced the

same

is directed

actually invented
constructed

effect.

"

by Roger

combinations
Ed.

towards

Bacon,

of lenses

or

and

316

POCKET-GLASSES.

OF

Pig. 167.

PQ,0 A,
object-glass
P Q, will be almost
parallelto each
other; accordingly,the object-glass,
lens,will collect
Q A Q, being a convex
fall on

which

the

F, so that these rays,

being convergent, will not suit a good
lens at B, having
But the concave
eye.
them

in its focus

the

of

power

rendering
of

divergent,or

more

the

rays
diminishingtheir

will refract the rays Q R,

that they shall become
parallel

convergency,

Q R,

so

to each

other

that

is,instead of

ing
meet-

in the

the
point F, they will assume
direction R S, R S, parallelto the axis
B F.
Thus
a good eye,
according to
which

of

construction

the

these

is

always regulated,on receiving these

parallelrays R S, B F, R S, will see
the object distinctly.The
R S, R S become
rays
the concave
exactly parallelto each other, because
lens has its focus, or rather its pointof dispersion,at F.
You
have
parallel
only to recollect, that when
lens, they become
divergent
rays fall on a concave
by refraction,so that being produced backward, they
This being laid down, we
have
in the focus.
meet
the rays
the case, and to consider
only to reverse
lens : in this case
S R, S R, as fallingon the concave
the directions
R Q,
it is certain they would
assume
in the
would
R Q, which
meet
produced backwards
focus of the convex
point F, which is the common
Now
it is a general law, that in
lenses.
and concave
whatever
from
the

manner

place to another, they

one

in

refractions

same

first.

refracted

are

rays

If, therefore,

correspond

to the

in their passage

always undergo

must

returningfrom

the

refracted

incident

rays

the last to the

R

rays

R,

Q, R
then,

the rays Q R, Q R, being the incident

the refracted rays will be R S and R S.
The

will

matter

still,when

sav

perhaps

that

concave

Q
ciprocally,
re-

ones,

in a clearer light
appear
lenses have the power

317

POCKET-GLASSES.

OF

the refraction,
those rays which, without
renderingparallel
would proceed to their focus. You will please
to attend to the following laws of refraction,
carefully
lenses.
and concave
which
apply to both convex
of

Fte. 168.
convex
a
By
lens, Fig. 168, parallel

1.

rendered

are

rays

convergent.

Fig.
Convergent
still

more

divergent

so,

less

169.

become

rays

Fig. 169,
divergent.

and

lens
concave
By a
rendered
parallelrays are
divergent. Fig. 170.
2.

come
rays bestill more
gent,
diver-

Divergent

Fig. 171,
convergent rays
convergent.

and
less

All this is founded

the nature

on

of refraction

the

figure of the lenses, the discussion

would
require a very long detail ; but the
which

1 have

laid

now

down

contain

and
of which

two

all that

essential.

It is

abundantly evident, then, that

the

and

the

that

convex

they acquire

concave
a

lenses

common

focus

are

at

rules

so

when

combined

F, they will

distinctlyrepresent distant objects, because

parallelismof the rays is restored by the concave
lens after the

convex

lens had

Dd2

rendered

is

them

the

con-

318

POWER

MAGNIFYING

OF

vergent. In other words, the rays

to each
objects,being nearly parallel

of very

distant
other, become

lens; and afterward, the

by a convex
lens destroys this convergency,
and again
concave
renders
the rays parallelto each other.
Qth February, 1762.
convergent

XC.

LETTER
On

the

magnifying Power

of Pocket-glasses.

THE

strumen
principalarticle respecting telescopicalinremains
stillto be explained,
namely, their
effect in magnifying objects. I hope to place this in
in which
to remove
so clear a lightas
every difficulty
the subject may
be involved; and for this purpose
I
shall comprise what
I have
to say in the following
propositions.
E
the
1. Let
object, Fig. 172.
e, Fig. 172, be
situated

on

the

axis

of

the

instrument,
_

which

through both
passes perpendicularly
lenses in their centres.
This
object E e
must

be considered

as

at

an

infinite distance.

If,then, the eye, placed at A, looks

at this
the
object, it will appear under
angle E A e, called its visual angle. It
to prove,
will,accordingly,be necessary
that on lookingat the same
object through
the glass it will appear
under
a
greater
times
angle, and exactly as many
greater
2.

the

as

PAP

focal

distance

exceeds

that

of the
of

object-glass
the
eye-glass

QBQ.
3. As

in

the

effect of all lenses

consists

representing the objects in another

place,and with a certain magnitude, we
have
the images which
only to examine
Siiall be successivelyrepresented by the

"

319

POCKET-GLASSES.

of which

lenses,the last
of the sight of

two
the

the

is the

immediate

who

person

looks

ject
ob-

through

instrument.

distant from
being infinitely
the convex
its image will be represented
lens PAP,
behind
the lens at F/, so that A F shall be equal to
the focal distance
of the lens ; and
the magnitude
of this image F / is determined
by the straightline
from
the extremity of the object e,
f A e, drawn
see
through the centre of the lens A, by which we
the

Now,

4.

that

this

smaller
than

object E

is

image

than

the

inverted, and
the distance

object as

the distance

E.

Again, this image F/ holds

to the eye-glassQ
object relatively

the

5.

which

fall

would

almost

in

their

that this

this

on

form
is

image

is the

same

lens
the

progress

times
many
A F is smaller

as

Q,

as

the

the

rays
which

preciselythose
image F/, but are intercepted
are

by the concave
only imaginary
if it

as

place of

were

lens
:

the

Q B Q

; so

ever,
effect,how-

real.

ing
considerare
now
image F /, which we
an
as
object being at the focal distance of the
lens Q B Q, will be transported almost
to infinity
The
by the refraction of this lens.
preceding figure
marks
this new
G
whose
at
distance A G
image
g,
6.

must

This

be conceived

second

direction

same

the

time

image

7. This

G g.
second

and the rays, refracted

infinite,
by the lens Q B Q, will pursue the

as

as

if

they actually proceeded

from

being, then, the object

of the person
who
looks through the instrument, its
To
this effect,
magnitude falls to be considered.
it is produced by the first image F/ from the
as
refraction
of the lens Q B Q, following the general
have
rule, we
only to draw through the centre of
shall pass through
the lens B a straightline, which
that line will
the point / of the first image, and
mark
at g the extremity of the second
image.
8. Let the
apply his eye to B
spectator now
and

as

the

image

rays which

G g

it receives

pursue

the

same

320

POWER

MAGNIFYING

direction

image

under
it will appear
to him
is greater than the angle E

g,

B g, which
which
the object E
In order

9.

from

they actually proceeded

if

as

OF

the

better

eye.

these

to

compare
it is evident, first,
that the angle E

angle

e, under

to the naked

appears

the

the

two

gles,
an-

is

equal

the

angle FA/,
being vertical angles; for the
the angle G B g- is equal to the angle
same
reason,
F B /, being vertical and opposite at the point B.
It remains
to be proved, therefore, that the angle
F B / exceeds
the angle F A / as many
times
as
to

the line A

which,
and

In

order

there

N.

Let

11.

tors, M

radius

and

now

it is demonstrated
of

and

to each

and

angle
than

and

is

the

greater
c

have

the
that

have

that

between

two

angle
than

sidered
con-

two

sec-

radii

each

other ;
ments
in the ele-

angles
proportion

same

the

arches

IV

in other

as

Pig.'173.

that the

geometry,

other
n

recollect

circle,

whose

equal to

are

be

of the

men,

C M

will

circum-

to

consider

and

have

quantity of
angle M C N.

The

; 2.

now

must

glass.
eye-

sector, then,

; 3. The

us

this,we

of

object-glass,
of the

distance

You

of the

things

1. The

or

the arch

In

three

are

of the

former

ing
geometricalpropositionsrespect-

portion

the

part of a circle contained

C N, Fig. 173, and
and

or

ference

focal

/;

is

arch

an

the

of sectors.

nature

sector

radii

demonstrate

to

to certain

the

line

the

other, B F,

recourse

the

exceeds

F, is the focal distance

the

10.

words, the
times
greater

many
c,

the

as

the arch

arch

is

but, instead

of this ward
awkmode
of expression,we
say that the angles C
are
proportional to the arches M N and m n,

the radii

being equal

321

POCKET-GLASSES.

Let

12.

and

angles

and

other,

each

whose

Fig. 174,

men,

are

equal

the

radii

but

p-

1?4

to

equal
un-

it is demonstrated
in geometry, that the arch M N
times greater than
is as many
the arch m n, as the radius CM7
:

sectors, M

two

consider

likewise

us

and

%L

\/c

is greater than the radius c m ;

or, in geometrical language,
are

in

being equal.

The

the

arches

contains

as

of

times

many
smaller.

degrees

many

Finally,let

13.

when,

in

as

the

as

the

us

as

the
the

greater;

portion as
c

is

as

angle C

the
and

N
are

the

case

men,

Fig.

un-

one

175.

responds
cor-

greater radius C M, is
smaller

and

radius

this in the

the radii.

times
many
the radius
as

or, to

cm-,

small

likewise

consider

smaller, and the angle c, which

to the

grees
the de-

exceeds

radius

Fig. 175, the arches M N and m

equal; but the radii C M and c
equal.
In this case, the angle C, which
to the

of

those

sectors

and

angle ;

its

greater

two

arch

obvious, for every

exceed

great circle

as

is

reason

radii,the angles

the

proportionto

That

responds
corc

is

m,

same

pro-

is,the

angle

greater than the

C M is greater than

the radius

ciprocally
speak geometrically,the angles are reproportional to the radii,the arches being

equal.
This

last

forward
to
propositioncarries me
conclusion, after I have subjoined this remark,
my
the angles are
that when
very small, as in the case
of pocket-glasses,
there is no sensible difference in
14.

the

chords

of the

arches

and

n, that

is,of

straightlines M N and m n.
this remark, we
15. Having made
return to Fig. 172
(p.318). The trianglesF A / and F B / may be

the

322

DEFECTS

considered

OF

POCKET-GLASSES.

sectors, in which

as

the

arch

is the

F/

in both.

ceeds
Consequently, the angle F B / exthe angle F A / as often as the distance
A F
exceeds
B F.
the distance
That
is, the object E e
will appear
under
an
through the instrument
pngle
same

as

times

many

greater

object-glassA F exceeds
eye-glass B F, which was
9th

focal distance

the

as

focal

the
the

thing

be

to

the

strated.
demon-

XCI.

Defectsof Pocket-glasses. Of
You
has

of

distance

February, 1762.

LETTER

to be

of the

be

must

expected

sensible
from

that

such

apparent Field.

great advantage

no

small

remarked

already been

the

instruments

that

they

do

is

and

not

it

nify
mag-

Were
the effect to be
objects above ten times.
carried
the length .become
further, not only would
about
too great to admit
of their being carried
in
the

pocket,

and

but

they

essential

more

This

defects.

entirely to lay aside glasses

superior effect is required.
The
principal of these defects
of

the

apparent field

and

subject to

become

would

has

other

induced

ists
art-

of this

sort, when

is the

smallness

this leads

me

to

explain

of

telescopes
every
is
directed
towards
When
a
telescope
description.
the heavens, or to very distant objects on the earth,
the space
in the figure of a cirdiscovered
cle,
appears
included
and we
those objects only which
are
see
an

important

in

that

other

space;

so

objects,the

be

altered.

eye

of the

field,or,
and

article relative

it is

This

to

wished
if you
to examine
must
position of the instrument
that

circular

space,
is denominated

presented

to

the

the apparent
spectator,
in one
word, the field of the instrument
;

abundantlyobvious, that

it must

be

great

324

DEFECTS

POCKET-GLASSES.

OF

P
extremities
the
P
Drawing, therefore, from
the straightlines P C, P C, the angle PGP
will
the diameter
of the
apparent field; and
express
the half of this angle, O C P, is denominated
the
semi-diameter

of

the
will

You
when

meaning, then,
the

of

it is said that the

another

which

make

times

; it is

could

not

degrees,

by minutes,

is

and

the

30

as

of
gree,
de-

one

so

strument
in-

on;

as

minutes,

degree, or 15 minutes, which

the fourth part of a degree.
make
of the value
But in order to form
a rightjudgment
of a telescope, with
respect to the apparent field,
likewise
attend
to the magnifying power
must
we
in general,
of the instrument.
It may
be remarked
that the more
a telescope magnifies, the smaller, of
necessity,must be the apparent field ; these are the
which
herself
has prescribed. Let
bounds
nature
instrument
which
should magnify 100
an
us
suppose

this

as

would

half

an

diameter

instrument

an

two

it is marked

also when

such

perfectly comprehend

apparent field of such

that

field of

apparent

evident

that

possibly be

space
resemble

would
a

only

180

as

than
and

of which
that

"

From
degrees in diameter.
magnifies 100
telescope which

the field

degrees

for,

greater, it

degrees

whole

extremity

one

at once,

the

of 90
a

two

times
100
appear
of two
hundred
space

degrees,

but the half at most

of

diameter

much

so

greater, of consequence,
heavens, which, from the
contain

the

visible

to the
we

other,

can

see

is,a circular space

this you see,
could
times

that
not

degree ; for this

than
give more
degree multiplied 100 times would
90 degrees ; and that, accordingly,a telescope which
ter
magnified 100 times would be excellent,if the diamesomewhat
less than one
of its field were
degree ;
contain

and
of

the
a

But
10

field of

very

so

nature

much

as

of the

one

instrument

admits

not

greater effect.
another

times

would

telescope
be

which

should

magnify only

extremely defective,

if it di"-

DEFECTS

325

POCKET-GLASSES.

OF

only one degree in diameter ; as

this field magnified 10 times would
give a space of
than
10 degrees in the heavens, which
more
no
would
be a small
matter, by setting too narrow
bounds
should have good reason,
view.
We
to our
then, to rejectsuch an instrument
altogether. Thus
covered

field of

it would

be very
field,to form a
fectiveness
effect

with

easy,

judgment

of the

de-

or

sort, when

consideration.

into

apparent

excellence

of this

of instruments

is taken

to the

respect

the

when

For

it

fairlybe conjectured
that it discovers
9 degrees
a field of 9 degrees ; as
taken
10 times
our
give 90 degrees, a space which
sight is capable of embracing : and if the diameter
of its field were
only 5 degrees or less,this would
be an
instrument
defective
indeed.
Now, I
very
magnifies only

10

shall

to

be

able

to

be

were

be

demonstrate,
such

constructed

which
it would

times, it may

should

defect

if

been

scribing,
de-

times,
the apparent field
than

more
:

10

would

the

multipliedby

telescope

I have

as

magnify
this

liable to

that

be

magnifying power
considerablyunder 90 degrees, and

would

not

show

effect

is aimed

the

half.

at, this defect

contains

25

is not

little

When,

more

13th

diameter

degree,

small

sensible

than

12

taken

; for

if such

I shall afterward

VOL. II." E

wished

even

an

strument
in-

of its
times
have

magnify
field would
be only
would
25 times
give

we

degrees, which
would
magnify

arrangement

February,1762.

but if

of the

which

therefore,we

different
which

so

satisfied

to be

times, the

half

when

magnifies only 5 times, the diameter

about
4 degrees, which
magnified 5
of 20 degrees, with which
a space
we

field is

reason

But

very

of lenses

must

explain.

to

is

too

little.

much, a
very
be employed,

326

DETERMINATION

OF

THE

LETTER

Determination

of

ascertain

the

To

XCII.

the apparent Field

Glasses.

proceed

the

to

construction

application

I have

glasses which

field

apparent

great importance in the

I

APPARENT

of

for

Pocket-

being of very
of telescopes,

it

the

to

small

been

describing.
The lens PAP,
Fig. 172 (p.318),is the object-glass,
Q B Q the eye-glass,and the straightline E F the axis

is seen, at a very great

instrument, in which
distance, through the instrument, the object E e,
the angle E A e, which
under
represents the semiof the apparent
diameter
field, for it extends
as
of

far

the

the

on

side

other

downwards.

The

of the space
seen
then, is the centre
instrument, the radius of which, E A,
both

perpendicularlythrough
refraction; and
the

on

be

that

the

line B

the

and

this

eye must
instrument

ray
may
be fixed
B

no

have
where
some-

F, behind

of the

centre

this

it passes

as

lenses, undergoes

that

eye, the
axis of the

eye-glass, so
in

order

into the

admission
the

in

point E,
through the

is

pupil shall
general rule for

consider
species of telescope. Let us now
every
the visible extremity of the object e, whose
rays
whole
fill
the
of
the
opening
exactly
object-glass

PAP;

but

it will be sufficient

passes
ray E A, which
object-glass A, as the
than
more
strengthen
into

to attend

through
others

the

only

centre

surround, and

to the

of the
little

this ray : so that if it is admitted

the others, or at least a considerable

the

eye,
of
them, find admission
likewise ; and
part
if this ray is not admitted
into the eye, though perhaps
of
the
others
some
too
enter, they are
may

feeble to excite

an

impression sufficiently
powerful.

FIELD

Hence

this may
e of the

be laid down

rule, that the

as

object is seen
only so
having passed through the

A, after

admitted
We

327

POCKET-GLASSES.

FOR

far

the

as

ray
lenses, is

two

into the

eye.
therefore

must

of
centre

carefullyexamine

the

tion
direc-

this ray e A.
Now, as it passes through the
tion
of the object-glassA, it undergoes no refrac-

conformably to the rule laid down

beginning, that rays passing through the

from

lens

any

tremity
ex-

whatever

that

is,undergo

therefore, after

glass,would

This

refraction.

no

in the

continue

tion,
direc-

ray,

the

having passed through

A,

object-

direction, to

same

of

centre

their

from

diverted

not

are

the

meet

point e, to the
issuing from the same
point/
image represented by the object-glass
at F/, the
point / being the image of the point e
of the object ; but the ray meeting at m, the concave
the

other

rays
of the

in its centre, will be diverted

that
from
instead
direction
of terminating in /, will assume
; and
the direction
m
divergent from B F, it
n, more

lens, but

not

being the natural

rays always more
this

of

effect

lenses

concave

In order

divergent.

to

to render

ascertain

please to recollect
that, the object-glass represents the object E e in an
inverted
position at F/, so that A F is equal to the
focal distance
ject
of this lens, which
transports the obE e to F/.
Then
this image F/ occupies the
place of the object with respect to the eye-glass
Q B Q, which, in its turn, transports that image to
direction

new

distance
g, whose
of the object itself:
G

to

the

to the

through

other

and

be

must

for

this

as

great

effect,it

as

is

that

sary
neces-

that
eye-glass in such a manner
B F shall be equal to its focal distance.
magnitude of these images, the first F/
from
by the straightline e A/, drawn

is determined
e

will

the

place

interval

As

n, you

the

by

centre

the

point / through

of

the

first lens

straight line/B
the

centre

of

"", drawn

the

; and

the

from

the

second

lens.

328

APPARENT

This

FOR

POCKET-GLASSES.

being laid down, the ray A m directed towards

tion
point f is refracted, and proceeds in the directhis line m
wards,
backm
n
; and
n, being produced
will pass through the point g, for m n has the
if it actually proceeded
effect in the eye
as
the point g.
ther
Now, as this line m n retires far-

the

same

from

from

farther

and
of

FIELD

the

axis B F, where

the

into the
enter
pupil is, it cannot
the opening of the pupil extends
far
so
reduced
opening of the pupil were
the

the

ray

the

point

even

would

of

be

nothing

not
object could
point of the object

would
the

except

from

the

any other
F.
There
would,

and

excluded

therefore, be
be

and

eye,

visible,
the

nor

axis

apparent field,

ment
through such an instrusingle point E of the object, which
seen

is in its axis.
of this sort

nothing,

to

of

out

no

eye, unless
if the
; and

the
be

centre

It is evident, then, that

discovers
field but as far
no

expands ; so that in proportion

the pupil is greater or
less, so

as

telescope
the pupil
as
expansion of

the

likewise

the

rent
appa-

field is great or small.

the point e
In this case
be still visible
will therefore
to the eye if the small
interval
half the diameter
B m
does
exceed
of
not
the

find admission
eye, that the ray m n may
but in this case,
be
likewise, the eye must
close
as
as
possible to the eye-glass : for as
m

pupil
Now
which

from

removes

at

the axis

B, it would

into it ;

brought
the ray

escape

the

greater distance.

it is easy to determine
would
such
instrument
an

the

apparent

discover

on

field
the

eye-glass : you have

only to take the interval B m
of the pupil,and to draw
equal to the semi-diameter
of the objectthrough that point m, and the centre
glass A, the straight line m A e ; then this line will
mark
the object the extremity e, which
will be
on
still visible through the
instrument, and the angle
E A e will give the semi-diameter
of the apparent
will easilyjudge, that whenever
field. Hence
you

ASTRONOMICAL

the

distance

of the lenses

the

angle

the

line

the distance

or

part of

inch.

an

become

considerable, and
the apparent field

that

small.

The

have

to

if it

the

of

about

the

lenses

consequence
become

must

tieth
twen-

intended

were

of the

distance
the

some

to

must

would

extremely

human

eye, then, sets

and obliges
to telescopes of this description,

bounds
us

is but

Now

very

be

inches,
extremely small, as

magnify

much,

exceeds

become

must

329

TELESCOPES.

structure

to others

recourse

whenever

the

want

we

of

different

produce

to

tion
construc-

considerable

very

effects.
L6th

February, 1762.

Astronomical

LETTER

XCIII.

and
Telescopes,

their

the

to

PROCEED

second

called

astronomical, and
of only two
lenses, like
with this difference,that

of

those

of

that
the

telescopes,

they
first

in the construction

telescopes,instead of a concave
one.
employ a convex
The
object-glassPAP,
Fig. 177, is,as

we

Fig.

the

on

same

that

manner

same

the

axis

smaller

its focus

point F.
distance

Then
0

shall

being

shall

placing
Ee

species

of astronomical

eye-glass,
in the other

F,

at

lens

convex

be

consist

177.

focus

whose

species,convex,
a

species

remark,

Power.

magnifying

Q Q, in such

likewise
the

eye

at

nearly equal
2

place,

we

fall

on

the

0,

so

that

to the

focal

330

ASTRONOMICAL

distance

of the

and
distinctly,
of the

distance

eye-glass B
object will
every
house, the
be

which

we

it is to

but

to be

in

and

this

species

to know

astronomer

objects,

situation,the

of

that what

he

sees

the

telescopes is confined to
heavenly bodies, it being a matter of indifference
direction
what
they appear ; it is sufficient to
of

use

so

circumstance

terrestrial

inverted

an

that

position ;
pointed towards

this

viewing
in

see

never

remarked

undermost,

appear
As
uppermost.

awkward

be

inverted

an

would

roof

ground-floor
would

in
appear
instrument
were

if the

AND

eye-glass Q Q, you will see objects

times
the focal
as
magnified as many
object-glassA F shall exceed that of

the

that

TELESCOPES,

the
in
the

uppermost

is

ever,
reallyundermost, and reciprocally. Nothing, howforbids the applicationof such telescopes to terrestrial
becomes
accustomed
objects ; the eye soon
to the inverted
position,provided the object is seen
and very much
magnified.
distinctly,
Having given this description,three things fall to
be demonstrated
that by this arrangement
of
: first,
'the lenses objects must
distinctly; secondly,
appear
times
that they must
as
magnified as many
appear
the focal distance
of the object-glass exceeds
that
in an
of the eye-glass, and
inverted
position; and
thirdly,that the eye must not be appliedclose to the
eye-glass,as in the first species,but must be removed
of the ocular.
to nearly the focal distance
1.

As

to

the

first,it is demonstrated

in the

same

in the

preceding case : the rays e P, e P,

which
are
parallelbefore they enter into the objectglass, meet by refraction in the focus of this lens at
F ; the eye-glass must, of course,
the paralrestore
lelism

manner

as

of
that

the

these

rays,

and

distinct
from

vision

requires
point should
they enter the

proceeding
every
be nearly parallelto each other when
Now, the eye-glass, having its focus at F, is
eye.
to render
the rays F M,
as
placed in such a manner
F M, by the refraction,parallel,and
consequently
rays

332

OF

THE

APPARENT

FIELD,

AND

then, the radii of these two sectors are the lines A E

and
B F, the arches
being equal to each other, it
follows, as was
formerly demonstrated, that the

angles FA/

(or,which

is the

thing, E
thing, G B g)

same

e)

have
B/(or, which is the same
the same
proportion to each other that the radii
B F and
A F have.
Therefore, the angle G B g,
the object is seen
which
under
through the telescope,
the angle E A e, under
times exceeds
which
as
many
the object is seen
by the naked eye, as the line A F
the line B F ; which
exceeds
the second
was
point
I am
under
the necessityof
to be demonstrated.
of my
third proposition
deferringthe demonstration
till next post.
February, 1762.
and

LETTER

Of

the apparent

Field,and

XCIV.

the Place

of the Eye.

IN

fulfilling
respectingthe third
engagement
my
the place
particularproposed, namely, to determine
of the eye behind
the telescope, I remark
that this
with the
subject is most intimatelyconnected
rent
appafield,and that it is precisely the field which
tance
obliges us to keep the eye fixed at the proper disto be brought closer,or removed
; for if it were
should
farther off,we
no
longer discover so large a
field.
The

being an article of such

importance, indeed so essential,in all telescopes,it
be of equal importance to determine
must
exactly
the place of the eye
from
which
the largest field is
discoverable.
If the eye were
to be applied close to
the eye-glass, we
should
have
field
nearly the same
have
with
the pocket-glass,which
becomes
we
as
the magnifying power
insufferablysmall whenever
is considerable.
It is therefore
a vast
advantage to
extent

of

the

field

PLACE

THE

astronomical

THE

OF

telescopes,

that

333

EYE.

by withdrawing

the

eye-glass the apparent field increases

it is preciselythis which
extent
to a certain
; and
renders
such
telescopes susceptible of prodigious
those of the first species
magnifying powers, whereas
You
know
in this respect extremely limited.
are
that with the astronomical
telescope,the magnifying
carried
has been
times,
beyond two hundred
power
which
superiorityover
gives them an inconceivable
those of the first species,which
can
scarcely magnify
inconvenience
of the inverted
the trifling
ten times
; and
overbalanced
vantage
by an adposition is infinitely
from

eye

the

very great.
endeavour
to

so

I will
the

lightpossible.
object E e, Fig. 179, being

The

distant,let
stillvisible

through

lenses

PAP

the

are

be

which
of

passes

the

of the
that

from

Q
A

point e

other
on

and

A, which

Q, fitted

on

0 ; it falls to
what
tion
direc-

the

the

object, through
object-glass. You

the

finitely
in-

its

attentivelyconsidered
will be pursued by

single ray

extremity
the

centre

will recollect

rays, which

fall from

the

the

pany
object-glass,
only accomstrengthen the ray in question
is the principalwith respect

vision.
Now

this

the lens

2.

of

article in

extremity,
telescope,whose

the

and

axis

common

be

to

important

clearest

1.

put this

pursue

ray e
P, will

its direction

A, passing through the

centre

undergo no refraction,but
in the straightline A /m,

will
and

extremity of the image F /,

the eye-glass at the point m ; and here
will fall on
it is to be observed, that if the size of the eye-glass
extended
far as
the point m, this ray
had not
so
have
reached
the eye, and the point e
would
never
passing through

would

have

been

the

invisible.

That

is to say, it would

334

OF

be

Now
in

take

to

necessary
axis, in order
3.

APPARENT

THE

this ray A
which
way

extremity
A/m
may

the

that the

AND

FIELD,

ray

it is very easy
consider
the second

have

the

the eyeglass.

meet

will be refracted

to

nearer

the glass
eyediscover.

by
to

image G g ;
only to
that
distant,it is sufficient to know
though infinitely
the straightline B/ produced will pass through the
image G g, which is the
extremity g of the second
immediate
object of vision.
Having remarked
this,
We

the refracted
this

produced
infinite

at

an

as

parallelto

ray
the
line
to
Hence

as

it is

lens
than

you

the

is much

the

they
and

and

be

B/meet
considered

acquire an
fracted
position of the re-

the

have

may
hence

only

clearlyevident

we

draw

to

it

F/;

image

that the

of the

axis

parallel

ray

telescope

0 will

O, and

at

is great, the
power
lens Q Q than
to the

magnifying
the

to

nearer

P, the distance

at g,

other

the

usually, when

point F

O, and

B/.
meet

somewhere

g.
lines

to determine

method

easier

two

the

distance
each

the direction

assume

through

passes

As, therefore,

4.

5.

must

ray

will be somewhat

and

as

the

line

will be

greater
is

parallel
B F, that

nearly equal to
of the eye-glass.
distance
6. If,then, the eye is placed at O, it will receive,
not only the rays which
proceed from the middle of
which
the object E, but those likewise
proceed from
the extremity e, and consequently those also which
proceed from every point of the object; the eye
the rays
B 0 and n O,
receive
at once
would
even
contracted.
In
even
supposing the pupil infinitely
to/B, the line
is,to the focal

this case,
on

pend
therefore, the apparent field does not dethe largeness of the aperture of the pupil,

provided the eye be placed at 0

recedes^from this point,it must
the apparent field.
not in
7. If the point m were

but

lose
the

the

moment

it

considerablyin
extremity of

the

PLACE

THE

transmit

eye-glass,it would
from

axis, and

the

discover
the

real

the

larger field.
there

THE

335

EYE.

rays

still

In

be

order, then,
the

remote

more

telescope would,

apparent field which

discovering, let

of

OF

of

course,

to determine

telescope is capable

drawn, from

the

centre

to the
extremity m of the
object-glass,
eye-glass,the straightline A m, which, produced to
at e the visible extremity ; and
the object,will mark
is the same
consequently the angle E A e, or, which
thing, the angle B A m, will give the semi-diameter
is consequently greater
of the apparent field,which
of the
the
in proportion as
extent
eye-glass is

of

the

greater.
8. As, then, in the first species of telescopes,the
apparent field depended entirelyon the aperture of

pupil,and

the

in this

as

case

it

depends

aperture of the eye-glass,there

the

difference

these

between

is

entirelyon
an

essential

species of instruments,
I
greatly in favour of the latter. The figure which
have employed in demonstrating this last article respecting
the place of the eye and the apparent field,
greatly assist us in the elucidation of the premay
ceding
two

articles.
will be

good as to reflect,that the objectglass transports the object E e to F/, and that the
If you

so

eye-glass transports it from F/ to Gg-, this image

Gg, being very distant from the immediate
object of
as
vision,ought to be seen
a good eye
distinctly,
quires
rein order to see
a great distance
thus.
This
the

was

As

first article.

to the

of the

real

at

first

sight,that

image E e, we see through the

telescope the image Gg, it must be inverted. Finally,
this image is seen
by the eye placed at 0 under the
the object itself E e
angle G O g, or B 0 n, whereas
to the naked
eye under the angle E A e : the
appears
telescope,therefore, magnifies as many times as the
angle B 0 n is greater than the angle E A e.
Now,
the line n 0 is partllel
to B/, the angle B 0 n is
as
as

instead

second, it is evident

336

MAGNIFYING

equal

to the

often

as

POWER

OF

angle F B / and the angle E A e is equal

to its opposite and vertical
hence
the
angle FA/;
from
the probe estimated
must
magnifying power
portion
between
the angles F B/ and FA/;
ingly,
accordthe angle F B/ contains
the angle F A/as
as
F, that is,the focal distance of the
object-glass,contains the line B F, that is,the focal
the line A
of the

distance

eye-glass,the magnifying power will

be therefore
expressed by the proportionof these
This is proof sufficient that the eledistances.
ments
two
of geometry
be successfullyemployed
may
in researches
of quite a different nature
a reflection
not unpleasing to the mathematician.
23d February, 1762.
"

LETTER

XCV.

cal
of the magnifying Power of AstronomiTelescopes,and the Construction
of a Telescope
which shall magnify Objectsa given Number
of Times.

Determination

You

have

now

only how
magnify,
telescope

it clearlyascertained,not

will
times
a
proposed instrument
many
of constructing a
but what
is the mode
shall

which
wished.

In the

well

of both

eye-glass,in

the

as

the

exceeds

one

as

first case,

focal distance

the
the

magnify

division, and

times

many

be

may

have

only to measure
lenses, the object-glassas
you

order

other.

to discover

This

is

quotient indicates

the

as

how

much

performed

by
magnifying

the

power.

Having, then,
whose
often
knows

telescope, the

object-glassis two feet, and

one
inch, it is only necessary
one

inch

that

bv

distance

that of
to

eyeglass
inquire how

in two

feet.

Every

contains

twelve

inches

foot

one.

two

twenty-four irtches,which
But

whatever

number

of

the

is contained

accordingly contain
be divided

focal

we

one

feet
are

to

divide

by one

the

337

TELESCOPES.

ASTRONOMICAL

quotientis always equal

if,then, it is asked,

often

how

inch

one

dividend

to the

is contained

twenty-fourinches, the answer, without hesitation,

scope
is, twenty-four times; consequently, such a telemagnifies twenty-fourtimes,that is,represents
if they were
distant objects in the same
as
manner
twenty-four times greater than they reallyare ; in
them
other
see
through such a
words, you would
telescope under an angle twenty-fourtimes greater
than by the naked
eye.
astronomical
another
Let us
telescope,
suppose
the focal distance of whose
object-glassis thirty-two
You
feet, and that of the eye-glass three inches.
lenses must
be placed at
that these two
at once
see
the distance
of thirty-twofeet and three inches from
each other ; for,in all astronomical
telescopes,the
of
distance
of the lenses must
be equal to the sum
the two
focal distances,as has been alreadydemonstrated.
in

To

find,then, how

times

many

telescope

of the

above

description magnifies,we must divide thirtyfefcf by three inches ; and, in order to this,retwo
duce
these thirty-twofeet into inches, by multiplying
them
by twelve :
this produces 384 inches ; and these
32
again
divided by three, the focal distance, in inches,
12
3)384 of the eye-glass,gives a quotient of 128,
T^g which indicates that the proposed telescope

magnifies 128 times,

to be

very

which

be

must

allowed

considerable.

Reciprocally, therefore, in order to construct

shall magnify a given number
telescope which
times, say 100,
the

focal

times
one

distance

must

employ

of the

one

two

and
give the object-glass,
These

axis, so

must

afterward

that their distance

of the two

focal distances

II." F f

in this

be fitted

shall be
; that

shall

the other

equal

be

case

the
the

on

to the

is,they must

of

lenses,

convex

of which

greater than that of the other

will

VOL.

we

100

the
glass.
eyesame
sum

be fixed

838

POWER

ASTRONOMICAL

OF

TELESCOPES.

length,and then the eye being placed

behind
the eye-glass, at its focal distance, will see
objects magnified 100 times.
be varied without
This arrangement
end, by
may
assuming an eye-glass at pleasure, and adapting to
focal distance
shall be 100
it an object-glasswhose
in

tube

times

of this

taking an
object-glass must

focus, the
focus, and the distance
inch

have

inches, and

other

of

focal

inches

lenses

of
404

and

inches
if

And

to

were

focal

202

of the

lenses

from

each
eyeglass
have

inches, and the distance of

inches, and so on, the instrument

length.

the

If,on

eye-glass of

an

assume

the

between

distance

the

be

eye-glassof 3 inches
be
object-glassmust

lenses

is little

half,which

contrary,

only

have
focus, the object-glassmust
of 100 half-inches, that is,of 50

inch

to

were

200

400

in

always increasing
you

will

of

if you
to take an
were
focus, the object-glass must

distance

two

object-

distance

lenses

Or,

And

inches.

303

distance

the

inches

100

focus, the

the

one

inches.

101

the

at

of

distance

the

focus,
300 inches, and

the

its focus

If you were
to take an
of the
the focal distance

inches.

inches

of

be

of the lenses

eye-glass of

taking an
glass must

of

eye-glass

Thus,

greater.

focal

an

tance
dis-

inches, and

would

only

than

more

half

be

50

four feet.

eye-glass of a quarter of an inch focus

be employed, the object-glasswould
require
of
of
100
distance
an
inch, or
only
quarters

an

25

inches, and

25

inches

and

the
a

distance

between

the

quarter, that is little

lenses

two

more

than

two

feet.

Here, then, are

same
effect,that

methods

of

magnifying

100

several
of

producing
times

and

the
if

equal,we should not hesitate

thing else were
giving the preference to the last, as being the
the
here
to
shortest
telescope,being reduced
: for
than two
little more
feet,would be more
manageable
much
than one
longer.
every
about

No

one,

then, would

hesitate

about

preferringthe

340

DEGREE

deavoured

CLEARNESS.

OF

elucidate

treatingthe same
subject
with reference
to the microscope.
it must
be considered, that in this reAnd, first,
search
it is not proposed to determine
the degree
of light resident
in objects themselves, and
which
be very different,not
only in different bodies,
may
less luminous, but
as
or
being in their nature more
in the same
body, according as circumstances
vary.
The
illuminated
bodies, when
same
by the sun, have
the sky is overcast,
lightthan when
undoubtedly more
and
in the night their light is wholly extinguished
to

but

greatly

in

colours

are

different

point

of

in

bodies

illuminated

may

brightness, according

as

differ
their

lively. We are not inquiring,

resides
then, into that light or brightnesswhich
in objects themselves
; but, be it strong or faint,we
say that a telescope represents the object in perfect
it is seen
as
clearness, when
through the instrument
clearlyas by the naked eye ; so that if the object be
not to expect that the telescope should
are
dim, we
or

more

represent it as

less

clear.

respect of clearness, a telescope

is
it represents the object as clearly
This takes place, as
it appears
to the naked
as
eye.
the whole
in the microscope, when
opening of the
proceed from
pupil is filled with the rays which
point,of the object, after being transmitted
every
through the telescope. If a telescope furnishes
opening of the pupil,
rays sufficient to fillthe whole
need be desired ; and
no
greater degree of clearness
supposingit could supply rays in greater profusion,
be entirelyuseless, as the same
this would
quantity
Accordingly,
perfect when

precisely,and
the

in

no

more,

could

find

admission

into

eye.

be paid chieflyto the

Here, then, attention must
aperture of the pupil,which, being variable,prevents
selves
our
laying down a fixed rule, unless we regulate ouraccording to a certain given aperture, which
when
the pupil,in a state of the greatest
is sufficient,

contraction,is
the

diameter

rays ; and for this purpose

pupil is usually supposed to be

filled with

of the

of which

line,twelve

one

make

satisfyourselves
allowing to the diameter
and

in

with

inch

an

the

even

of the

times
some-

; we

half

of

this,
aline,

pupilonly half

still less.

cases

some

341

CLEARNESS.

OF

DEGREE

that the lightof the

If you will please to consider
exceeds
that of the moon
sun
200,000 times, though
is hy no means
that of the moon
inconsiderable,
even
you will be
of clearness

sensible

of

be

can

contemplation

that

of

small

diminution

great

consequence

no

in

point
in the

objects. Having premised this,all

the telescope
rays which
transmits
into the eye, and to compare
them
the pupil; and it will be sufficient to consider
with
which
the rays
proceed from a single point of the
that

is to examine

remains

the

is in the axis of the

object,that, for example, which
telescope.
1. The
distant, the rays
object being infinitely
of the object-glass
fall from
it on the surface
which

PAP,

Fig. 180,

parallelto

are

Fig.

will

parallelto
are

the

on

equal
the

which

then,

rays,

be

contained

the

axis

A.

and
Object-glass,
to the

diameter

extent

or

of which

the

within

denominated

other

centre

the

lines

All these

rays

the

pencilof

all the

the

breadth

aperture
is P

This

of

Ff2

of
L

the

ject
ob-

P, L P,

taken

gether
to-

fall
rays which
of this pencil is

the

object-glass,

P.

pencil of rays is changed by

of the object-glass into a conical
figureP F P, and having crossed at the
2.

180.

from

come

each

the
or

tion
refrac-

pointed

focus

F, it

342

DEGREE

forms

is

the

cone

hence

;
mm

new

as

the

of

point
The

4.

than

distance

of

into the

eye

the

cone

breadth

B is shorter

m,

of
than

passing through
again parallelto each

Q, become

the

pencil

on

m,

of

rays

and
there
eye,
the object whence

for

o,

0, which

the

image of
they originallyproceeded.

depict

question, then, resolves

this pencil of rays n o,

breadth

glass
eye-

of this

base

smaller

rays

eye-glass Q
other, and form
the

that the

the

by

F.

these

into

the

as

the

enter

terminated

m,

times

many

Now

CLEARNESS.

it is evident

distance

3.

pencil P P,

the

OF

if this breadth

itself
0, which

into

or

the

enter

is

equal

greater than the opening of the pupil,it will

be filled with
them, and the eye will enjoy all possible
to

or

clearness
as

it you
5. But

that

if this

pencil

representation

the

would

; which

In order

the

being
6.

It

usual

it is very
settle how
than

the

proportion to
to

the

distance

depends
discovers
broader
the

eye.

it

But
the
B

than

the

whole

F,

on

and

this

to that of the

You

distance

P
as

m,

or

second

which
first,

have

nn

is the

it would

breadth, this

of

breadth

which

more

pupil.

the distance

the

much

so

line in

the

the

distance

is evident

scope.
great defect in the telefore
it,the pencil must there-

P, which
the

eye.
less

much

pupil,it

determine.

accordingly,
how

relation

times

many
distance

of

were

clear

as

unassisted

line in breadth

to

easy

object-glass.

be

the

seem

become

must

that

certain

of

aperture of

is evident

pencil has

nn,

remedy

to have

still better

be

to

half

at least

be

at it with

the diameter

than

obscure

is,the object will

look

to

were

breadth
that

only

mm

is in the

the

o, which

same

distance

the

is less

aperture of the

magnifying
magnifying power
the pencil L P,

times
many
the pencil n o,

to

enters

power
itself
L

is

into

343

OBJECT-GLASSES.

OF

APERTURE

Since, then, the breadth n n or o o must be one

line, at least half a line,the aperture of the object7.

P P

glass

must

at

contain

least

magnifying power
telescope is to magnify
object-glassmust have

the
thus, when
times, the aperture of its

100
a

half-lines

many

indicates

the

as

as

diameter

of

half-lines,

100

make
and 2 lines.
4 inches
lines,which
8. You
see, then, that in order to avoid obscurity,
be greater in
the aperture of the object-glassmust
50

or

is greater.
the
magnifying power
proportion as
And, consequently, if the object-glass employed is
not
susceptible of such an aperture, the telescope
will

defective

be

in respect

of

clearness

of representation.

abundantly evident, that in order to

magnify very greatlyit is impossible to employ small
focal distance
is too short, as
object-glasses,whose
formed
a lens
by the arches of small circles cannot
have
a great aperture.
Hence

1st

it is

March,

1762.

XCVII.

LETTER

Aperture of Object-glasses.
have

You

of

degree

only

that

the

objects

clearness.

size

or

the focal
the

that

seen

size

the

determines
in order

now

extent

or

of

aperture

lens

magnifying power
of the object-glass,

with
appear
may
determination
This

is

distance

larger the

the

is the

sufficient

respects

the

ever,
object-glass; howaffected by it likewise,for

greater must

be

its focal

distance.
The

reason

lens whose
its two

of this is

evident, as

focal distance

surfaces

is likewise

must

about

to form

is,for example, two

be arches
two

in order

of

inches.

inches,

circle whose
I have

dius
ra-

therefore

344

APERTURE

represented, Fig. 181,

the arches

of

of

radius

OBJECT-GLASSES.

OF

which

described

are

inches.

two

The

the

thicker, is much

but I shall demonstrate

thick

lenses

veniences, and
to

us

these

Q, then, will be

found

use,

being composed

the

same

circle

extent

inch.

one

be

always
aperture
of

and

as

oblige
lens

of

distance

is two

ceed
scarcely exmay
be laid down
as
a

this may
focal distance

the

for

arches

its focal

aperture

Hence

to

The

smaller

p[

incon-

of

lens

must

twice
n

as

that

adapted

more

of

or

general rule, that

the lens

other

great

so

Fig. 181.

P, being

afterward

altogetheraside.

lay them

inches, its

lens

to

Q,

with

greater than

subject

are

P and

lenses

two

of its
greater than the diameter
that is,the aperture of a lens
must

necessity be smaller than half the focal distance.

Having remarked, then, that in order to magnify

times, the aperture of the

4 inches, it follows
exceed
that
100

must

that

exceed
the

distance

8 inches

double

'is not

of this lens

I shall

object-glass must
the

focal

distance

presentlydemonstrate

sufficient,and

that the

focal

be increased

beyond 300
inches.
of the expression of the
The
distinctness
image requires this great increase,as shall afterward
be shown
: I satisfymyself with
remarking, at present,
that with regard to the geometrical figure of the
lens, the
focal

aperture

must

cannot

be

greater than

half

its

distance.

into
more
Here, therefore, I shall go somewhat
the detail respecting the aperture oT the object-glass,
which

mark,
requires ; and I remagnifying power
ness
first,that though a sufficient degree of clearthe
requires an aperture of four inches, when
selves,
telescopeis to magnify 100 times, we satisfyourin astronomical
instruments,with one of three
of clearness
inches, the diminution
being scarcely
Hence
artists
have
laid it down
as
a
perceptible.
rule, that in order to magnify 100 times, the aperture

every

APERTURE

345

OBJECT-GLASSES.

OF

be three inches ; and

for
object-glassmust
in that proportion. Thus,
other magnifying powers
in order to magnify 50 times, it is sufficient that the
the

ot

inch
be an
aperture of the object-glass
to magnify 25 times, three-quarters of
and

very
and
may

we

powers.
that for small

see

small

aperture of the

that, consequently,

a
magnifying powers
object-glassis sufficient,

focal

moderate

wished

if you
of the

distance

magnify 200
be six
object-glass must
aperture
half a foot, which
requires a very large
focal distance must
exceed
100 feet,
even
But

answer.

times, the
inches, or
lens,whose
in order

an

half ;
inch suffice,
a

of other

so

Hence

and

obtain

distinct

to

expression.
For
this reason,
require
great magnifying powers
the
usual
very long telescopes, at least according to
I have
explained. But
arrangement of lenses which
for some
time
been
successfully
past artists have
in diminishing this excessive
employing themselves
length. The aperture of the object-glass,however,
to

follow

must

the

depends

rule laid

desirous,
you
should
telescope which
the

will

focal

and

aperture

we

be

can

sarily
neces-

distance

be

inches,

twelve

rendered

as

if you wished
to magnify 4000
of the object-glassmust
be ten

very great size

artist to execute

why

clearness

as

therefore, of constructing a
magnify 400 times, the aperture

object-glassmust

foot, let the

you
the

down,

exact

it.

on

Were

of

and

indeed,
;

and

and

is the

this

hope

never

much

too

to

so

or

small

a
as

times,
feet, a
"

for

any

principal reason
the

carry

magnifying

be at
so
far, unless some
great prince would
power
the expense
of providing and
executing lenses of

such

magnitude;

and, after all,perhaps they would

succeed.

not

telescope,however,

times, would
heavens.

than

to the

discover
The

moon

naked

which

many
would

should

wonderful

appear
in
other
eye ;

4000

magnify 4000
things in the
times larger

words,

we

should

346

APERTURE

see

her

she

is.

Let
be

which

she

from

if she

as

might

times

4000

were

contain.

may
earth

miles, the

OBJECT-GLASSES.

to

nearer

than

us

a degree we
inquire,then, to what
different
to distinguishthe
bodies

us

able

the

OF

The

is calculated

be

to

part of which

4000dth

of the

distance

English

240,000

is 60

moon

miles

such

as
accordingly show us the moon
telescope would
if she were
only 60 miles distant ; and, consequently,

which

things
the

we

60

that

with

distant.

miles
such
of

the

surprise.

But

in

There

order

to

earth, a distance of
must
have, in order

we

which

should

times,

and

feet

magnify

be

farther

times

should
distant

the

see

than

from

the

those

to

of

great ;
telescope

is 40,000
object-glassof 100
that

more,

human

with

But

to execute.

whether

effect, a

require an
enterprise which

an

able

we

ten

with

fillus

to

on

is still too

this would

aperture,

never

this

more

discover

similar

to

tain
moun-

doubt, then,

no

determine
miles

to

mountains

things

60

same

removed

should

creatures

the

top of

be

we

many

by

the

can

moon

is inhabited

the

in her

other

instrument

an

surface

moon

from

Now,

easily discern

can

than

discover

to

distinguishin objects

we

distance.

same

the

enabled

be

should

we

moon

such
if she

as

Berlin

art

will

ment
instru-

an

were

no

Spandau, and
at this distance,

to

easilydiscern men
it must
be
but too
indistinctly,
of the fact.
allowed, to be completely assured
As
satisfied with
rest
must
we
wishing on this
a telescope
subject,mine should be to have at once
which
should
magnify 100,000 times ;* the moon
would
then appear
if she
were
as
only half a mile
good

eyes might
if any there were,

distant.
The

aperture
be

must

250

larger animals
6th
*

times

Dr.

March,
Herschel

to the

of

object-glass of

the

feet, and
which

we

may

should
be

the

see,

in the

at

telescope
least,the

moon.

1762.
has

fixed stars.

been
"

Ed.

able

to

apply

magnifying power

of 6500

348

ON

In

order

consider
P

the

which
E

E,

1.

M, E"N,

of

the

ject
ob-

the

point

to the

lens.

face
sur-

To

of these

the
as

rays,

by refraction,

The

182.

axis,
E N, E M,

rays

now

Fig.

ua

the

changed

light,let

clearest

axis

the

upon

the

direction

must

on

placed

situated

A,

the

e, of which

emits
E

is

the

lens

convex

P, Fig. 182,

of

this in

set

to

IN

DISTINCTNESS

pay

attention.

ray

we

which

A,

through the centre

passes
A of the lens,undergoes no
ward
refraction,but proceeds forin the
the

on

2.

which

straightline

The

rays

and

with

the

axis

F.

to

small

nearest

are

first,undergo
meet

direction,

same

M,
the

refraction,by
somewhere

place of the image F/, as

of my
preceding Letters
3.

from

The
the

rays
axis

and

has
on

which

been
this

is the

F, which

at

explained in
subject.

N, which

some

remote

more

are

will

they

the extremities
A, and which
pass towards
N N of the lens, undergo a refraction
what
somecollects them, not at the point
different,which
the lens : and these
F, but at another point G, nearer
image G g, different from the
rays represent another
first

F/.

4.

Let

us

carefullyattend

now

circumstance, not hitherto

the rays
passing through

to

remarked

this
;

particular

it is

this,that

the

lens, towards
represent another image G g, than
represented by those passing near the centre
from

If the rays
the centre

of the

5.

P,

N, E N, were
A, and to pass

its
what

tremities,
ex-

is

MAM.

to retire still farther

through

lens,their point of reunion

the

would

points
be

still

to the

nearer

than

nearer

6. Hence

lens, and
G

even

349

EXPRESSION.

THE

would

form

image,

new

g.

easilyperceive,that the first

the principalimage, is
is named
image F/,
formed
only by the rays which are almost infinitely
the centre
near
tire
; and that according as the rays reextremities
of
the
from
the
it,towards
lens,a
the lens,tillthose
particularimage is formed nearer
form the last,G g.
passing close to the extremities
All the rays, therefore, which
7
pass through the
lens P P represent an
infinityof images disposed
between
F/ and G g; and at every distance from
the axis the refraction of the lens produces a particular
whole
F and
image, so that the
space between
G is filled with a series of images.
8. This
series of images is accordinglydenominated
the diffusion of the image ; and when
all these
will

you
which

afterward

that
eye, it is natural
the vision should be so much
disturbed
the space
as
F G, through which
the image is diffused,is more

rays

considerable.

that

likewise

arches

PAP

is F

the

be

and

the

reason,

surfaces

of their

each

PAP

and

The

surfaces
less
so

would

who
VOL.

90
as

be

an

are, the

which

considerable

are

P B P

are

insufferable

degrees

the fourth
so

that

quently
conse-

confusion.

if

they

contained

60, the diffusion of the image

even

then

thors
insupportable. Autreated the subject admit

have

II." G

greater

form

segments

Fig. 183, of which

form the
arches, then, which
of a lens, must
contain
much

than

much

circumference,
90" ; this would,

produce

to

apprehended.
respectivecircles

the arches

the whole

contains

10.

in

circles,as

the arches

part of

the lens

of

be reduced

You
a
see
space of diffusion.
for rejecting all lenses
of too

then,
great thickness, or in which

good

could

F G

portions of their

greater

the

an

If this space
confusion
need

nothing, no
9. The

into

enter

Fig. 183.

350

ON

of

DISTINCTNESS

IN

and

degrees at most
:
at 20 degrees.
boundary
description is represented
30

which

the

only

place

PAP

arches

be

and

as

the
the

fewer

of

the

the

times,

100

hence

it follows

two

half

be

in that

of

be

so

still too

This

inches
much

distance.
powers

still many
of the

image
tiplies
mul-

power

and
of

each

and

intended

to

that

aperture

inches,
is equal

PAP

degree
to

case,

degree.

the

the

magnify
much, and

radius
and

and

of

length.
Qth
March,

1762

arches

two

arch
200
the

times,

the

half
of

measure

the

circle

third

receive
must

also

tains
con-

of

small.

so

witft

described

it is distinctness

an

of
tance
dis-

radii

are

consequently
This
is the true
reason
why
of
such
require telescopes
greater,

magnify

its focal
the

to

these

ought not to exceed

must
arch, however,
the

the

requires

intended

is

recollect

that

which

would

the

contain.

telescope

arches

the

were

of

contain

must

it does

as

lens

will

you

which

but

teenth
eigh-

supply
telescope,

be
object-glass must
360
inches, which

the

the

fore,
Thereobject.
the
proposed,
greater
magnifying
power
be
the
must
number
of degrees
which

When

12.

contain

to

in

times

many

surfaces

the

though the diffusion

itself,the magnifying

of

perceptible
it

but

were

For

less.

degrees

lft

#*

in

Fig-. 184,

circumference

object-glass

of the

by

being

lens

if this

But

".

of this last

circle.

respective
11.

fix the

lens

whole

the

EXPRESSION.

some

and

each

degrees,

20

part of
its

PAP

arches

THE

pression
ex-

If

it

degree
the arch,
a

part of

extent

an

therefore
the

great

focal

fying
magni-

considerable

APERTURE

351

LENSES.

OF

XCIX.

LETTER

of the Aperture of Lenses, and other means

of lesseningthe Space of Diffusion tillit is reduced
to nothing.

Diminution

WHEN
admit

of an
the space
of
of distinctness

object-glassis too great to

expression, it may be very
have
the lens
: you
only to cover
pasteboard, leaving an opening in the

easily remedied
with

circle of

centre,

that the

so

lens

transmit

may

other

no

and

rays
fall
it
those which
through the opening,
upon
before
that those which
tremities
passed through the ex-

are

of the lens may

be excluded
; for as no
transmitted
but through the middle
of the

the

smaller

but

the

opening

is the

smaller

rays

lens,

likewise

will

be the space of diffusion.

Accordingly, by a gradual
of the opening, the space of diffusionmay
diminution
be

reduced
Here

at

case

is the

the

opening

the

larger than
covered

pleasure.

part becomes

same

if the

lens

no

were

in the

pasteboard, thus
useless, and the opening

the size of the lens

employed

as

this then

is the

the

termines
de-

remedy

give object-glassesany given extent.

P P is the object-glass,Fig. 185, before
is placed the pasteboard N N, having
which
is now
the extent
the opening M M, which
of the lens.
This opening M M
is here
be were
nearly the half of what it would
the pasteboard removed
of diffusion
; the space
to

is therefore
that

remarked,
this

case

is

it

was

before.

of

P, would

times

less.

considerable

much

the

only
An

smaller.

of
space
the fourth

It is

diffusion

in

part of what
opening M M, reduced

render
Thus

the

; and

on

to

third

the

of diffusion
nine
space
effect of this remedy is very

covering the

extremities

of

352

DIMINUTION

the

lens

ever

so

OF

THE

effect of it becomes

the
little,

ceptible.
per-

If,therefore, a telescope labours under this defect,

that it does not represent objects sufficiently
distinct,
as

cessity
images blended tog-ethermust of netract
produce confusion, you have only to conthe aperture of the object-glassby a covering

series

of

of

pasteboard

such

I have

as

described, and

this

will

infalliblydisappear. But a defect

gree
deequally embarrassing is the consequence
; the
of brightness is diminished.
You
will recollect
that every
degree of the magnifying power
requires
a certain
aperture of the object-glass,that as many
confusion

be transmitted
rays may
illumination.
a sufficient

in

curing

one

are

to

necessary

procure

It is

defect,

vexatious, therefore,
fall into another; and
in

to

of

construction

to the

order

as

very
that there

it is

good telescope,

should
cient
be suffiabsolutelynecessary
brightness of illumination, without
injuring
distinctness
in the representation.
of diminishing,nay,
there be no method
But
can
of totallyreducing the space of diffusion of objectglasses without diminishing the aperture 1 This is
has for some
time past enthe great inquiry which
gaged
of the ingenious, and the solution
the attention
of which
promises such a field of discovery in the
the
of dioptrics. I shall have
science
honour, at
which
scientific
least,of layingbefore you the means
have
men
suggested for this purpose.
focus of the rays which
As the
pass through the
middle
lens

of

than

convex

the

focus

lens
of

is

the

rays which
been
remarked

to combine

inquiry,whether
a

convex

with

effect.
it

from

distant

the

extremities, it has
lenses
produce a contrary
the

more

might

concave

pass
that
This
not

through
concave

has
be

the

gested
sug-

possible

lens, in such

be entirely
that the space of diffusion should
annihilated
respects, this compound
; while, in other
manner

lens should

produce

the

same

effect

as

an

ordinary

which
focus

of the
the

the

lens, whereas

real, and falls behind

If

1.

lens P
the
the

P,

will be refracted

they

will

other, as
the

the

falls before

made

this

is
mark,
re-

:
a

vex
con-

Q B Q of

one

rays which
collect in its focus

lens would

convex

those

lenses

convex

186, behind

concave

as

distance, the

focal

same

of

Having

them.

place,Fig.

we

well

as

difference, that

focus

follows

as

reason

we

this

lenses

concave

only imaginary, and

is

concave

that

focal distance
with

convex;

are

know

You

1
simple object-glass
measured
are
by their

353

LENSES.

OF

APERTURE

by

the

so

concave,

that

again become
parallelto each
before passingthrough
they were
lens.

convex

In this case, therefore, the concave

and
lens destroysthe effect of the convex,
2.

proceeded in
their natural
fraction.
direction, without
undergoing any reFor the concave
lens, having its focus at
the same
point F (see Fig. 178, p. 331), restores the
otherwise
have
would
of the rays, which
parallelism
met
at the point F.
it is the

thing

same

3. If the

smaller

than

produce

if the

as

focal distance

of

that of the

convex,

greater effect,and

had

rays

the

lens

concave

it would

would

Fig. 187.

ren-

divergent,as in Fig. 187 : the

incident parallel
rays L M, E A, L M, passing
the
two
would
assume
lenses,
through
the directions
B F, N 0, which
are
NO,
two
These
divergent from each other.
lenses together produce, therefore, the
der the

same

which
such
concave

rays

effect

lens,
simple concave
would
impress on the incident parallel
the
Two
same
divergence.
rays
lenses joined together,of which
the
has

the convex,

simple concave

as

a
are

smaller

focal distance

therefore
lens.

Gg2

were

than

equivalent to

354
But

4.

188, has
the

APERTURE

OF

concave

lens

if the

Q Q, Fig.

greater focal distance

lens P P, it is not even

convex

to render

the

LENSES.

parallelto

188

ficient
suf-

each

lens
the convex
rays which
would
collect in its focus F

Fig,

than

other
self
it-

by
:

these

convergent,
rays, therefore, continue
will be diminbut their convergence
ished

by

the

of

instead

rays,
will meet

will

simple

lenses
the

produce, then,

have

its focus

the
.

effect

same

lens

convex

that

point F,
distant point O.
joined together

more

two

so

in the

meeting

in the

These

5.

lens,

concave

which

as

should

collect
0, as it would
the parallelrays L M, E A, L M, equally
in the

the

other

lenses

two

infinite

an

It is therefore

point.

same

that

at

dent
evi-

be combined

may

variety of

the one
and
being convex
ways,
that their combination
shall be
so

concave,

equivalent

to

given

lens.

convex

therefore
be
object-glass may
of telescopes, instead
employed in the construction
of the simple one, to which
it is equivalent ; and the
will be just the
effect as to the magnifying power
of diffusion will be quite difthe space
ferent,
But
same.
and it may
happen to be greater or less than
that of a simple object-glass ; and in this last case
the double
object-glass will be greatlypreferableto
6.

the
7.

Such

simple

double

one.

But, further, it has

two

such

lenses

found

been
so

that

the

is reduced

possible to

space
which

absolutely to nothing,
the greatest advantage possible in
Calculation
enables
of telescopes.
this

been

found

arrangement,

capable
I3lh March, 1762.

of

but

no

reducing

artist
it to

range
ar-

of diffusion
is undoubtedly
the construction
us

mine
to deter-

has

hitherto

practice.

356

OF

the

of this

reason

such

lens

OBJECT-GLASSES.

COMPOUND

of

thirty feet, and it is

exactly so great a circle,

likewise

must

surfaces

of the

radius

for the

be

very difficult to describe

and the slightestaberration

labour

all the

renders

useless.
of this sort

Accidents
in

which

be

may

they

of the
be

times,
construct

to

distance
which

and
three

inches

inch

one

be

admit

and

only
as

of

inches,

times

than

more

of the

focal distance

interval

the

aperture

but it would

hundred

one

the

the

whose
object-glass

aperture

an

hundred

one

inches

compound

therefore,
be

that

seen

be three

should

could

eye-glassmust
be

have

we

object-glassmust

easy

focal

of

formed

the magsusceptible of the aperture which

nifying
requires. Thus, in order to magnify
power

are

hundred

one

of

construction

the

apprehended
object-glasses,
compound
smaller
circles, provided
to be

not

are

smaller, itwould
the

between

lenses

of their focal distances, the length of

being the sum
and
the telescope would
hundred
be only one
one
is far short
inches, or eight feet five inches, which
of thirty feet.
But it appears
that a compound
to me
object-glass,
whose
focal distance
be fifty
should
inches, might
easily admit an aperture of three inches, and even

eye-glass of half an inch

focus, you will obtain the same
magnifying power of
hundred
one
times, and the length of the telescope
will be reduced
one-half,that is,to four feet and less
than
three
inches.
Such
a
telescope, then, would
effect as a common
of thirty
one
produce the same
is assuredly carrying it as far as need
feet,which
more

be

taking, then,

wished.
If such

answer,

you

admit

an

employed
an

eye

compound
would
in

measurements

of

an

object-glasscould
only have to double

order

to

have

aperture of six inches

magnify two
glassof half an
to

hundred
inch

made

and

to

all these

which

one

be

should

might be
times, making use

focus

this

as

the two

mm-

focal distance

dredth

part of

which

would, in this

Now,

the

hundred

case,

be

times,

exceed

must

of the
one

telescope which

common

357

OBJECT-GLASSES.

COMPOUND

OF

hundred

should
one

object-glass,
inches.

magnify

hundred

two

feet

in

is constructed
this one, which
with
length ; whereas
to about
a compound
object-glass,is reduced
eight
to use, whereas
feet,and is perfectlyaccommodated
be an
hundred
feet long would
a telescope of one
unwieldly and almost useless load.
The
further,
subject might be carried still much
and by again doubling the measurements,
we
might
have
focal distance
a compound
object-glasswhose
should
be two
hundred
inches, or sixteen feet eight
inches,which should admit of an aperture of twelve
foot : taking, then, an
inches, or one
eye-glass of

half

four hundred

hundred
focus, as two
half-inches, we should

of

four hundred

an

inch

inches
have

contain

telescope

times, and still

magnifying
feet;
abundantly manageable, being under seventeen
to attempt to produce the same
we
whereas, were
with
a
simple object-glass,the
magnifying power
three hundred
length of the telescope must exceed
of use
feet,and consequently could be of no manner

capable

on

of that

account

size.

enormous

and
They have at Paris a telescope one hundred
of one
at London
hundred
twenty feet long,and one
and thirtyfeet ; but the dreadful
trouble of mounting
and pointing them
to the object almost
lates
annihithe advantages expected from
them.
From
this you will conclude
of what
importance it would
be to succeed
in the construction
of the compound
lenses which
I have
been
describing. I suggested
the

first idea

then

artists of

of

them

several

the

since
ago, and
abilityin England and
years

greatest
them.
attempting to execute
Repeated efforts and singular skill in the artist are
undoubtedly requisite. Indeed, I have made, with
France

the

have

assistance
some

not

been

of

an

able

mechanician

unsuccessful

attempts

of

our

; but

my,
Acadethe

ex-

358

FORMATION

OF

has

attending such an enterprise

give it up.
But
the Royal Society of London

pense
to

that
had

lond*
are

last year
nounced,
anof Dolartist,of the name

eminent

an

fortunatelysucceeded
universally admired.

now

Paris, named

obliged me

Passement, boasts

; and

his

An

able

of

telescopes
artist

simitar

of

success.

the honour, some

gentlemen did me
time ago, to correspond with me
the subject ; but
on
the point in question was
as
chieflyhow to surmount
certain great difficulties in the practicalpart, which
I
never
attempted, it is but fair that I should relinquish
the honour
of the discovery. The
to them
theory
alone is my
much
province, and it has cost me
found
proresearch, and many
painful calculations, the
would
I shall
sight of which
terrifyyou.
very
Both

these

therefore

take

this abstruse

perplex

CI

of Simple Object-glasses.

Formation

which

led

give

to

to the

me

begin with

The

of

in

an

infinityof

formation

which

the

ject-glas
ob-

of the

of

lens may

by taking

ways,

segments, either
other, the focal distance,

surfaces

telescope

first achromatic

different

ever

are

the

same.

constructed

Hall, Esq., of More-hall, in Essex,

More

compound

surfaces

two

equal or unequal to each

however, remaining always
*

of

the

researches

the

lens.

formed

circles

of

construction

that the
Observe, first,
be

idea

some

you

I must

simple

with

1762.

LETTER

IN order

further

you

inquiry.

March,

16th

to

not

care

in thu

made

was

year

1733.

by Chester
no

less

than

valuable
inThis
author.
to by our
period alluded
twei'ty-fouryears
view
of the matter,
is, therefore,in every
a British
instrument,
See the article Optics, in the Edinburgh
invention.
Encyclopaedia, vol.
before

XV.

p.

479, note,

for

the

full account

of Mr-

Hall's

labours."

Ed.

The
of

figureis usually given

same

lens, or,

radii
has

the

are

of

equal

to

basin

artists

each

recommended
form

to

serves

provided with

are

the

circle

lens

whose

will be

focal

on

distance

lens

surfaces

are

sented
repreformed

are

tion
Facilityof executhis figure, as
both
surfaces, and

but

few

surface

basins.
surfaces

whose
of

twenty-four

shall be

is

twenty-four

both

sides, and

radius

convex

lens, both
basin, one

radius, so that each

both

to

surfaces

other.

Suppose, then, a convex

polished on the same

inches

of

circle,both

undoubtedly

same

most

surfaces

the

as

arches

by
with

359

OBJECT-GLASSES.

SIMPLE

an

inches

arch
:

will have

of
this
its

twenty-four inches, according to

the common
the focus depends
calculation
as
; but
the refraction,and as the refraction
is not absolutely
on
the same
in every
speciesof glass,in which we
find a very considerable
diversity,according as the
less white
and hard, this calculation
or
glass is more
of the focus is not strictly
accurate
usually the
; and
focal

at

distance

radius

of

of the lens

its two

part, sometimes
lens, the

is somewhat

less than

surfaces, sometimes
the

radius

twelfth

of whose

the

the

tenth

accordingly,the supposed
surfaces
is twenty-

four

of
its focus at the distance
inches, will have
about twenty-two inches, if it is formed
of the same

species

of

manufactured

mirrors
in

are

glass of

commonly
this sort

we

diversityin respect of refraction.

We
see
faces
afterward, that on making the two surof the lens unequal, an infinityof other lenses
focal
be formed, which
shall all have
the same
may
distance
of the
on
taking the radius of one
; for
surfaces
less than
twenty-four inches, that of the
other surface
be taken
must
greater in proportion,
of
of one
radius
The
according to a certain rule.
the surfaces
always be taken at pleasure ; and
may
of a certain
rule the radius of the other
by means
be found, in order that the focal distance
may
may
meet

become

with

glass of which
; though even

the

small

same

as

if each

surface

had

been

formed

360

OF

FORMATION

on

radius

table
the

of

exhibits

The

twenty-four inches.
several

following

lenses, which

such

have

focal distance.

same

Lenses.

Radius

Radius

of the first Surface.

of the

Second

I.

24

24

II.

21

28

III.

20

30

IV.

18

36

16

48

VI.

15

60

VII.

14

84

VIII.

13

156

IX.

12

V.

In the last
12

inches,

other
arch

form,
the

or

becomes
of

differs

Were

we

smaller

in the

it

of 24

of

inches

and

but that

such

as

radius

the

and

lens

the

will, in that

other
will

case,

table

Radius

of

are

is

convex.
planostill
be

convexo-

the

name

of

represented

"

the Convex

Radius

of

the Concave

X.

11

132

XI.

10

60

XII.

36

XIII.

24

XIV.

12

XV.

XVI.

new

sidered
con-

must

Surface.

is a

an

arch

be

Surface.

Here, then,

is

an

surface

bear

the

surface

become

figures of which

several

of

only

of

inches, the

12

is

surface

one

rather, this surface

or

assume

following

Meniscus.

half

from

to

concave,

meniscus,

radius

straightline,this may
plane surface, and such a lens

than

concave;

the

infinite

nothing

Surface*

infinity

circle infinitely
great

as

made

all

species of lenses, the

last of

SIMPLE

which
which

all the

have

this is about

and
or

representedin Fig. 190, so that

sixteen
different species,
now

is

have

we

361

OBJECT-GLASSES.

'

"

little more

inches, a

22

^Q

**--

k*

focal distance

same

p-

less, according to the nature of the glass.

focal
When, therefore, the only question is,What

distance

the

indifference
to work

go

lens

ought
according to

; but

\ it is

have

to

which

of these

there

be a very
may
of diffusion to which

in the

be

employed,

indifferent

as

of

is

what

of

forms

you
ence
differ-

great
each

space
subjected, this space
than
in others.
When
is

matter

species

becoming smaller in some

a
simple object-glassis to
usuallydone, it is by no means
it, for that
figure you assume

which

produces the smallest space of diffusion is

to be preferred. Now,
this excellent
property does
the two
not belong to the first species, where
faces
surare
equal; but nearly to species VII., which
the quality,that when
towards
turn
possesses
you
the object its more
surface, or that whose
convex
radius
be

is

one-half

about

convex

of diffusion

smallest, the space

on

both

less than
sides

when

is found

the lens is

this, therefore,

to

equally

is the

most

and
advantageous figurefor simple object-glasses,
are
practitioners
accordinglyagreed in the use of it.
It is

of diffusion

space
know

of

its focal distance

to

ascertain

the

lens, it is not sufficient to

must
; its species likewise

determined, that is,the radii of

be

each

surface

; and

carefullydistinguishwhich side is turned

the object.
After this explanation,it is necessary
to remark,

you
to

evident, then, that in order

must

that

in order

lenses

to

which

discover

shall

it is

the

produce

of

combination

no

diffusion

of

two

image,

account
absolutelynecessary to
the figure of both
surfaces
of each
glass,and to
resolve
the following problem: What
be the
must
radii of the surfacesof two
lenses,in order to reduce
to nothingthe space
The
solution
?
reof diffusion

VOL.

take

II."

into the

362

DEFECT

REPRESENTATION

of the
profound researches
and
sublime
to
supposing these
geometry;
been successful, the artist has, after all,many

quires

the

OF

most

that
the

lens

which

curve

the

basin, the

the

on

hence

rectifyits figure from

time

in its turn

friction

observed, it is
a

easy matter
figure somewhat

all

from

different

important

March,

Source

by
Rays.
You

the

have

the

You

the

be

GIL

refraction

effect

of

of

the

will recollect
with

they

convey

perfec

to

dioptrics.

that defect

which

dispersed through the

is not the only defect ;
more
importance that
the cause
a remedy,
as

rays,

basin

sensible, from

to carry

in what

seen

different

nature

be

assuming

of the

ation
ofDefectas to Distinctness of RepresentTelescope. DifferentRefrangibility
of

now

middle, the

You

from

to
necessary
with all possible

that

must

article in

pass through the extremities

in the same
point with those

in the

forming

1762.

possibleto remedy
from

of

suffers

time,

to

LETTER
Second

operation

it becomes

difficult it must

this, how

2Qth

cisely
pre-

indicates;

prevent the lens from

to

it is moulded.

tion this

calculation

precautions are not strictly

it
impossible to ensure
success
; and

no

in which

culties
diffi-

have

must

basin

have

for if all these

accuracy,
is

basins

sufficient,for in the

is that

nor

The

surmount.

to

most

manner

in lenses
of rays, as
of a lens
which

is

an

those
do

not

meet

through its
of images
infinity

of diffusion.

there

is

it

which

pass

space

another, of

But
so

this
much

impossible to apply
exists, not in the glass,but
seems

rays themselves.
that there is a

respect to the different

the

it may
be
which
arises

impression.

great varietyin

colours

I have

of which

compared

this

364

DEFECT

to those
the

of

tremities

the

REPRESENTATION

which

only

rays

centre

OF

lens

B,

covered

were

through

pass

if its

as

with

192.

ex-

of

circle

Fig.

pasteboard.
Let

2.

to be

the

the object O o
suppose
that all its rays shall be of
so
where
nature; the lens will somenow

us

red,
same

the

represent

equally red
of

or

those

But

3.

of

rays

the

point R is, in

the

focus

denominated

which

lens

the

focus

than

of

If the

4.

the

object 0 o
colour
undergo

violet

fraction.
re-

is

violet, as
the greatest

point

be

nearer

is called

rays.

object

colour

least

will

this

it R

this case,
red rays,

the

undergo

refraction, the image

the

of

if the
this

of

image

painted

were

violet, the image

would
fall between
the
points R and V, would
be
terminated
distinct, and
always very
by the
the extremity o of the
from
straight line o B, drawn
of the lens, this being a
object, through the centre

general rule
But

5.

is the

between

colour

in almost

white, which

is

which

of rays
will
each

is formed

which

is

whole

space
The

of

bodies,
of

all
be

represent

of red

object

by
will

an

object

colours, the

is

ent
differ-

tion,
separated by refracimage apart. That
r

at V

violet

filled with

of

and

that

and

images

the

P, then, will represent

object

o,

the

of

R V, of which
the
space
lens is red, and
the nearest

most

the

images

of

the

the

succession

disposed through

small

intermediate

as

pure,

if the

or

will be at R

rays
the
be

is not

colours.

lens

images

all

the

will then

produced

intermediate
6.

of

mixture

species
and

and

for all colours.

if the

case

red

mediate
inter-

other

some

from

remote

violet, and

intermediate

the

the

colours,

BY

the order

according to

365

TELESCOPE.

THE

of the colours

they

as

appear

in the rainbow.
tinct
abundantly disand all terminated
in itself,
by the straightline
from
the extremity o of the object
o B v r, drawn
through the centre of the lens B ; but they could
not be viewed
together \vithout a very perceptible
of these

Each

7.

images

will

be

confusion.

then, is produced

Hence,

8.

of

space

new

fusion,
dif-

from
irregularity
; but differing
it in this
that the latter is independent on the aperture
of the lens, and that each
image is painted of a
particularcolour.
of diffusion R V
9. This
depends on the
space
focal distance
of the lens,so as to be always about
the 28th part ; when, therefore, the focal distance
in the first

as

"

of

lens

the

equal
the

to

red

If the

an

Hence

focus

of

lens

the

image

is

so

foot,

one

feet,

56

great, or

as

feet ; and

of other

of the focal distance

colour

red

and

the

of

always

necessary
But rays of

mean.

understood,

commonly
violet,namely
are

focal

falls at

will fall about

we

said,

the green.
without
further

distance

to understand

are

which

that

it is

when

Thus,

it is

mentioned,
nature

between

feet, we

be two

calculation

is

that
56

violet V

twice

were

would

intermediate

11.

the

uncertain, as the rays of each colour

separate focus ; when, therefore, the

announce

those

and

the

lens becomes
their

an

have
to

focal distance

space
distances.

feet,the space R V becomes

entire foot, that is,the distance
between
is 28

image

the

10.

that

of

that

distance

foot farther

such

it is the
;

the

red

off,and the violet

planation,
ex-

lens is
green

image
a

foot

nearer.

Here,

then, is

importance,

to which

construction

of

23d

March,

new

circumstance
attention

must

dioptricalinstruments.

1762,

Hh2

of essential
be

paid

in the

366

MEANS

OF

REMEDYING

LETTER

of remedying

Means

CIIL

this

Defect by Compound
glasses.

Object-

is necessary
carefullyto distinguishthis new
diffusion or multiplication
of the image, arising from
IT

of
refrangibility

the different

from

colours

pass
than

defect

new

from

accordinglybe

must

will

remedied

for

in order
the

in

to diminish

This

lens.

the

consists

neither

But

the

of these

towards
the

even

increases

remedies

removing

different

from

and

other
all the

which

affords

furnish

any

lenses
from

both

does

number

first
focal

becomes

images

combination
; for

sistance
as-

arising

The
rays.
that the

coloured

assistance

theory

of different colours

great the

the

rays
in the

the least

the inconvenience

the

cave,
con-

meet
may
diffusion be totallyreduced.

of
refrangibility

through
dispersed. Neither

surfaces

combination

the

that

the

space

however

evil ; for the more

considerable
is increased, the more

distance

images

of

space

tance,
dis-

instruments

in

modify the refraction, so

transmitted
through these lenses

point,and

of the

curve

to

same

focal

the

great magnifying power

convex

one

of

introduces

remedy

lenses, the

two

more

differently

I have

increase

an

extremely long whenever

is required. The
other

the

by

proposed
preceding defect ;

the

remedying

consisted

one

that

please to recollect

methods

two

of

diffusion,occasioned

the first.

You

of

first

of different

the rays which

as
aperture of the lens, inasmuch
form
another
tnrough the extremities
image
which
those
This
through its middle.
pass

the

the

the

being

as

rays,

of two
we

are

are
or
sured,
as-

and

experience, that the

remain
always separated,
of lenses

through

which

the

that the

transmitted, and

are

rays

367

TELESCOPES.

IN

DEFECTS

the lens

more

increases.
the difference
magnifies, the more
to the great
This difficulty
appeared so formidable
Newton, that he despaired of finding a remedy for a
he believed absolutelyinseparable from
defect which
the vision is produced
dioptricalinstruments, when
he resolved
For this reason
to
by refracted rays.
give up refraction altogether,and to employ mirrors
instead

of

reflection

as
object-glasses,

nature.
for rays of every
excellent
for us
those

same

effects

whose

surprising

which

I shall describe

different

combination

of several

of

after I

to refractive

thing relative
On
being
remedy the
reason

are

convinced

it

that

is the

idea

has

the
cured
pro-

reflecting telescopes,
so
justlyadmired, and
have
explained every
it

impossible to
refrangibilityof rays
by a
"that
the
lenses, I remarked

same

was

the law

of

refraction,
species of glasses ; and
possibleto employ other

on

in every
that if it were

which

always

instruments.

founded

was

This

is

perceived
refraction
should
be
transparent substances, whose
considerably different from that of glass,it might be
such substance
with glass,
very possible to combine
in such

that

all the rays should

unite in the
of
single image, without
any space

manner

of

formation

of this

diffusion.

In pursuance

to compose

object-glassesof

from

exempt

of the different

effect

the

idea, I found means

glass and water, wholly

of rays, which
consequently would
effect as mirrors.
an
I executed
or

cuses,

the
other
with

which

BBC
the

is A

C, which

lens

between

Fig. 193.

C, and the
joined together

towards

the void between

other, filling
water, so that the rays which

the

menis-

surfaces

concave

two

lenses, Fig.193,

concavo-convex

of

one

with

idea

my

refrangibility
produce as good

must

the

two

them
entered

each
with

by

through the water

lenses,before they went

pass

closed
en-

off

368

MEANS

through

REMEDYING

OF

B.

undergoes, then, four

refractions
first on
: the
passing from the air into
the lens A A C C ; the second
on
passing from this
lens into the water
passing thence into
; the third on
the other lens C C B B ; the fourth on
passing from
this lens

into the

the

As

four

Each

ray

air.

surfaces

of these

here

lenses

two

ter
en-

into

to determine
consideration, I found means
their semi-diameters, so that of whatever
colour
a
these
ray of lightmight be, after having undergone
four refractions,it should
reunite
in the same
point,

and

the

different

different

images.

no
refrangibility

longer produce

These

object-glasses,
compounded of two lenses
and water, were
found
subject at first to the former
defect, namely, that of the rays which
pass through
focus
from what
the extremities
forming a different
is formed
by those which
;
pass through the middle
found
after
much
1
to
means
but,
painful research,
in such a
proportion the radii of the four surfaces
that

manner

these

comj

wholb

specif
execute

by

the

exactly

so

all the

calculation,that

become

fatal to the

obliged

to abandon

slightestaberration

the

whole
the

prescribed

measurements

process
construction

must

therefore

was

of these

object-

glasses.*
veniences
remedy only the inconobject-glass,and the eyeglass

Besides, this project could

which

might

affect the

still labour

under

some

defect

as

great,

impossible to remedy in the same

Several
ployed
manner.
eye-glasses are frequently emof telescopes, which
I
in the construction
afterward
should
shall describe
: we
not, therefore,
to the obgain much
by a too scrupulous adherence
which

it would

be

Object-glasses of this kind, even

incapable of producing the

are
manner,
from
them."

Ed.

if executed
effects which

in
our

the

most

author

correct

expected

IN

TELESCOPES.

ject-glassonly, while we
though their effect may

overlook

DEFECTS

relativelyto
cost

the
of

discovered
of

researches

and

other

means,

of
water

that

as

of

not

well

; as

refrangibilityof rays,
imperceptible. This shall be

With

March,

Other

Means

of them

since
effect

but

of rendering

the

subject of

CIV.

practicable.

more

time
accordingly for some
wholly suspended, under a firm persuasion

past

been

that

effort
every
be
would

demonstrated

arising from

to

raise

them

the

this

of
are

respect,
and

great

of

Newton

perfection
had

difficulties

refrangibilityof

rays was
the construction
teleof scopes.

well

founded,

there

is

no

representing objects but with a

ness
insupportablein proportion to the greatthe magnifying power.
However,
though
in this
telescopes extremely defective

telescope capable
confusion

be

state

insurmountable

different

sentiment

to

the

useless, as

that
the

has

absolutelyinseparablefrom

there

I have

into general
reflecting telescope came
have been so run
down
that they
refractingones
The
the point of being wholly laid aside.
on

construction

If

account

the

SINCE

are

pounded
com-

1762.

LETTER

use,

at

up

Letter.

next

my

on

destroying the

the different
it

have

may

entirelygive
object-glasses

of execution,
difficulty

the

lenses,
greatly perceptible

that I

construction

glasses

the other

object-glass.
these

pains
frankly declare

me,

present
of

that of the

whatever

But

be

not

369

we

of

likewise
nowise

meet

inferior

with
to

that

some

the

so

much

are

lent,
excelboasted

reflecting telescopes. This is undoubtedly a very

great paradox ; for if this defect reallyattached to

370

OF

MEANS

REMEDYING

should
not find a single exception.
subject,we
have the testiand we
Such
mony
an
exception, therefore
of experience that it exists
well merits every
degree of attention.
it happens that cerWe
to inquire,then, how
tain
are
tinct,
telescopes represent the object abundantly diswhile others
but too much
are
subject to the
of
defect occasioned
by the different refrangibility
the

"

"

I think I have
discovered
the reason,
rays.
in the following1
reflections :
I submit

which

"

It is

indubitablycertain that the object-glass

infinityof images of each object,
represents an
all arranged over
which
the same
of diffusion,
are
space
and each of which
is painted its own
proper
demonstrated
in the preceding
colour, as I have
1.

Letter.
2.

Each

respect

of these

to

an
images becomes
object, with
eye-glass,which
represents each separately,

the

in the

colour

to it ;

proper

that

the eye
ages,
infinityof im-

so

discovers, through the telescope, an

disposed in a certain order, according
refraction
3.

And

of the

each

of

4.

instead

of

one

one

to
infinity

an

the

us

now

presented by
let R

the

or

eye,

of which

series

of

ages,
im-

separate object,but

consider, Fig. 194, the last images

Fig.

and

to
were
eye-glass, we
thing will always take
image, the telescope will

expresses
colour.
particular
Let

the

lens.

if, instead of
several, the same

employ
place, and
represent

to

194.

telescope

be the red

of the oth""r colours

to

an

eye
V v the

image, and
being between

placed

at

0,

violet,those

these

two,

ac-

372
of

the

the

will

in

be

11.

and

O,

it ; the
sometimes

Let

result

TELESCOPES.

and

consider

relation

the

be, that

must

greater

now

us

IN

straight line r v with

the
diversity which

terminating

line

place

DEFECTS

REMEDYING

OF

take
may
confusion

sometimes
the

to

less.
in which

case

the

last

so
represented
by the telescope are
images
arranged, that the straight terminating line v r, being
The
precisely into the eye.
produced, would
pass
will then
Fig. 195, along a single ray v r O,
see,
eye

all

the

extremities

Fig.

195.

and,

in

general,

all

the

points

which

and
the
same
correspond to one
point of the
object will be conveyed to the eye by a single ray,
and
will there, consequently,
be
distinctly represented.
12.

Here,

then, is

case

ing
notwithstand-

in which,

the

the
see
diversity of images, the eye
may
of the different
confusion
object distinctly,without
any
hi the preceding
case.
parts, as happened
This
the terwhen
minating
advantage, then, will be obtained
line
v
through
passes
r, being produced,
the place of the eye
O.
of the
R r
the
last images
13. As
arrangement
and V v depends on
the disposition of the eye-glasses,
in order
puted
imthe defect
to
rescue
telescopes from
is requisite but
to
to
them,
more
nothing
arrange

these
line

lenses
of

in such

the

and
through the eye;
will always be excellent.
30th March,
1762.

images
telescopes

last

that

manner
v

thus

the

shall

minating
ter-

pass

constructed

OF

QUALITIES

GOOD

LETTER

Recapitulation
of

CV.

Qualitiesof

the

373

TELESCOPE.

good Telescope.

ON

of the subject,you
taking a general review
will readilyadmit
excellent telescope is a
that an
valuable commodity, but rarelyto be met with,
most
being subject to so many defects, and so many qualities
which
of
has
essential
each
an
being requisite,

influence

the number

As

in order

construction

the

on

no

I shall
make

distinct

1. The

of them

one

the

instrument.

is considerable,
good qualities

of the

that

of

again

may

escape
your
the ground,

over

go

enumeration

servation
oband

of them.

first

respects the magnifying power

; and
the
that a telescope magnifies objects, the
more
more
perfect undoubtedly it is, provided that no
other good qualityis wanting.
Now, the magnifying
of

is to be estimated
power
times that the diameter
of the

object appears

greater

than

will

that, in

to the

naked

telescopesof
so

consisting of

2.

The

of the

second

brightness.
the
In order
be

to

of such

power.

number

recollect

is
lenses, the magnifying power
greater as the focal distance of the

object-glassexceeds
determination

You

the

two

times

many

eye.

from

that of the
more

eye-glass.

lenses

magnifying

property

of

than

power

In telescopes

two, the
is

more

good telescope

tricate.
inis

It is

it repalways very defective when

resents
and
mist.
as
object obscurely,
through a
avoid this defect, the object-glassmust
is regulated by the magnifying
a size as

Artists

have

determined

that, in order

to

magnify 300 times, the aperture of the object-glass

ought to be three inches diameter ; and for every
other magnifying power
in proportion. And
when
not
luminous
of themselves, it
objects are
very
VOL.

II." I i

374

QUALITIES

be

would

employ object-glassesof

to

proper

OF

still

greater diameter.
The

third

or
quality is distinctness
accuracy
of representation. In order to produce this,the rays
which
of the objectthrough the extremities
pass
in the same
glass ought to meet
point with those
which
ration
pass through the middle, or at least the aberbe perceptible. When
should
not
a
simple
is
must
object-glass
employed, its focal distance
exceed
limit proportional to the magnifya certain
ing

3.

Thus, if you

wish

magnify 100 times,

distance
of the object-glass must
be at
'east 30 feet.
It is the destination, therefore,which
imposes the necessity of making telescopes so excessively
to obtain
a
long, if we want
great
very
in
order
this
to remedy
Now,
magnifying power.
defect, an object-glasscomposed of two lenses may
in the conbe employed ; and could
artists succeed
struction
power.
the focal

of

them,

to

should

we

shorten

to

enabled

be

telescopes,

siderably
con-

very
the

while

same

will have
the
remained.
You
magnifying1 power
goodness to recollect what I have already suggested
at some
length on this subject.
the distinctness
fourth
4. The
quality regards likewise
or
purity of representation,as far as it is
affected
by the different refrangibilityof rays t)f

may

I have

colours.

different

be remedied

and

as

shown
it is

how

impossible

by different rays should

images formed
in a single one, the point in question
the

lenses

in

the

I have

manner

that
be

defect

that

the

collected

is to arrange
described
in the

preceding Letter ; that is,the terminating line of the

Without
last images must
pass through the eye.
the defect
of reprethis, the telescope will have
senting
with
the
colours
of
surrounded
the
objects
will disappear on
rainbow
arranging
; but the defect
in the method
But
the lenses
I have
pointed out.
to

this

than

effect,more
in order

to

two

proper

lenses

must

arrangement.

be

ployed,
em-

I have

hitherto
of

one

spoken only
is the

which

eye-glass ;

and

each

is

other

375

TELESCOPE.

GOOD

of

telescopes with two lenses,

and
the other
the
object-glass,
know

that

their

already determined

by

you
here

that

distance
their

from

focal

tances,
dis-

libertyto make
It happens, fortunately,however,
alteration.
any
that the terminating line which
I have
mentioned
nearly through the place of the eye, so that
passes
the defect
arising from the colours of the rainbow
is almost
fect
imperceptible,provided the preceding deis remedied, especially when
the
magnifying
so

we

at

not

are

is not

But
very great.
considerable, it would be f -roper

power

in
of

the

order

rainbow,

entirely to
in this

when
to

the

employ

annihilate

the

is

power
two

eyeglasses,
colours

the

slightestdefects,
insupportable.
being equally magnified, become
fifth and last good quality of a telescope
5. The
is a large apparent field,or the space which
the instrument
as

discovers
small

at

pocket-glasses
subject to the defect

case

You

once.

with

concave

recollect

that

eye-glass

are

of

small
presenting a very
them
renders
field,which
incapable of magnifying
other
species, that with a convex
greatly. The
eye-glass,is less subject to this defect ; but as it
represents the object inverted, telescopes of the first
be preferable, did they discover
a
species would
depends on the diame'ter of the
larger field,which
we
not
canaperture of the eye-glass ; and you know
this
increase
it is
aperture at pleasure, because
determined
But
by focal distance.
by employing
two
or
more
three, or even
eye-glasses, we have

found

to

means

this is

and

lenses

render

additional

an

in order

the

apparent field greater

reason

to procure

for
a

ral
employing sevespects
telescope in all re-

excellent.
these

To
that

the

good qualitiesanother
representation shall not

instrument,

as

defect

be

may

be still added,
may
be inverted
by the

by astronomical
telescopes. But this
easilyremedied, if it be one, by the

376

TERRESTRIAL

addition
in my
3d

of two

next

more

TELESCOPES

eye-glasses,as

I shall show

Letter.

April,1762.

LETTER
Terrestrial

CVI.

Telescopeswith four

length of telescopes
lenses,known
composed of two convex
by the name
of astronomical
tubes, because
they are commonly
used for observing the heavenly bodies.
of such
You
will readilycomprehend
that the use
excellent
instruments, however
be, is
they may
jects
limited
to the heavens, because
they represent obin an inverted position,
which
is very awkward
would
in contemplating terrestrial bodies, as
we
rather wish to view
them
in their natural situation;
but on
the discovery of this species of telescope,
means
were
quickly found of remedying that defect,
telescope.
by doubling, if I may say so, the same
For as two lenses invert the object,or represent the
image inverted, by joining a similar telescope to the
verted,
former, for viewing the same
image, it is again inand this second
representationwill exhibit
the objecc upright. Hence
arose
a
new
species of
trial
telescopes, composed of four lenses, called terrestemplate
telescopes,from their being designed to conmethod
the
of
terrestrial objects ; and
constructingthem follows.
four lenses A, B, C, D, Fig. 189, enclosed
1. The
Fig. 189.
I

HAVE

treated

at considerable

Lenses.

FOUR

WITH

in the tube

377

LENSES.

N, represent the telescope in

question; the first of which, A, directed towards the
M

the object-glass,
and the other

object,is denominated
the

three, BCD,

These

eye-glass.

be

and
the eye must
all convex,
extremity of the tube, at a certain
are

last

eye-glass D,

be afterward
Let

2.

lenses
at the

placed

distance

from

of which

determination

the

four

the
shall

explained.
the

consider

us

which

effect

lens

each

is viewed
the object O 0, which
produce when
through the telescope,is at a very great distance.
The
object-glass will first represent the image of
this object at P p, its focal distance, the magnitude
of the image being determined
by the straightline
must

drawn
the

from
lens

extremity o through the centre

This
line is not
represented in

of

the

A.

figure,that

be embarrassed

it may

not

image

P p

with

too

the

many

lines.
3. This

with

placed

respect

in such

be

equal to
second
image

its focal

distance,
first P

be

as

the

ject
ob-

B, which

is

interval

shall

distance, in order that

thence
transported to an

q, which

p, and terminated
the
of the
centre

from

lens

that the

manner

place of

second

the

to

may

the

occupies

will

by

the

lens

be inverted

as

the
nite
infithe

straightline drawn
B through the extremity

p,
4.

The

A, B

is

interval
and

should

we

which

these

equal,therefore,to

distances

B,

between

an

the lens
eye placed behind
astronomical
telescope,through

the

be seen
object O o would
consequently inverted, and magnified

as

the

distance

instead
some

of

P exceeds

the

eye,
distance, the

which

the
as

image Q

we

third
q

being

at

at

q, and

times
many
B P.
But
the distance

place behind
lens

occupies

in fact it receives

Q q, which

focal

of their

sum

the

were

have

the

first lenses

two

the

as

the

C, with
the
rays

very great
I i2

B,
respect
lens

place

of the

from

this

at
to

ject,
ob-

image

distance, the lens

378

TERRESTRIAL

C will

the

represent

TELESCOPES.

of it,at its focal

image

distance,

in Rr.
5.

The

7.

Hence

image Q q being inverted, the image R r

will be upright,and terminated
by the straight line
from
drawn
the extremity q through the centre
of
will pass
the lens
C, which
through the point r.
Consequently the three lenses A, B, C together represent
the object O o at R r, and this image R r is
upright.
have
0. Finally,we
only to place the last lens in
that the interval
D R shall be equal
such a manner
D will again transto its focal distance
port
; this lens
R r to an
the image
infinite distance, as
S s,
will be determined
the extremity of which
s
by the
from
the centre
of the lens D
straightline drawn
through the extremity r ; and the eye placedbehind
this lens will in fact see this image S s instead
of the
real object O o.
to ascertain

it is easy

this

telescope,composed
the object ; you have
couple of lenses, A, B
be
an
separately would
The
first pair of lenses A

times

as

the focal

that of the
will

the

object

the

give
four

focal

lens
the

lenses,

times

must

nify
mag-

to the

of

two

which

astronomical
and

lens

telescope.
magnifies as many

the

of
B

by it,Q

first lens

and

ceeds
ex-

times
many
the real
q, exceed
so

o.

D, it will

and

the

formed

object with

of the

as

second

many

only to attend
and
C, D, each

distance

Further, this image

8.

image

of four

how

respect to the other

be

distance

D.
whole

Q q occupying the

again multipliedas
of

the

lens

place

pair of lenses

many
exceeds

times
that of

added
magnifying powers
produced by the
magnifying power

These

two

lenses.

If,then, the first pair of lenses, A and B, magnify

ten
times, and the other pair, C and D, three
times, the telescope will magnify the object thrice
ten, that is,thirty times ; and the aperture of the
9.

380
D

ARRANGEMENT

for

each

pair
be

must

lenses

and

it is certain

of

of the

On

that

the

the

middle

two

this

at

As
or

always compounded
produce separafely,

same.

consulting

when

But

pleasure 1
interval
be great

power,
pair would

each

which

continue

2.

whether

the

fixed

simple

lenses.

between

it be

May

as

convex

magnifying-

two

must

two

interval

that

the

small,

the

considered

be

may

telescope, composed
what

LENSES

OF

experience

middle

we

lenses

perceive

soon

too

placed very near

other, the apparent field almost
ishes
entirely vanthe same
thing takes place when
they are
; and
far separated.
In both
to whatever
object
cases,

the

telescope

each

small

two

is

pointed,

For

lenses

this

artists

reason

to

nearer

the

distance, till they

delay fixing the lenses

situation.
this

only

very

than

the

last

the

till

the

they

of

to

them

remove

discover

pair

largest field,

have

found

this

Now

they have observed, that in settling

advantageous arrangement, the distance

most

the

bring

first, or

greater

of

discover

we

part of it.

3.

and

are

middle

lenses,
of

sum

the

and

focal

C, is always

distances

of

greater

these

same

lenses.

two
4.

will

You

readily

conclude

that

this

distance

be supported by
depend on chance, but must
that affording a termination
much
more
a theory, and
nished.
what
than
exact
experience alone could have fur-

cannot

it is the

As

of

duty

natural

philosopher

which
of all the phenomena
investigate the causes
experience discovers, I proceed to unfold the true
determine
the most
principles which
advantageous
to

distance

this purpose

between
I refer

the
to

two

Fig.

Fig.

197.

197.

middle

lenses.

For

381

TELESCOPES.

TERRESTRIAL

IN

be conveyed
must
all the rays
attend to the direction of that one

to the

5. As

let

us

the

through

passes
unless

extremity

the

from

of the

centre

of

the

eyer/

which, proceeding

visible

object,
object-glass; for

this ray is conveyed to the eye, this extremity

this ray undergoes no
Now
O will not be visible.
in the object-glass,for it passes
refraction
through
the

therefore

; it will

centre

proceed

lens, which

line to the second

straight

it will meet

this is the last ray

b, as

in

in its

transmitted

tremity
ex-

through

the lenses.

ray, being refracted

This

6.

will

change

at

the

its direction

axis

the

to be

the

the

7.

We

must

meet

n, may

; but

with

the lens

second

somewhere

would

have

lens, had
as

the
than

it

lens,

the

pened
hap-

at

will

from

proceeds

axis

ray

be

its focal distance.

place the third lens C in such a

the axis
ray, after having crossed
it exactly in its extremity c ; from

now

that the

manner

axis

the

to meet

this

of this

reunion

from

distant

more

at

focus

parallelto
point A, its

been

as

lenses

the

of

so

by

evident, that the greater the aperture of

it must
this lens C is,the farther
be removed
from
the lens B, and the greater the interval B C becomes
:
be taken
must
not to
but, on the other hand, care
which

it is

remove

the lens

the ray

would
This

distance

beyond

that

point,as

in this

it,and be transmitted
circumstance, then, determines
escape

the

between

two

middle

lenses

no

case

ther.
far-

the

just
and
C,

experience.
will produce a new
lens
8. This
refraction
of
the ray in question,which
will convey
it precisely
to the
extremity d of the last eye-glass D, which,
being smaller than C, will render the line c d somewhat
the axis, and
will thus
convergent towards
undergo, in the last lens,such a degree of refraction
conformably

to

as

will

it with

the

and

there

it is

placed,in

order

to

distance

be

reunite
;

axis

at less than

exactly that

receive

the

all the

its focal
eye

rays

must
trans-

382

CONSTRUCTION

mitted

OF

the

through

TELESCOPES.

lenses,

and

to

discover

the

greatest field.
Thus

9.

we

diameter

"

are

enabled

is almost

to procure

twice

field whose

nomical
large as with an astroof
the
same
telescope
magnifying power.
By means, then, of these telescopes with four lenses
obtain a double
we
advantage ; the object is represented
and a much
larger field is discovered
upright,
of much
both circumstances
importance.
10. Finally,it is possible to find such
an
ment
arrange-

of these

as

four lenses

without

affectingeither
of the advantages now
mentioned, shall entirelydo
the defect arising from
the colours of the rainbow,
away
time represent the object with
and at the same
all possible distinctness.
But few artists can
attain
this degree of perfection.
Wth
April,1762.
as,

CVIII.

LETTER

of
of Tubes.

Necessityof blackeningthe
Diaphragms.
scopes.

tion
respecting the construcsuggest and explain certain
to be used;
which, though

researches

these

AFTER

telescopes,I must
precautions necessary
they relate neither to the
of

their

arrangement,
if

that

the

in such
them
the

they

sufficient
a

shall

eye ; care
transmission

not

are

very
is rendered

that

the

that

manner

must

of

be

lenses

all the

transmitted

be

lenses

themselves

nevertheless

are

best instrument

is not

Inside

nor

of such

importance,
carefullyobserved,
It
entirelyuseless.
should
be arranged

rays

through

which
these

fall upon
lenses

taken, besides, to prevent

through
the
to disturb
representation. Let
precautions,then, be taken.
extraneous

to

rays

the
the

to

the
scope
tele-

lowing
fol-

1. The

of which

lenses

in

be enclosed

must

which

those
the

tube

chink

the
be

must

transmitted

are

reach

glass may

through
For

cept
exrays
the object-

this

effect,

close

throughout that no
portionof light. If by any

so

the tube shall be

accident

other

no

lenses.

other

very
the smallest

admits

telescope is composed

tube, that

383

TELESCOPES.

OF

CONSTRUCTION

perforatedever

so

slightly,

confound
would
the
light admitted
representation of the object.
of importance to blacken
2. It is likewise
out
throughthe inside of the telescope,of the deepest black
does
that this colour
possible,as it is well known
the

extraneous

be
reflect the rays of light,
You
have observed,
must

so
they ever
ful.
powerthat
the
accordingly,
tubes of telescopes are always blackened
internally.
the necessity of it.
A single reflection will show
mits,
3. The
object-glassA, Fig. 199, transnot only the rays of the object repFig. 199.
resented
by the telescope, but those also
\p
which
all around
enter
by the extremities

not

in

great abundance

which

falls

of

tube

the

the

at i

white

were

on

and

of

of

is the

inside

ray b a,
the frame

upon

if,therefore, the

inwardly,

colour, it would
ray,

such

be

of

or

itself would

light,which

other

any

illuminated

tube

by

generate

this
new

of

necessity be
conveyed through the other lenses, and
disturb
the
representation, by mingling
with the proper
rays of the object.
rays

4.

But

blackened

if the

must

inside

deeply,

no

of

the

new

rays

tube
will

be
be

produced, let the light be ever

so
strong. This
be
carried
must
the
blackening
whole
through
length
of the telescope,as there is no
black so deep as not
generate, when
illuminated, some
Supposing, then, that some
extraneous

to

to make

of

the

their way

to

the

second

tube, pursuing their

lens

course,

faint
rays
B, the
would

light.
were

black

easily

384

CONSTRUCTION

them

absorb

OF

altogether.

which, for this

TELESCOPES.

There

is

it would

reason,

brilliant

black,
improper to

be very

employ.
But

5.

this

even

precaution

likewise

necessary
with one

to

furnish

is not

the

it
sufficient,

inside

of the

is

tube

diaphragms, perforatedwith a small

circular aperture,the better to exclude
all extraneous
be taken
that they do not exmust
clude
light; but care
is
the instrument
the rays of the object which
See
intended
to represent.
Fig. 198.
or

more

to observe
at what
It is necessary
place in the tube the proper rays of the
be
object are most contracted
; this must
6.

Fig.

198.
A

their images are

points where
represented,for there all the rays are
collected
together. Now, the objectglass A represents the image in its focus
You
have
at M.
only,then, to compute
the magnitude of this image, and there
to fix your
diaphragm, whose
aperture
shall
be equal to the magnitude of the
m
n
image, or rather somewhat
greater. For
if the aperture were
less than the image,
there would
be a proportionalloss of the
is always a great
apparent field,which
the

at

defect.
7.

These

are

which

the

glass in
to
a

is the

8.

In terrestrial

scopes
tele-

represented within the tube ;

M, represented by the object-

are

first at

lens B transthe second

ports
focus, and which
infinite distance, the third lens represents
is upright,
image in its focus N, which

an

the
proper
with an

image

lenses.

its

second

whereas

phragm
respectingthe diaastronomical
telescopes

to

convex

images

two

besides

observations

apply

of two

composed

the

there

These

former

place

inverted.

was

to fix

second

n, of

the

represented.
diaphragms, aided

by

aperture

At

N, therefore,

diaphragm perforated
magnitude of the
the

blackness

of

385

TELESCOPES.

OF

the inside of the tube, produce likewise

excellent

an

effect with

respect to distinctness of representation.

It must
be carefully observed, however, that the
the telescope discovers,
greater the field is which
the

less is to be

expected from these diaphragms, as

in that case
the images become
greater,so that the
be so
enlarged as
aperture of the diaphragms must
them
to render
incapable of any longer excluding the
fore,
the greater care, thereSo much
rays.
the inside
be taken thoroughly to blacken

extraneous
must

of

the

tube, and

the

diminishes
been

to make

it

unpleasanteffect

ably
consider-

of which

I have

speaking.

13th

April,1762.

LETTER
In

larger,which

what

Telescopesrepresent

manner

Planets, the Sun,

last appear

CIX.

and

the Fixed

the

Stars.

Moon,

Why

the

these

through the Telescopethan to the

naked Eye.
Calculation of the Distance of the Fixed
Stars, from a Comparison of their apparent Magnitude
with that of the Sun.
I

smaller

persuaded, that by this time you are very

well
pleased to be relieved at length from the dry
is rendered
theory of telescopes,which
agreeable
the
discoveries
which
of
the
only by
importance
they have enabled us to make.
What
tant
pleasing surprise is felt on seeing very dishundred
as if they were
one
objects as distinctly
AM

times

where
especiallyin cases
there is no possibility
holds
of reaching them, which
with respect to the heavenly bodies ! And
you are
already disposed to admit, that with the aid of the
telescope many wonderful
things relatingto the stars
have

nearer

been

On
VOL.

to us,

or

more

discovered.

viewing

the

II." K k

moon

one

hundred

times

nearer

386

TELESCOPES.

OF

she

than

cernible
disare
inequalities
excessive
heights and profound
their regularity resemble
rather
curious

reallyis,many
such

as

depths, which

from

works

than

of

art

mountains.

natural

Hence

is deduced
to prove
that
plausible argument
But
creatures.
is inhabited
moon
by reasonable
have
we
satisfactory in simply
proofs still more
in union
with
contemplating the almighty power,
and
the sovereign wisdom
goodness of the Great
very
the

Creator.
have
been
important discoveries
made
respecting the planets,which, to the unassisted
luminous
only as so many
points ; but
eye, appear
which, viewed
through a good telescope, resemble
Thus

the

the

even
appear
will be not

you

assure

points,nay,

still smaller

is

the

much

the

were

magnifies

more

than

still appear
to the naked
eye.

stars

than

them

hundred

such

times

scope,
teletwo

only

as

This

it is certain
would

they

as

Are

nearer.

we

necessity of concluding,
here
telescopes fail to produce their effect"?
this idea presently vanishes, on
considering that
hence

not

that
But

without

their

We
eye.
the stars

to the

reduced

discover

they

to

us

have

when

viewed

eye

seemed

through

then, is

naked

us

smaller

eye 1
that the
first,
than

the

perceive

In

the

almost

the

distance
very considerable
effect of the telescope.
to

for

incomparably greater

naked

What,

of little stars

millions

aid, must

likewise

to the

eye

best

astonishing,that

more

two

we

surprised, when
of the

telescope represents

appear

greater.

assistance

the

fixed

times, the

little

which

one

even

hundred

with

that

you

so

still much

and

moon,

But

most

reason

escaped

ever

distances
for two
to

touch

telescope
; a

the

the

between

stars

which

each

other,

are

sufficient

that

which,

at

seen

proof

fixed

of the

stars

appear
to the

through the telescope than

resolving this question, I remark,

fixed

stars

they ought

appear
to do, and

greater

to the naked

that this arises

from

APPARENT

he

is,before

of
stars

would

so

he could

fixed

THE

be

follows,

ance
appearif the fixed

that

the sun, their distances

greater than that of the sun.

still greater, their distances

they

times

greater; and

times

more

than

sun.

Now

about

96,000,000 of English miles.

smaller,their
thousand

the

distances

times

distance

them

from

sun

impossible,undoubtedly,to

globe

our

of that Great
power
fabric,and who is the

this vast
it ]

Let

llth

adore

us

Him

with

the Moon

and

settingthan

at

do

and

most

What
created

Master

absolute

the

extent

of

eration.
profound ven-

April,1762.

CX.

LETTER

Why

who

Being

is

mense
of this im-

think

of the fixed stars, and of the

of the whole- universe, without
astonishment.
be the

be

that of the

distance

must

even

always

must

greater than

of the

still

be

must

supposing

many

It is

to the

large as

as

192,000 times

many

be reduced

It

star.

bodies

were

Were

OF

represents it ; and, consequently,the sun must

times 960, that is, 192,000 times
farther off

scope
be 200
than

MAGNITUDE

attendingthe

the Sun
a

appear greater at rising

certain Elevation ?
Difficulties

Solution

Phenomenon,

of this

frequentlyremarked, that the moon

much
at risingand setting appears
largerthan when
she is considerablyabove
the horizon
; and
every
truth
of
this
must
one
enon.
phenomgive testimony to the
You

must

have

The

same

respect

to

the

has

observation

sun.

This

made

been

appearance

has

long

with
been

in
stumbling-block to philosophers ; and, viewed
whatever
insuperable prelight,difficulties almost
sent
a

themselves.
It

would

moon's

horizon

body
than

be
is

ridiculous

to

reallygreater

when

she

has

conclude
when

attained

she
her

that

the

is in the

greatest

THE

AND

MOON

that

elevation.

For, besides
in itself,it must

absurd
the

to us
appears
of
inhabitants

moon

to other

consequently smaller.
the same
body should
and

such

in the

would

at the

when

appears
elevated, and

more

that

impossible

it is

Now,

be

she

horizon

globe

be

idea

an

considered, that

be

our

389

SUN.

time

same

greater

smaller.

It would
the

solution

this

of

that

the

in the

equally ridiculous
strange phenomenon

almost

be

is

moon

than

horizon

to

nearer

attempt
by supposing
she

when

us

is arrived

she

when

to

pears
apat

certain
our
knowledge that
great elevation, from
body appears greater in proportion as it is nearer
distant any
that the more
you know
smaller
it appears.
It is for this reason
that the
stars
so
extremely
appear

; and

us

is,the

But

however

totallydestitute

of foundation

certain, that

moon

at

us

the

rising and

and

the

the

down,
moon

point

at the

at

surface

be

will

at the

same

; so

that the

moon

the

see

elevated
another
line

earth, will
in his

time

will appear,
spectator A

instant, to the
in his zenith, and to the other spectator
D in his horizon.
It is evident, however,
same

the

greater than
the
those

who

from

those

last

the

see

first A
is

moon

her
who

distance

L, and

in the horizon
see

her

near

is

quently
conse-

distant

more

it is
from

greater

Fig.

laid

being

the

moon

that

small,

vation.
ele-

200.

earth,

the

the

of

at

follows

This

L.

D, where

at

the

the

horizon

when

in his zenith, or the most

of the heavens.
But

touches
see

at

inhabitant

inhabitant

cisely
pre-

undoubtedly

greater distance

setting,than

circle

moon

an

is at

demonstration

The
Let

; for it is

from
than

their

object

magnitude be prodigious.
seem,
plausible this idea may

their real

though

Fig. 200.

390
zenith.
when

Hence

clearly follows,
horizon, ought to

in fact farther

great elevation.

this, and that the

viewed

of the
The

the

more

it

this

to

greater
summit

is

phenomenon
and

the
investigated,
tention
more
worthy of at-

the

being undoubtedly
remote, that is,in

greater.
in

arrived

contradiction

much
appear
than
in the

horizon

decidedly of opinion that

seems

even

smaller,

certain

that the moon,

the

horizon, ought to
smaller, whereas, nevertheless, every one is

most

appear

moon,

heavens.

when

the

astonishing, therefore,

be in direct

strange it appears,

more

that

appear
than when

us

should

moon

near

from

It is

should

that observation
when

THE

it

in the

seen

being then
at

RESPECTING

REFLECTIONS

This

to overturn

she

then

contradiction
all the

optics,which, however,

are

any in geometry.
I have purposely endeavoured

as

erably
considappears
is evident, and

principleslaid

down

ble
clearlydemonstra-

as

to set this

difficulty

to make

in order
strongest light,
you the more
sensible
of the
importance of the true solution.
of this universal
Without
entering into a discussion
from
respecting the
judgment, formed
appearances,
in the horizon, I
prodigiousmagnitude of the moon
shall confine
myself to the principalquestion : Is it
the horizon,
when
near
true, in fact,that the moon,
actually appears greater ?
in its

possessed of infallible
of exactly measuring the heavenly bodies,by
means
of degrees and
minutes
ascertaining the number
in the
which
heavens;
they occupy
or, which
to the same
amounts
thing,by measuring, Fig. 201,
formed
the angle EOF,
by the lines E 0 and F 0,
You

know

that

we

are

Fig. 201.

MOON'S
drawn

from
of the

eye

call

we

have

APPARENT

391

MAGNITUDE.

the

opposite points of the moon

spectator 0 ; and this angle E O

the

diameter

apparent

likewise

of

the

to the

F is what
We

moon.

instruments

perfectlyadapted to the
of exactly determining this angle. Now,
purpose
when
in measuring
we
employ such an instrument
the moon's
ward,
diameter, first at her rising,and aftershe has gained her greatest elevation,
when
somewhat
less in the
we
actually find her diameter
than in the other, as the inequalityof distance
first case
remain
the shadow
cannot
requires. There

of

doubt

instead
difficulty,
and

it will

with

so

it that

comes

the

reason,

diminishing,gathers strength ;

of

asked

be

How

but, for that very

to this ;

as

the

much

the

whole

more

world

eagerness,
in
agrees

to be greater when
imagining the moon
rising or
is then
in
setting, though her apparent diameter
be the reason
of this
can
realitysmaller ] and, What
are
men
delusion, to which
universally subject!
knows
The
who
astronomer,
perfectlywell that the

apparent diameter

moon's

into the

is then

smaller, falls

deception as

same

the

ertheless
nev-

rant
igno-

most

clown.
20th

April,1762.

LETTFR

CXI.

the Questionrespecting the

on
Reflections
Magnitude. Progress towards a
the Difficulty.Absurd
Explanations.

of

appearance
I

; but

hope

involved

moon

I shall

be

able

that the
so

to

many
clear

of

simple
ties
difficul-

the

way

magnitude
correspondence
the

in

the

parent
ap-

Solution

solution, by the following reflections :

It is not astonishing that our judgment respecting

towards
1.

believed

scarcelyhave

would

You

Moon's

"

of
with

objects

should

the visual

not

angle

always

under

be

which

392

we

it : of

see

proof.
near,

under

of 100

THE

RESPECTING

REFLECTIONS

cient
dailyexperience furnishes suffiwhen
A cat, for example, appears,
very
tance
at the disox
greater angle than an
this

I could

paces.

at the

never,

time,

same

imagine the cat to be larger than the ox : and you

will please to recollect,that our
judgment respecting
with that
magnitude is always intimately connected
of

distance

that

; so

commit

we

distance,

of

calculation

if

our

mistake

in the

respecting

judgment

of

necessity,erroneous.
this more
times
2. In order to elucidate
clearly,it somehappens that a flypassing suddenly before the
our
thinking of it, if our sight is fixed
eye, without
on
a distant
object we imagine at first that the flyis
it appears
under
at a great distance
as
a very
; and
to be a
considerable
angle, we take it for a moment
distance
would
at the
large fowl, which
proper
pear
apis
It
then
under the same
angle.
incontestably
certain, that our judgment respecting the magnitude
of objects is not regulated by the visual angle under
which
they are seen, and that there is a very great
the apparent magnitude of objects
difference between
and the calculated
or
computed
magnitude. The
the other
first is regulated by the visual angle, and
to which
the
we
depends on the distance
suppose
object to be removed.
serve,
avail myself of this remark, I further ob3. To
that we
the
see
ought not to say that we
than at a considerable
moon
greater in the horizon
This is absolutely false,for we
then see
elevation.
somewhat
less.
her even
But, to speak accurately,
we
judge and compute the
ought to say that we
magnitude becomes,

is

true
literally

is in the

she

greater when

moon

with

the

unanimous

This

contradiction

formerly suggested
judging or computing

greater

when

under

smaller

she

rises

visual

or

; and

this
of all

consent

is sufficient to reconcile

mankind.

our

horizon

; for

the

the

apparent
nothing prevents
moon

to

sets, though she is

angle.

be

seen

MOON'S
We

4.

longer, then,

no

are

393

MAGNITUDE.

APPARENT

called

explain

to

upon

greater in the horizon, which

why we see the moon
is impossible,for in realityshe then appears
smaller,
be demonstrated
as
by measuring the visual
may
to this :
therefore, is reduced
angle. The difficulty,
to be
Wherefore
do we
judge or compute the moon

greater when

in

The
know

we

small

whatever

the

the

we

As

illusion,that

my

We

horizon
as

of

greater

but

Wherefore

of

imagining
distance

quence
conse-

conclude

whatever

eye is at
obliged, almost

am

it

my

as

times

many

the real distance

of the

do

the

is

the

moon

universal

so

For

is then

moon

new

in the

seen

is this illusion

single exception !

that

that the

we

presume
when
she

to

the illusion

at

much

altogetherunaccountable.
that the moon
is then reallya

I demonstrated

difference

Besides,
than

is settled,

is

distant, as
the

tain
cer-

any object to be,

this in the same

therefore, reduced

now,

undoubtedly true
more

eyes.

to admit

not

exceed

at

For, in every

before

not, to suppose

greater distance
1 and, Wherefore

it,the

imagine, by

paces,

paces

to be

b'kewise

is, and

the

attained

of

estimate
it

when

her

proportion.

as

100

or

are

question :
is at

100

as

flyfrom

under

computation

must

fly passing close

I will

greater

soon

of

distance

whether

them

see

cause

we

we

presume

proportion.

6.

the

distant

more

greater

the

be

may

that
is necessary,
to be greater in

moon

we

suppose
she has

this

Whenever

elevation.

case,

when

than

greater distance

the

estimate

we

then, that

have

is

moon

putation.
com-

angles.

only to say,
risingor setting,we

We

5.

in which

cases

great, though

be very

objects to
very

thousand

we

surprisingin itself,as

is not

thing

rather,

or

for this whimsical

to account

endeavour

must

situations'?

those

the

moon,

is

so

sun,

does

in my

triflingas

though
not

100

appear

to be

times

last

It is
little

Letter

ble.
imperceptimore

so, and

the

tant
dis-

eye

394

APPEARANCE

estimates

OF

the

fixed

stars

therefore,

when

even

MOON

THE

as

at the

nearly

same

distance.

Though,
horizon, she
7.

is

circumstance
and

this

whole

universal

founded
of

distance

on

reasons

universal

producing
is

which

us

in

the

distant, this

question

present
which

induces
be

to

the

then

at

be
really is, must
capable
entirely different, and
illusion.
putation
For, as the com-

unquestionably

determine

she

make

to

the

erroneous,

it must

reasons

be

necessarily

striking.

very

Some

philosophers have
phenomenon
by alleging

8.

this

the

by

than

is

moon

more

the

computation,
the
moon
imagine

to

greater

little

affect

cannot

world

much

actually

the

and

intervention

the

then
she

such

moon,

mountains.

This,

to
appears
has attained

body

of

be
a

intervenes,

this

explanation,

sight

is destitute

the

the

horizon

body

which

appear,
in
moon

made

in

any

objects,
Besides,
we

she

they,

must

however

occasioned

objects between
cities, villages, forests,
is the

farther

considerable

she

it is

that

explain

to

various

as

say
much

attempted

off; whereas,
elevation,
be

to

appear

ingenious
of solidity.

through
shall

nevertheless

that

reason

nearer.

no

and
she

when
other
But

it may
at first
On
looking at
small

conceal
still

as

us

the

aperture
diate
interme-

greater.
not
imagine
objects
always
between
bodies
which
and
other
interpose
us
many
when
distant.
A
are
more
great hall, for example,
much
quite empty, usually appears
larger than when
filled with
the numerous
notwithstanding
company,
and
the
walls of
us
objects then interposed between
the
apartment.
24th

do

April, 1762.

seems

that

396
have

certain
and

Wherein
of

This

present inquiry.
considers
Every one

our

1.

heaven

as

much

nearer

meets

the
on

flattened

to

extends

which

than

us

azure

the

it
part, where
ingaccordingly, standp^,

202.

his

as

vault

of

called

under
firmament,
A E F B, in which

is

under

the

person,

far

as

of

expanse
of which

summit

B, Fig. 202,

sight, perceives
heaven, commonly

the

arch, the

horizon.

plane

versal,
prevalence is uniimputed to caprice.
is to be the subject

be

therefore

it consist

can

its

foundation, as

cannot

MOON

THE

OF

APPEARANCE

the

the

figure

the

distances

the
gi eater than from
idea
is likewise
2. This

much

-A-

zenith

and

are

C.

to

beyond all question a

illusion, there being in realityno such vault
mere
surrounding and enclosing us on every side. It is
a

void

of immense

distant

of

extent,

fixed

the

stars

of

all power

as

imagination.

and

subtile, which
3.

beyond, by

that

this

clown,

surface

are

more
fluid,infinitely

vault, however, has

it possesses
undoubted
an
the
; and all mankind,
the

word

the

use

ceeds
ex-

call ether.

we

Though

far

that

terrestrial bodies.
gross
mosphere
atis occupied by our

void, to distinguish it from

the earth, space
For, near
;

interval

an

"

to the most

it reaches

subject to

of *his arch

the

no

realityin
philosopher
same

real existence,
our
as

illusion.

nation
imagiwell
On

as

the

imagine the sun, the moon,

to be disposed like so many
and all the stars
liant
brilstuds affixed to it ; and though we
have
a perfect
conviction
of the
cannot
help
contrary, we
giving way to the illusion.
4. This being laid down, when
is in the
the moon
horizon, imagination attaches her to the point A or
B of this supposed vault, and hence
her
conclude
we
distance

to be

line C A

or

as

we

much
to be

greater as
greater than

consider

we

the

Z ; but when

IN

she ascends
she

and

comes

think

zenith, we
which

that

in

are

we

is

distance

the

moon

6.

the

Z.

All

will

one

will

zenith,

that the

that

the

the

in

same

exceed

to

appears

moon

not, perhaps, agree

three

and

times;

medium

between

of

two

and

three;

assertingthat

being

tator

is at

let N

under

we

When

the

her. Fig. 203,

see

the

specwhen

C ; and

at

putation
com-

in the
is

moon

under
p.

with

certain

near

"

tion,
great elevavery
C D be the angle

which

we

that

is evident

necessarilyinvolved

distance.

MCA,

say

is

generality

in

infallibly
agree
larger.

magnitude

horizon,

angle,

in

the

appears
to present you
here
It may
be necessary
demonstration
of this proposition. The

computation

she

distance

say
for the

of

the

to conclude

the

will

every

in

proportion ; one will say, the moon

in the horizon
twice
as
great when

to him

but

than

at A

moon

this

determining

will declare

the

As

greater; and

much

so

proportion that

appears
another

necessarily involves

from

forced

manner

really

the

to distance

the

very
distance.
possible

is at the least

farther

imagine

reaches

respects magnitude.

much

appears

as

zenith, we

if she

and

she

illusion

The

5.

the

approaches

nearer;

397

HORIZON.

THE

gles M C A
nearly equal

see

these

and

to each

her.

It

two

an-

are

other, the

difference

being

percepti
im-

But, in the first case, as we estimate the moon's

distance
to be
much
greater, or equal to the line
C A, with
reference
above
to the imaginary vault
described, it follows, that we
the moon's
compute
7.

diameter

to be

equal

the

line

other

case,

much

smaller; and consequently,

is

equal
VOL.

the

to

to the

IL"

distance

of

angle MCA,
1

the

the

moon
as

But, in the

A.

the

appears
angle N C D

computed

magni-

398

APPEARANCE

tude

will

magnitude
To

8.

and

the

two

n,

so,

the

the

; but

that

computed

have

doubt, you

and

is

the

only

to

parts C

evidentlysmaller

is less
of the

reason

why
in the

we

than

distance

the
is

clear

estimate

horizon

stration
demon-

the

than

moon

when

near

April,1762.

LETTER

The

Heavens

You

charge

by

objection is
lays me under
true

pretending to
able.
equally unaccountimaginary vault of

another

arch

an

In order

will be
the

when
zenith.

foundation, and

my

towards
may,

the

the

This

The

therefore

summit.

perhaps,

be

to account

horizon
is

The

received

lowing
folas

an

engagement.
for this

imaginary vault, it

alleged that it proceeds from

heavenly bodies, as seeming
in

venly
hea-

horizon.

the

near

other

the

creased
in-

necessity of attempting to explain

in the form
why the heavens
appear

reflections
of

and

moon

the

as

the

flattened

acquittance

or

without

not

reason

in

flattened

doubt, with

of the

appearance
bodies
when

1.

Arch

form of an

the Zenith.

no

me,

illusion

one

the

It may
be said, that the
is altogether as
inconceivable

heaven

the

CXIII.

under
appear
towards

will

explain

of

the

zenith.

29th

of

than

times
as
many
than
C A.
This

as

greater when

to be

smaller

lines

the

line

HEAVENS

equal to the lines C D and C N ; and as in

trianglesC d n and C D N, the angles at the
wise
likeare
are
equal, the trianglesthemselves
and consequently the line D N will be equal

M, and

and

much

put this beyond

off from

to

be

THE

M.

cut

point

OF

than

when

undoubtedly

the

near

formal

appearance
remote

more

to

or

in

the

petitioprin-

THE

TOWARDS

as
logicianscall it,or
cipii,

which

ground

of

that the

imaginary

in the
the

entitled

vault

of the

to

tion,
ques-

reject

as

truth, having said above

of heaven

makes

the

moon

off than
farther
when
near
appear
be ridiculous
it would
to affirm, that the

horizon

zenith,

thing
such

In

reasoning.

begging

is

one

every

399

ZENITH.

leads

which

vault

is that

than

vertical.

distant
2.

It

idea

of

of
imagine the existence
horizontal
objects appear more
to

us

not, however,

was

useless

to

suggest

the

not
imaginary vault, though it may
us
a
forward; and after I shall
great way
carry
have
the heavenly bodies
explained wherefore
pear
apviewed
the horizon,
when
remote
near
more
to comprehend, at the same
time,
you will be enabled
the reason
of that twofold
universal
illusion,namely,
the apparently increased
magnitude of the heavenly
bodies
when
in the horizon, and the flattened arch

of

this

heaven.
3.

whole,

The

wherefore
horizon

these
on

the

then,

heavenly

objects appear
the

me

now

than

of

in

seen

when

explain

at

the
siderable
con-

affirm, it is because

less brilliant

task

double

when

bodies

remote

more
appear
elevation.

this, to

to

reverts

and

this

imposes
demonstrating why these
;

in or near
the
objects display less brilliancywhen
this circumstance
horizon, and of explaining how

necessarilyinvolves the
I flatter myself I shall be
of

these
4.

phenomenon

question.

his
same

and

enabled

greater distance.
to

discharge both

itself will

greater

it is then

not

the sun's

be

called

lustre

may

in
be

impossible to ascertain,
know
that in the morning and evening, when
is rising or setting,it is possible to contemplate
body without
injury to the eye ; and the
any
thing takes place with respect to the moon
all the stars, whose
ished
brilliancyis greatly diminaccordin the vicinityof the horizon.
We

at noon,

you
he

However

which

of

satisfaction.

to your

The

idea

400

APPEARANCE

ingly do not see

elevation above

the

This

being

doubt, the

to be

that

can

we

body

it is not

so

that all the

no

shine

room

with

the

heavens

the

air of

at

at

certain

this

small
ficiently
suf-

are

height.

beyond

difference

of
possibility

of illumination

investigated. It is abundantly evident

it only in our
trace
atmosphere, or the

as

be

stars when

established

of air which

it without

HEAVENS.

horizon, though they

of

cause

remains

smaller

the

discernible
5.

THE

OF

our

encompasses

perfectlytransparent.
rays

should

undergoing
to

the

doubt
same

any
that

earth, in
For

the

lustre,in

stars

far

if it were,

be transmitted

diminution,

so

through
could

there

must

whatever

always
region

of

they might be discovered.

the air, a substance
much
less fine and
6. But
subtile than
ether, whose
transparency is perfect,
with heterogeneous particles,
is continuallyloaded
and
risinginto it above the earth, such as vapours
exhalations, which
destroy its transparency ; so that
it would
if a ray should fall in with such a particle,
be intercepted,
and almost
extinguishedby it. It is
the air is loaded
accordingly evident, that the more
with such particles,which
prevent the transmission
be lost by the intercepof light,the more
tion
rays must
that a very thick mist deprives
; and
you know
almost

all its

transparency,

to

such

gree
de-

frequentlyimpossible to distinguish
objects at three paces' distance.
in Fig. 204
7. Let the points marked
represent
that

it is

Fig. 204.

*"""
particles scattered througtithe air, whose
is greater or
less,according as the air is
number
less transparent. It is evident, that many
or
more
such

LIGHT

of

OF

the

and

rays which
that the loss

the

space

is

We

greater.

the

of

We

in

had

that

greater
to

run

be

must

space

then, that

in

lost,

proportion

through that
distant objects

fog, while such as are

still perceptible,because
a

their

is

very
the

as

air
come
be-

near

of the

space

in

see

we

When

comprehend

why

less brilliant when

risingand
1st

that

near

atmosphere

zenith.

next

or

this
the

setting.

WHAT

is

than

then, is

when
will

done, you

nearer

easily

bodies

much
appear
than at the time

the horizon
shall

be

the

subject of

Letter.

May,

1762.

CXIV.

LETTER

Reason

pervade

This

longer

no

of the stars
rays
horizon
have
a longer

heavenly

near

be

the

our

to

in order
must

this you can

that remains,

All

the

heavenly

considerable
Of

demonstrate,

to

of the
rays
the atmosphere

more

doubt.

any

longer

the

through

eyes, the
diminution.

or

entertain
which

to pass

our

loss

conclude, that the

which

through

have

simply

hence

must

to reach

my

they

401

BODIES.

rays
in their progress
a greater number
their transmission.
obstruct
particleswhich

space
bodies

of

must

be

see,

be
eye
may
the first meet

8.

the

HEAVENLY

pervade

which

invisible
of

THE

assignedfor the Faintness

Heavenly Bodies in the
I have

of

the

Light of

the

Horizon.
that the rays
horizon, have a

just advanced, namely,

in the
heavenly bodies, when
larger portion of our atmosphere to pervade, may
somewhat
paradoxical,considering that the
appear
height,
atmosphere universally extends to the same
its
star
that at whatever
be,
so
point the
rays
may
of that
must
always penetrate through the whole
The
following
height before it can reach our eyes.
of the

L19

402

THE

OF

LIGHT

HEAVENLY

BODIES

reflections,I flatter myself, will give you

satisfaction
of the
B

A
the

the

the

air rises

the

that

2.

always

subtile,

air,that which

The

grosser
that
particles

so

expanse
is most

of heaven.
loaded

with

intercept and extinguish the rays

in the lower
light,is universally found
regions,
of the earth.
It becomes, therethe surface
fore,
the

has

subtile

light;

become

and
so

distance, then,

the

height
transparent as
at

whatever

whereas

such

of

atmosphere is a
the magnitude of
3.

Let

A,

on

and

the

sider,
cona

ing
draw-

centre

of

globe G, through A,

the

line G
of

Z, it will be

towards
the

line A

the

nith
ze-

spectator.

S, which

of

; so

English

to occasion

of

the

is

no

light.

circle

and

miles
ceptible
perThe
the

English miles nearly,

of the
globe contains
that the height of the
matter
compared with

globe.

the

directed

small

tator
specthe surface

of the earth
from

at

miles

very
the

now

us

Fig. 206,
at

fixed

less obstructive

interior

semi-diameter

the

"ibout 3982

the

between
be

exterior, may

ascend, and

we

as

obstruction

The

tion
proporthe surface

fillsthe whole

which

more

of

marked,
re-

imperceptibly lost

at last it is

in the ether

it be

above
and

205.

height

the

it becomes

transparent

For

dotted

universallyin

of the earth
more

represent

Let

idea

just
globe.
a

circle

exterior

atmosphere.

as

near

shall

shall mark

that

of

interior

the
purpose
C D, Fig. 205,

circle abed

the

all necessary
to form
which
surrounds
our

atmosphere

earth, and

of

subject.

It is first of

1.

this

the

on

complete

Fig.

206.

404

LIGHT

able.

OF

This

that

is the

it

THE

HEAVENLY

first

proceed

is

the

almost

to

imagine

greater

distance

the

of

the

prove

forces

bodies

at

them

see

we

to

which

light

heavenly

when

strate
demon-

to

namely,

second,

diminution

than

I undertook

point

to

BODIES.

much

in

us

all their

lustre.
The

7.

with

which

we

the

through

air

undergo

it is evident

that

from

more

the

us,

obscure

approach
other

minuter

distinguish
misleads

in

emit

in

much

so

this

contemplating

us

from

that

and

for

4th

the

be

subject

May,

to

same

You

greater.

reasoning
the

setting

be

1762.

tant
dis-

on

nearer

it, and

impossible

was

which

and

to

the

of

rays

the

than

at

solid, and

which

this

be

to

conclude

myself,
embarrassing

I flatter
this

elucidated

as

to

be

they

principle,

considerable
we

reason

will,

light

moon

has

fundamental

objects
of

never

bodies,

this

conclude

clearly
permits.
as

more

very

on

trees

childhood

conclude

we

but

passing
lustre,

removed

terrestrial

we
as

But

the

Thus,

It is in virtue

and

rising

to

of

which

proportion

therefore,
at

in

our

is

loses, and

general,

so

weakened.

are

it

specting
re-

distance.

remote

very

from

principle,
distant

of

object

an

its lustre

observation,
us

produced

off

at

This

diminution

some

proportion.
quite dark
appears
can
easily discover
it
objects, which

we

in

light

in

it becomes

mountain

8.

of

and

judgment.

of

rays

farther

the

bodies,

conversant,

form

we

that

reason

the

day

distance

same

in terrestrial

sought

every

are

whose
for

be

must

reason

the

farther
tion
elevashe

is

admit

nomenon
phenature

THE

DISTANCE

OF

CXV.

LETTER

Illusion

405

OBJECTS.

respectingthe

Distance

Diminution

of Objects,and

the

of Lustre.

principleof our imagination,by which I have

of the
endeavoured
to
explain the phenomenon
moon's
greater apparent magnitude in the horizon
than at a considerable
elevation, is so deeply rooted
THE

in

nature

our

to

of which

illusions,some

similar

the

to become

as

of

source

thousand

I will take

the

liberty

suggest.
habituated

been

have

We

from

infancy, almost

involuntarily,to imagine objects to be distant in

the
proportion as their lustre is diminished
; and, on
other hand, very brilliant objects appear
to be nearer
This illusion can
than they reallyare.
proceed only
quently
from
an
imagination, which
ill-regulated
very fremisleads
and

that

universal

so

against it,though
palpable,as
of

the

moon

of

other

appear.
1. It is

but

The

in all its lustre

2.

nearer

For

which

the

are

near

conclude
;

and

of

deceived

I shall

guarding

night

in

riety
va-

presently make

illusion that

the

much
appears
is obvious
; the

flame
nearer

of

than

fire blazes

in

same

reason

great hall,the walls

of

smaller.
appears
brilliant colour : hence

perfectlywhite, always

White, you know, is the

we

equally

are

reason

and

capable

is extremely
error, in many
cases,
shown
I have
in the instance

we

the

is

conformity to a principleprethe imagination,we

always conclude
than it is in reality.
;

in

established

one

natural

so

the

well-known

reallyis.

it to be

no

nevertheless

instances, as

conflagrationin
it

It is

us.

the walls

most

of such

consequently

thereby diminished.

an

apartment

the apparent

to be too

magnitude

is

406

THE

DISTANCE

OF

OBJECTS.

apartment hung with black, as is the

in mournings, we
custom
perceive the directly
siderably
conopposite effect. The
apartment now
appears
more
spacious than it really is. Black
But

3.

in

an

is

gloomy of colours, for it

undeniably the most
the eye ; hence
the
reflects scarcely any light on
walls of an apartment in deep mourning
more
seem
distant than they are, and consequently greater ; but
let the black
and the white
hangings be removed
and the apartment will seem
colour
tracted.
conreappear,
4.

No

class

natural
same

at

avail themselves

men

universal

illusion

the skill of

is not

to

of this

and

than

others

as

very

artist is most

near

conspicuous.
know
though we

the

little

and
It

to
surprising,that
piccertaintyall the representationsof a ture
be expressed on
the same
sequently
surface, and conthe eye,
distance
from
at nearly the same

absolute

more

painters. The
know, represents some
objects as

picture,you
great distance,

here

we

and

of

should
and

sion,
of illupower
and others
to be quite near,

be, nevertheless, under

imagine

some

the
is

cribed
commonly asof lightand shade,
to a dexterous
management
which
undoubtedly furnish the painter with endless
But you have
resources.
only to look at a picture
to be thrown
that the objects intended
to be sensible
tinctly
indisbut faintly and
even
are
to a great distance
expressed. Thus, when the eye is directed
ample,
to very
remote
objects,we easilyperceive, for exit is impossible to
that they are
men
; but
distinguishthe parts,such as the eyes, the nose, the
it is in conformity to this appearance
and
mouth;
that the painter represents objects. But those which
close to us he displays in
should
he intends
appear
all the brightness of colouring,and is at painsclearly
to express
each minute
particular. If they are persons,
of
the
smallest
lineaments
we
can
distinguish
the face, the folds of the drapery, "c. : this part

extremely

distant.

This

illusion

AZURE

COLOUR

OF

THE

of the

representationseems,

of the

canvass,

while

407

HEAVENS.

say, to rise out

to sink and
appear

I may

other

parts

retire.
art of
illusion,therefore, the whole
Were
accustomed
to
we
painting entirely rests.
form
our
judgment in strict conformity to truth, this

this

On

5.

make

no

more

blind.

To

no

art would
were

we

call

forth

that

affirm, on

blue

whitish

one

lines

; there

real

of colours

on

be

would

in this

paper,

and

no

in such

black

is

the

painter
employ the

is

red

coldly
spot,

stroke, here
the

on

some

plane

same

be considered

case

face
sur-

therefore
manner

as

no
:

the

ing
scrawl-

should

perhaps fatigueourselves
attempting to decipher the meaning

we

in
purpose
of all these different
to

there

if

than

us

should

we

rising nor sinking ;

represented in this

no

can

canvass

thing

every

of

there

is

object

whole

piece

on

would
purpose
of genius, and

all his powers

happiest arrangement
here

impression

coloured

spots.

Would

not

perfection be an object of
much
compassion, thus deprived of the pleasure
so
resulting from the productions of an art at once
amusing and so instructive 1
8th May, 1762.
man

of

state

LETTER
On

You

why

are

the

in the

the Azure

and

horizon

consists

in

these

the

than

bodies

comprehend the reason

much
greater when
appear
a

we

to be at
on

their lustre

longer
through the

at

passage
lower

the Heavens.

of

to

moon

this,that

founded
which

Colour

enabled

now

sun

CXVI.

considerable
then
a

elevation.

It

pute
unintentionallycom-

greater distance,

putation
com-

the very considerable

diminution
in that positionundergoes, from
which

region

the
of the

rays

have

to

atmosphere,

force
which

408

ON

is the

loaded

most

the

whereby

AZURE

THE

COLOUR

and
vapours
is diminished.

with

transparency

exhalations,
This

is

recapitulationof the reflections which I have

this subject.
the liberty
to suggest on
taken
diminishes
This qualityof the air,which
rency,
transpaas
a defect.
might at first sight be considered
shall find it so
But on attending to consequences,
we
far from being such, that we
ought, on the contrary,
in it the infinite wisdom
and goodto acknowledge
ness
To
this impurity of the air
of the CREATOR.
for that wonderful
indebted
and ravishing
are
we
of the heavens
the azure
spectaclewhich
presents
the
for
the
which
obstruct
to
particles
eye ;
opaque
illuminated
ward
the rays of light are
by them, and aftertheir own
retransmit
proper
rays, produced in
in
their surface by a violent agitation,as is the case
brief

it is the

Now,

bodies.
all opaque
communicated

to them

this

magnificent azure
; a
deserves
to be completely
observe, first,that

1. I

minute

and

other, besides their

wholly transparent.
each
we

can

the

same

therefore
Hence

particlesas

be

it

which

us

well

unfolded.
these

particles are

considerably distant
being delicatelyfine
Hence

it

tremely
ex-

from
and

to

comes

each
almost
that

pass,

are

near

be

mass

of air.

The

collected,in order

to
as

us

escape

cording

to the

their several

are

as

same

rays,

direction,
which

eye, and
of several

rays
to excite

that
our

such
senses,

of

sation.
sen-

these

for

they

points dispersed through

distant
very
Fig. 207, the pointsa b c, collect in the eye O, almost
acsuch

to the

once

clearly follows,

considered

must

But

to

represents

circumstance

their rays at
direction.

transmit

nearly in

2.

which

separatelyis absolutelyimperceptible,so that

be affected by them
a very
only when
great

number

must

of vibrations

number

thus

from

the

".
"

o-*

eye,

the

as,

become

to affect the

strong
sufficiently
it is considered

when
in

concur

3. The

when

colour

azure

that

well

efg h, as
producing this

remote,

more

409

HEAVENS.

THE

OF

sight,especially
particles

similar
others

as

more

which

in the heavens

see

we

nothing else, then, but the result of

dispersedthrough the atmosphere,
particles
is

serene

all these

especiallyof such as are very remote

affirmed,therefore, that they are in their
does
but a blue extremely clear, which
except
deep and perceptible,
sufficiently
in

are

4.

If,on

near,

effect.

very great
to the same

number,

and

unite

it may
become

when

they

their rays

of producing a similar
the power
dissolvinga small quantityof indigoin

quantityof

cording
ac-

direction.
effect.

has

Art

blue,

nature
not

be

let that water

great

fall drop

by drop,
not
perceive
separate drops the
you
of colour ; and on pouring some
slightest
appearance
of it into a small
goblet,y9u will perceive only a
fill a large vessel
But if*you
faint bluish colour.
water,

you

in

will

water, and

with

the

will

perceive a

same

be

the

view

it at

distance, you

The
same
very deep blue.
with other
colours.
made

ment
experi-

Burgundy
small quantities,
only to be
appears
; but in a large flask completely filled,
of a deep red.
the wine
appears
in a large and
5. Water,
deep vessel, presents
something like colour ; but in a small quantity is
monly
altogether clear and limpid. This colour is comless of a greenish cast, which
more
or
may
in saying that the minute
warrant
us
particlesof
likewise
water
are
so
delicately
so, but of a colour

may
wine, in very
faintlyreddish

fine that

great

the colour

multitude

of it must

be collected

before

because
the rays of a
perceptible,
then concur
towards
particles
producing

can

of

mass

be

this effect.
it appears
probable, from
that the minute
particlesof water
6. As

might
VOL.

be maintained, that
II."

the

this

reason

are

observation,
greenish, it

why

the

sea,

410

OF

the water

or

For

azure.

of

the

it is

the

as

this
the

whole

colour

of

extent

ascribed

is to be

air,but which

the

do

not

pertain
ap-

fact,the purer the air is,and the more

purged
of
heaven's
exhalation, the brighteris the lustre
which

for the

particlesof
with

is

sufficient

proof

air.

the

it,such

to diminish

must

we

of the proper
gling
minsubstances

Extraneous

exhalations, become,

as

its lustre.

such

that

of it in the nature

reason

contrary, injurious to that beautiful

with

of
appearance
all the particles

In

azure

look

is the

green,

it.

to

from

the

heavens

more

prodigious mass, such

atmosphere, than that
to vapours
floatingin
7.

pool,appears

probablethat
have
a
faintlybluish cast, but so
be imperceptible till presented in a

to

as

or

gives the

air should

faint

very

lake

that

same

very

of

AIR.

TRANSPARENT

and

azure,

the
serve

air is overloaded

the

When

on

fogs

vapours, they produce

near

the

face,
sur-

entirelyconceal from us the azure

ance
appearis
when
as
elevated,
frequently
they are more
;
clouds, which
frequently cover
case, they form
ferent
whole
face of the sky, and
present a very difand

the
the

colour

that of this

from

of the

pure air.
air,different from

azure

This, then, is a new

quality of
those
formerly explained subtilty, fluidity,and
particlesof air are in
elasticity
; namely, the minute
"

their nature
llth

May,

bluish.
1762.

CXVII.

LETTER
What

the

Appearance

would

be

were

the Air

perfectly

transparent.
INDEPENDENT
heavens

of the beautiful

procured
air,

extreme

were

it

for
we

spectacleof

by

this

should

be

us

colour

of

miserable

perfectlytransparent, and

the

azure

the
in

cumambien
cirthe

divested

412

TRANSPARENT

OF

stars, therefore, would

the darkest
whole

the

invisible ; and
likewise

star

N. for

receive

the

could

star

be

not

of

rays

the

not

be

would

be

to see,

for

ample,
ex-

sun,

eye would
with which
it

the feeble

N.

would

it the

excite

towards

in

that this

sun

able

looking to

forciblythat

so

to look

lightof the
say nothing

in attempting
eye open
This
is too obvious

be understood.

to

not

on

the

near

as

of the little

space
heavens

any sensation.
impossibilityof keeping the

the

of

be considered

of the

rest

should

we

struck

be

must

the

noon-day,

at

to the

time, stars

same

the

visible

be reduced

all
angle EOF;
black as night.
At

be

but it must

night ;

ray would

AIR.

opposing to the sun an opaque body, which

shall intercept his rays, you could not fail to see
the
it might be to the sun.
It is
star N, however
near
should
state we
a dismal
easy to comprehend in what
This
be.
then
proximity of lustre insupportable
the most
and darkness
profound must
destroy the
ness.
of vision, and quickly reduce
to total blindus
organs
from
Of this some
judgment may be formed
feel on
the inconvenience
we
passing suddenly from
into light.
darkness
inconvenience
is completely
this dreadful
Now
of the air, from
its containing
remedied
by the nature
to a very small degree, and susceptible
particlesopaque
of illumination.
Accordingly, the moment
But

the

on

whole

his

rays,
which
way

of

earlier,

ever
described, so that our eyes, whichdirected, receive a great quantity of rays
I have

particles. Thus, on looking

gree
M, Fig. 208, p. 411, we perceive a great deof the
lightproduced by this brilliant azure

generated
towards

horizon, nay, somewhat

illuminated
with
atmosphere becomes
and
we
are
presented with that beautiful

the

azure

the

is above

sun

in the

same

heavens.
This
our

very

illumination

seeing the

stars

of the

by day

the

atmosphere prevents
reason

of this is ob-

TRANSPARENT

OF

It far exceeds

vious.

of

nerves

struck

already
sensible
of

the

will

the

nothing
But

of

that

that

though

great

as

of

sun

the

the

eye,

being

no

longer
light

light, are

by

the

feebler

that

the

light of

times

200,000
this

and

of the

the

will

heavens

should

sun

thousand

many

full

be

times

to

the
faint

more

convince

in the

you

is

mere

the

sun.

day-time,
is

overclouded,
exceed

the

so

light of

moon.

You

less

of

the
stars
light proceeding from
with
the
in comparison
light of

even

when

the

are

sufficient

is

moon

brilliant, and

that

frequently perceived

have

must

night

the

illumination

the

the

bottom

greater

; and

disappear

to

recollect

please to
is upwards

moon

than

the

stars.

You
full

the

at

stars, and

by a very strong
impression made

the

to

lesser

the

retina

the

of the

that

makes

light always

413

AIR.

that

full,the

those

only

stars

in

the

much

appear

of

superior magnitude
visible, especially in the moon's
vicinity ; a
proof that the stronger light always absorbs

feebler.

the

It is

before
the

then

an

be

begins to
he rises, as

vivacity

of

benefit, that

unspeakable
we

his

illuminated

by

the

sun

thereby prepared

are

which
would
rays,
is, if the transition

sphere
atmo-

our

even

to

otherwise

bear
be

from
insupportable, that
night to
instantaneous.
The
season
day were
during which
is gradually illuminated
the atmosphere
before
sunafter he sets,
to be illuminated
rising, and continues
its importance,
is denominated
twilight. This subject, from
merits

propose
article
15th

to

attempt

particular explanation,

which

in my

thus

in

next

physics naturally
May, 1762.
Mm

runs

Letter
into

; and

another.

I
one

414

LIGHT.

OF

REFRACTION

CXVIII.

LETTER

Refraction of Rays of Light in the Atmosphere, and

its Effects. Of the Twilight. Of the apparent rising
and settingof the Heavenly Bodies.
IN order
that

he

of

the

the

sun,

and

b d the

surface

draw

continues
what

to

twilight,or
precedes
time

some

has

horizon

the

been
and

after

already

the

j^

let

sphere.
atmo-

399.

R
a. ......"?....

the

on

earth, through

straight line

the

I, touching the

which

heavens

circle

assumed

of the

which

the

of

cause

D, Fig. 209, represent the

atmosphere;

O be

point

dotted

the

earth, and
o

you

respecting
circle

the

Let

refer

is set, I must

demonstrated

the

illumination

rising of

the

explain

to

earth

0, and this line H I will

represent the horizon, which
separates that part of the
at

heavens
not.

is visible

which
As

soon

the

in

appears
and the

whole

which

be

the

reach

already

be

have

S T

point of

our

visible.

rising of the
horizon
begins

proportion

as

the

is

line, he

rising and setting,

minated.
then
completely illuat

sun

his

before

line at S
at

from

T, may

atmosphere situated in our

there
will
are
particles which
by that ray, and consequently
time
fore
beAccordingly, some
hoR
over
sun, the atmosphere

the

opaque
illuminated

the

this

R, grazing the earth

the

become

is

which

that

reached

the
suppose
the horizontal

us

still under
ray

the

horizon

horizon, both
let

from

us

has

sun

atmosphere

But

risingto

the

as

to

to be
sun

illuminated

approaches

at

the

R ; and
horizon

in
a

REFRACTION

OF

415

LIGHT.

greater part of it will be illuminated,till it becomes

at length completely luminous.
forward
This reflection leads me
to another
nomenon
phe-

equally interesting,and very intimately

with it,namely, that the atmosphere disconnected
covers
the body of the sun
and
of the other
to us
time before
stars
some
they get above the horizon,
fallen
after they have
and
time
some
below, by
which
of the refraction
means
rays of lightundergo
on
passing from the pure ether into the grosser air
which
constitutes
our
atmosphere ; of this I proceed
to give you
the demonstration.
to proceed forward
1. Rays of light do not continue
in a straight line any longer than
they move
of the same
nature.
through a transparent medium
medium
As soon
to another,
as
they pass from one
they are diverted from their rectilinear direction"
their path is,as it were,
broken
off; and this is what
call refraction, which
1 formerly explained at
we
considerable
that rays, on
length,and demonstrated
passing from air into glass, and reciprocally,are
thus
2.

broken
Now

when

must

of

refracted.

or

air

being

of

light passes
necessity undergo
ray

Thus, the arch

medium

different

of the

ether

from

circle A

R, somewhat

and

the

angle

the

3.

pi-

minating
ter-

210

tion
direc-

on
tering
enN, but will assume,
direction
into the air, the

M
M

same

air it

B, Fig. 210,

upper atmosphere, if a
ray of lightM S, from the ether, falls
it at M, it will nofc proceed
upon
in the

ether,

into

refraction.

some

our

straight forward

from

I have

greater

in
on

N ; AN
is denominated

different from
N

angle

of refraction,

or

simply

the

tion.
refrac-

already remarked, that the refraction is

liquely
obproportion as the ray S M falls more
the surface
of the atmosphere, or as the

416

REFRACTION

angle

OF

S is smaller

or

LIGHT.

acute.

more

falls

perpendicularlyon the surface of trie

atmosphere, that is, if the angle B M S is a right
angle, no refraction will take place, but the ray will
its progress
in the same
straightline. This
pursue
rule is universallyapplicable
kind of refracto every
tion,
ray

whatever

through

which

the

Let

the

arch

4.

be the nature

may

of the

rays travel.
of the circle

two

media

B, Fig. 211,

Fig. 211.

the

represent

terminate

the line 0

at

0, it will be

(forno one
line),the
would

very

horizontal.

O,

person
horizon

at

us

S,

so

; but

in

very

being

that the
at

N, would

sun

would

at S ; or, which

horizontal

line O

arch

is still

still invisible
in

straight

straightline
on

the

mosphere
at-

oblique direction,the
acute, it will thence undergo
a

to

O, though

sun

it falls

as

very
refraction
considerable

so

be

to

as

the

at
you draw
of the earth

if the

And

to N

M, and

forward
M

and

atmosphere. If
V, touching the surface

over

at

earth,

of his rays can

yet reach us
in a
ray S M being continued

pass

angle F

the

the

horizon

the

under

of

surface

and

assume

instead
the

of proceeding

direction

be

actuallyvisible
still considerably below
is the same
thing,below

to

the
the

V.

the ray M
the
meets
as
0, which
However,
is horizontal, we
assign that direction to the
eye,
himself, and imagine him to be actuallyat V,
sun
5.

that is, in the

horizon, though

he

is still below

it.

OF

ELEVATION

THE

often

as
And, reciprocally,

as

star, in the horizon, we

any
still below
it,according to the
or,

more

In

6.

has

to be about

below

minutes

considerable

assured

angle

see

the

see

the

after

time

it ; and

he

sun,

or

they

are

V, which

half

degree,

before

sun

horizon, that is,while

our

of 32

we
are

exactly,32 minutes.
the morning, then, we

reached

angle

observed

have

astronomers

417

STARS.

he

in the

is

he

yet

an

evening

is

reallyset, as we see
him till he has descended
an
angle of 32 minutes.
We
call that the true
rising and settingof the sun
when
he is actually in the horizon
the commencement
; and
of his appearance
in the morning and
the apparent
disappearing at night we denominate
risingand setting.
7. This
of the atmosphere, which
refraction
ders
renthe apparent risingand setting of the sun
both
earlier

and

benefit of

later than

the

for

real, procures

us

the

much

longer day than we should enjoy

did not the atmosphere produce this effect.
Such
is the explanation of a very important phenomenon
a

in nature.
18th

1762.

May,

LETTER
The

Stars

appear

at

greater Elevation

Table
have

now,

effect

of

You
and

the

in

the

no
our

CXIX.
than

they are.

of Refractions.
doubt,

clear

idea

atmosphere, by

of

which

this singular
the

sun

other

visible
heavenly bodies are rendered
horizon, though considerably below
it,
tion.
they would be invisible but for the refrac-

whereas

For

heavenly
above

necessary,

the

bodies
the

same

reason

always
horizon

the

at
appear
than
they

sun,
a

and

all the

tion
greater eleva-

It is
reallyare.
therefore, carefully to distinguish the

418

ELEVATION

OF

THE

STARS.

be
apparent elevation of a star from what it would
I shall endeavour
to
no
atmosphere.
were|jthere
set this in the clearest lightpossible.
the arch A O B, Pig. 212, be part of the
1. Let

Fig. 212.

which

through

draw

horizon.

true

the

spot

straightline

the
this

surface, and

the
the

earth, and

of the

surface

line H

we

are,

ing
R, touchO R will represent

let there

From

where

be

drawn

pendicular
per-

straightline 0 Z, which is the same

This
suspending a given weight by a cord.
the point Z of the
said to be vertical,and
the

thing
line

as

is

it terminates, is called the zenith.

heavens, in which
This line, 0 Z, then, is perpendicularto the horizontal
line H 0 R, so that one
being known, the other
2.

This

Fig. 213

proceed
at

in the
where

in

laid

were

there

ray

we

should
0

direction

same

would

that

is, we

true

place.

would

Let

see
us

star

Fig. 213.

to the
see

it

S,

actually be

should

be

sphere,
atmo-

no

straightline

0, and
it

down, let there

being

the

eye

likewise.

be known

must

"

it in its

then

mea-

HL

at

S,

420

OF

ELEVATION

continued

line

th^t

be

must

This

s.

point s

real

the

be

would

the star

where

at

place of the star S,

the
s
apparent place of the star, which
carefully distinguished from its place S,

call

we

STARS.

somewhere

from

different

being

THE

seen

there

were

sphere.
atmo-

no

Since, then, the star is seen

by the ray N 0,
which
this ray N O makes
with
the angle NOR,
the horizon, is the apparent altitude of the star ; and
6.

when

by

NOR,

instrument
proper
said to have
are

we

star ; the

of the
the

shown,
R 0
the

to

stars

appear
than
the horizon

are

altitude

tude
apparent alti-

being, as

have

we

the

greater

the

Now,

the

above

at

us

appear
it.
still below

angle

S.

they reallyare
already in the

they

the

apparent altitude
the real altitude R O M, so that

greater than

is

evident, that

it is

Hence

7.

found

real altitude

angle

the

measure

we

for

the

horizon

son
rea-

while

angle

above

same

they
apparent

of the

excess

is thfc

true

elevation

which

ON,

we
angle S N s, and which
call the refraction.
For, though the angle S N s, as
being the external angle to the triangle S N O, is
equal to the two internal and opposite angles taken
and
N S O, we
sider,
conmay
together, namely, SON

does

the
N

S O
N

star, you
order
other

to

parallel,and

vanishes;

the

quently
conse-

that

so

of

nearly equal to. the angle

have

the
of
have

refraction

altitude, that

the

the

tion
refrac-

real

it the

at

much

For

from

is, to determine

how

in order

to

reduce

the

there

is

no

this

pains

to be subtracted

of

refraction,in

altitude,which

discovering.
been

altitude

apparent

from

subtract

must

astronomers

altitude.

as

of

5.

method

deducted

S
N

distance

immense
N

Having found, then,

8.

the

angle
is

the

S and

lines

stars, the

of

account

on

angle

the

differ from

not

purpose,
to ascertain

each
much

apparent

apparent
must

be

to the real

421

CONCLUSION.

9. From

been
the

at

long series
length enabled
a

table of

observations,they have

to construct

refraction,in which

altitude

apparent

of

Thus,
that is,when
the refraction

the
the

table, called

is marked

the refraction

when

or

angle

for every
tracted.
to be sub-

apparent altitude

is

thing,
no-

in the horizon,
appears
; the star is accordingly

star

is 32 minutes

below
the horizon.
actually32 minutes
But if the star has acquired any degree of elevation,
be it ever
so
inconsiderable,the refraction becomes
much
less.
At the altitude of 15 degrees it is no

angle

an

of

it is

only

one

the

; at

minute

altitude
and

as

of

the

40

grees
de-

altitude

the refraction

increases,

length it
degrees.
10.

minutes

four

than

more

This

always becomes
less,tillat
entirelydisappears at the altitude of 90
is the

case

when

star

is

seen

in

the

is then 90 degrees,and
very zenith ; for its elevation
the real and apparent altitude is the same
we
: and
in the zenith
is
fullyassured that a star seen
sphere
actually there, and that the refraction of the atmodoes
not change its place,as at every other
degree of altitude.
are

THE

VOL.

II." N

END,

GLOSSARY
OF

AND

FOREIGN
THE

FEOM

SCIENTIFIC

LONDON

TERMS.
REVISED.

EDITION,

A.
in astronomy,

ABERRATION,

in

Abstraction,

idea

general
Thus,

tree,

man,

which

the

bodies,

earth's

annual

agreeable

to

Aeriform,

having
the

filled

balloon

form

Greek

is of

Aerostation,

be

may

a
pursues
it is made

pursued

out
with-

plant included

or

person

alities,such

in the

whiteness,

as

cruelty,

Latin.
the

concord,
the

to

optics,

Glasses, in
focus, and

word

which
of which

relation

whether

ear,

of

sounds

two

emitted

at

once

or

Latin.

succession.

Achromatic

all qu

with

same

always

are

individual

ideas.

abstract

generosity, are
in music,

Accord,

ideas, and

abstract

are

to any
one
descending
Accordingly,
general term.

The

celestial

the

metaphysics, that operation of the mind

without
attending to the particulars

up.

light

in the

light,and

of

Latin.

motion.

in

motion

by the progressive

occasioned

motion

apparent

an

form

art

of

which
free

image
and

extraction,

the

diffused

bring

from

of
rays
colour.

unnatural

any

signifies colourless.

Latin.
of air.
consistency
into
the
ascending
atmosphere
or

air

with

those

are

an

or

lighter

gas

than

that

of

by
the

of

means

atmosphere.

Latin.
in

Affirmative proposition,
Man

as,

Air-pump,

vessels

the

science

with

such

asserts

affirms

or

that

of
of

as

ing
air,chiefly by exhaust-

on

fluid.
arithmetic

universal

and

supposed
to
known,

is, by comparing

which

experiments

for making

machine

close

Algebra,

which

logic, a proposition

Latin.

is mortal.

are

; the

general

unknown

reduce

supposition

of

process

numbers

or

to

tities
quan-

certainty.

Arabic.

Alkali,

in

and

chymistry,

unites

with

which

substance

oils

and

forms

and

blues

vegetable

turns

soap,

with

acids

and

to

forms

green,
salts.

Arabic,

Altitude,

in astronomy,

the

height

of

heavenly

body

above

the

horizon.

Latin.

Amalgamate,

to

incorporate

sometimes

used

of

substances,

several

to

mercury

denote,
so

in
as

or

quicksilver

general,

the

make

them

to

mixture
appear

with

other

metals
,

and
one.

consolidation
Greek.

424

GLOSSARY.

Greek.
agreement,
in grammar,
logic,
Analysis, resolution into first principles, whether
In grammar,
or chymistry.
mathematics,
an
analysis of a sentence
of the various
it \a comis an indication
posed,
parts of speech of which
and
the
ranged.
they are argrammatical rules according to which
A ckymical analysis is the decomposition of a body for the
Greek.
of ascertaining its elementary or constituent
parts.
purpose

having

Analogous,

and

Anathema,

its

generally used

resemblance

or

compounds, something
in an ungracious sense

set

apart

to

; devoted

sacred

use;

"

cursed.
destruction,ac-

to

Greek.
the

Anatomy,
the

of two

opening

the

Angle,

which

science

of both

lines

which

in

without

which,

the

of the

structure

meet

in

point,so

propositionsin
of

intervention

body,

and

Greek.

it.

reasoning upon

straight line. Latin.

logic, the former of two

one

Antecedent,

of the

treats

of dissecting and

art

not

as

to

form

soning,
species of reaproposition,

middle

any

is termed
the
directly to a fair conclusion
; and this conclusion
Thus"
I
1
reflect
I
exist.
therefore
reflect" is the
Consequent,
;
therefore I exist" is the consequent.
Latin.
an'ecedent,
of the globe diametricallyopposite to us, and
Antipodes, the inhabitants

leads

"

"

feet

whose

point exactly to

Approximation,

coming

approach
arriving at

nearer

of

that

Aqueduct,

to

bodies

or

the

astronomy,
other.

each

sought,

root

gradual approach
arithmetic,

In

without

the possibility

Latin.

exactly.

conveys

In

towards

number

it

which

to.

nearer

celestial

of two
a

Greek.

feet.

our

Latin.

Aperture, opening.

conducts

or

water.

canal

pipe, a

Latin.
Latin.
Aqueous, watery, consisting of water.
Greek.
Arithmetic, the science of numbers.
of the heavenly bodies.
the science
Astronomy,
the

Astrology,
of

the

pretended

the

of

Greek.

predicting future

by

events

means

Greek.

planets.

Atmosphere,

science

of air which

body

surrounds

the

globe

all sides.

on

Greek.

Axis,

in

geography,
of the

centre
once

from

passing through the

the globe revolves

which

Latin.

hours.

twenty-four

every

line

imaginary straight
pole to pole,round

an

earth

B.
Barometer,

an

instrument

of

the

glass filled with

which

the pressure
the weather.

of

inflammable

juicef
impregnating coal,or

air,and

which

mercury,

is in

indicates

index of
general
and
Greek,
signifiesweight-measurer.
Latin.
Bisect, to cut into two
equal parts
like to or consisting of bitumen,
a fat,clammy,
Bituminous,
easilyThe

word

use

as

an

is

"

Bomb,
gun
at

The

hollow

called
the

cast-iron

mortar,

moment

term

of

is in this

globe,
and

to

intended

falling, and
work

scummed

thrown

be
to
to

employed

burst

from

by

scatter

the

off lakes.

Latin.

species of great
force of gunpowder
a

destruction

all

around.

path of all bodies

the effect of gravity in bringing

to

explain

the

forcibly thrown
through the air,and
heavy moving bodies to the ground. Latin.
Botany, the science of plants, or that part of natural
all

has

the

vegetable world

for its

object.

Greek.

history

which

425

GLOSSARY.

C.
apartment darkened, all but a small circular open
double-convex
a
ternal
exglass is fitted,and by which
ing, to
in
their natural
colours, motions,
objects are represented
and proportions, on a white skreeri within the apartment.
Latin.
from a great height. Greek.
Cataract, a body of water
precipitated
Obscura,

Camera

an

which

Catoptrics,that
light. The

sufficient
sufficiens,

which

relates

reflected

to

all bodies

we
not
canthrough which
the light,
such
belong to catoptrics,
word
is Greek, and signifiesbackward

back

throw

of every kind.
vision.
Latin.
hollow.

Cavity, a

of vision

propertiesof

reflective

but which

see,

science

The

mirrors

as

Causa

of the

branch

satisfying cause

ployed
jargon emattempted to
check all rational experimental inquiryby callingcontinuallyfor the
that
of every
fact
occurred
or
causa
adequate cause,
sufficiens,
;
while
bewildering themselves, and attempting to bewilder
they were
mankind, in a philosophicalmaze
useless,reasonless, and therefore
unsatisfactory.
Centre, a point within a circle or sphere equally distant from every part
or

by certain metaphysicians

of

or reason,
the last age, who

surface.
Latin.
of the circumference
or
of
delineation
of
the land
Chart , a
on
part
paper
Latin.
Chimera, a vain and wild imagination. Latin.
Choral

Music,

sacred

band

of

composed

of the

or

and

voices

sea, or

both.

instruments.

Latin.

Chromatic, in optics,relatingto colour

Chymistry,

the science

which

conditions,of

various

intimate

of the

figurehaving
surrounding line, called

and

of the

nature

certain

series of

simple

composition of

matter

in its

its elementary principles,

and
and compound bodies.

of

the essential

appliedparticularlyto

of attraction

which
unites the particles
of
its
in
various
Latin.
solidity
degrees.

Collision, the clashing of one

Comet,
a body with
a luminous
of uncertain

forming part of
made

Complex,

air

Latin.

produces

sun;

music, to

encompassing, surrounding

water.

Cohesion, that species

and

in

property that every point of its

the circumference,
shall be equally distant
Latin.
point, called the centre.

its middle

Circumambient,

treats

the

affinities of

Circle, a round
from

Greek.

sounds.

up

body against another.

train,like
and

appearance

our

of

solar

but

reappearance,
Greek.

system.

various

flowing

Latin.
hair,averted

qualitiesor

bodies,

from

the

undoubtedly

ingredients. A

beautiful,

is a complex idea,containing three distinct

wise, and good woman,
ideas
still more
beauty, wisdom,
goodness : it might be rendered
complex by the addition of highborn, rich,religious.
Compression, the act of reducing to a smaller
space
by pressure.
surface
of a curvilinear
body. Latin.
Concave, the hollowed
Latin.
shock, by the violent meeting of two bodies.
Concussion, mutual
into a smaller
Latin.
Condensation, the act of forcingmatter
space.
"

the
Cuiig-latiiin,

by cold.
Concentric

reduction

of

fluid to

solid

substance, as

water

to

ice,

Latin.

Circles,one

within

another, having

Latin.

Nn2

common

centre.

426

GLOSSARY.

round

of

form

Conicfl, having the

right-angled triangle

candle-extinguisher

common

See

Consequent.

Antecedent.

; in other
the

to

in

Consonance,

which

cone,

words,

is

its

terms

are

what

is called
but

relative
cor-

by

ferring
re-

other.

music,

the

agreement

of two

emitted

sounds

at

the

same

Latin.

time.

the
Thus
contributingto make up or compose.
and
charcoal.
parts of gunpowder are saltpetre,sulphur,
union
Continuity, uninterrupted connexion
; the unviolated

Constituent,

of

Greek.

it.

be understood

cannot

one

ing
turn-

perpendicular side ;

idea of

the

conveys
The
two

the

figureproduced by

about

Latin.
of the parts

Latin.

body.

animal

an

constituent

Contexture, an interweaving. Latin.

delineate
Contour, the extreme
bounding line of any object. Children
of each other's faces by tracing with a pencil the line
the contours
described

the face

when

the wall

on

is

between

placed

light and

French.

the wall.

at the
extremity of an
gradually approaching. Placed
of two
of trees, planted in straightlines,equally distant
rows
avenue
throughout, you perceivethem apparently approaching, and at length
almost
meeting ; they are apparently convergent.
Co-nvex, the prominent or swelling surface of a curvilinear body. Latin.
Latin.
Cornea, the transparent portion of the external coat of the eye.

Convergent,

Latin.
belonging to body.
in
Corpus Callosum,
metaphysics and

Corvorea',
brain

the

where

soul

the

anatomy,
to reside.

supposed

is

part of the human

of ludicrous

Latin, but

derivation.

Corpuscle, a small or minute

body. Latin.
Couching, an operationin surgery, that consists
lens out
the

of the

vision, by

of

axis

of

means

in
a

the opaque
constructed
for

removing

needle

purpose.
which

Crucible,a pot

Low

metals.

stand

can

fire,employed

in

melting

and

refining

Latin.

It is a
of the eye.
Crystalline,the solid, transparent, internal humour
behind
the
double-convex
casional
lens, situated immediately
pupil. Its ocGreek.
opacity produces the disease called cataract.
mensions
Cube, and its compounds, a figure square and rectangular in all its diand
A

cubical

feet

situations.

broad, and

right angles. Greek.

Curve, a bending line. Latin.
by turning
Cylinder, a figure formed
sides

as

an

The

axis.

is derived

word

die

common

the

conveys

idea

of it.

feet is a room
feet long, twenty
twenty
twenty
and
all
in
feet
lines,and at
high,
straight
twenty

of

room

from

barrel
Greek

of

verb

a
a

parallelogram
hand-organ

which

is

round

signifiesto

of its

one

cylinder.
whirl

The

round.

D.
Decompose,

to

separate

things compounded.

Thus, in printing,to

is to arrange
the types in a frame, in the order
and
sentences
to
decompose is to take the frame 10
;

Degree,

in

geography,
of

the

the

globe.

three

hundred

It contains

French.

Density, comparative solidity. Latin.

and

about

sixtieth

of

words

pieces.

pose
com-

and
Latin.

ference
part of the circum-

sixty-nine English

miles.

428

GLOSSARY.

giving

or

of

circle

whole

the

Encyclopedia,

sending out,

of

the act

Emission,

science

Latin.

vent.

universal

scientific dictionary.

Greek.
to

Epicurean, belonging

Equator,

man's

which

to

an

the

globe

marked

sun,

equal

west,

made

are

1 to

of

to

ing
; accord-

consist

in

sonable
rea-

of

ern
dividing it into the Norththe degrees of longitude

maps
180 east and west
called the LINK.

of

the

first meridian.

Latin.

Latin.

balance

Latin.

counterpoise.

or

The

tive
abla-

our
adopted
language, in equilibria,
equality in opposed weights.
takes
day and night which
place twice

perfectnessof
equalization of

year, the 21st

in his alternate

and

On

prepositionis

the

the

to

distances.

exactness

express

every

east

of distinction

at

with

from

it,from

on

It is by way

Equinox,

happiness

hemispheres.

Southern

Equidistant,
Equilibrium,
to

and

duty

philosophy of Epicurus

or

descriptiveof refined luxury.

indulgence; it has become
rounding
imaginary great circle,equally distant from both poles, sur-

and
are

doctrine

the

into

and

March

the 21st of September, when

the
north to south, and from south to

from

progress

the equator,
which
is likewise,for
directlyover
denominated
the
Latin.
Equinoctial Line.
frequently
reason,
of
Latin.
time.
Era, an important event or period
and profound leaining. Latin.
Erudition, extensive

north, passes

Ether, the

Exhalation,

the act
word

be

may
Latin.

subtile

most

Evaporation,

of

and

of the

considered

of

attenuated

flyingoff

import

same

the

as

all fluids.

in fumes

or

and

cause,

Greek.

vapour;
the preceding;

with

exhalation

Expansibility, capabilityof being spread out,

and

this

of

as

evaporation
the

occupying

effect.

larger

Latin.

space.

Experiment,
Extension,

practicaltrftilmade
which

over

space

ascertain

to

matter

is

Latin.

fact.

any

diffused; size,magnitude.

Latin.

Extraneous,

not

belonging

Latin.

to.

F.
Fathom,

of

measure

length containing six

feet.

fibres

In anatomy,
Fibre, a small thread.
filaments, variously interwoven, which

Fifth, in music,
in

respect

of the

one

of

harmonic

harmony,

it contains

because

long, slender, whitish

form

the

solid

parts of

an

Latin.

body.

animal

are

Saxon.

intervals

or

agreeableness to

or

five tones

or

sounds

concords, and
the

between

It is

ear.

the third
so

its extremes.

called
See

vol. i. let. vii.

with fibre. Latin,
Filament, the same
of
each other,as melted
Fluid, consisting
parts easily moveable
among
metals, water, air. Latin.
Flux, in geography, the risingof the tide. Latin.
of light are
Focus, in optics, the little cirde in which
collected,
rays
either after passing througha glass, or on being thrown
back
from
a

and
reflector,

where

they

exert

their

greatest

power

of

burning.

Latin.

Formula,

set

and

or

prescribed

standard

; a scheme
Latin.

for

matical
solving mathe-

algebraical questions.
Fvrte, in music, forcibly,in opposition to piano, softly. Latin.

429

GLOSSARY.

in

fourth,

intervals,and

music, one of the harmonic

agreeableness to the ear.

It consists

of
in

proportion of
lengths are

the

whose

3; that is, of sounds

proportion of 4 to

4 to
in

the

of two

fourth

sounds

in

chords

produced by
See

3.

the

spect
re-

blended

vol. i. lei. vi.

vii.

and

Friction,the
Fusible, that

act of

rubbing
be

may

Latin.

body against another.

one

melted.

Latin.

G.
Gamut,
Genus,

the scale of musical

Italian.

notes.

tain
containing several species,which
again conindividuals.
Thus, dog is a genus,
greyhound is a
many
Latin.
The plural is genera.
species,and Lightfoot an individual.
Greek.
Geography, a descriptionof the earth.
of quantity, magnitude or extension
Geometry, the science
abstractly

kind, general class

considered.

Greek.
Greek.

azure-coloured.

Glaucous,

Latin.
globe ; little particles of a spherical form.
Latin.
Gradation, regular progress from one step to another.
of the universe, that principle in all
Gravity, weight ; in the system

Globule, small

bodies

Groove,

body

which

attracts

channel

cut

is

which

them

designed

towards

each

hard

in

to

move

out

body

Latin.

other.

with

tool,fitted

to another

in it.

H.
in music,

Harmony,

other, so

combination

produce

to

as

of sounds

perfectlyadapted

pleasing effect

on

the

each

to

Greek.

ear.

Hemisphere, one-half of a globe. Greek.

parts ; it is the
Heterogeneous, composed of dissimilar or discordant
of
which
of things similar.
c
omposed
homogeneous,
signifies,
opposite
Greek.

Horizon,

line which

the

nany
under
and
the

terminates

encompassing

circle

To

hemispheres.
would

equator

be

the view.

geography,
dividing it into
placed at either of

person
real horizon.

the

circle visibly surrounding us, where

Greek.
meet.
Latin.
Humidity, moisture.
a
descriptionof
Hydrography,

In

globe, and

the

sensible

The

the

that part of

and

sky

our

globe

which

upper

the

horizon

the earth

imagi-

an

the

poles
is the

appear

to

consists

of

Greek.

water.

Hypothesis,

confirmed

propositionor

doctrine

by irresistible argument

supposed to be true, but

or satisfyingexperiment.

not

yet

Greek.

I.
Idealist,a
reduces
Illimitable,

kind

of

philosopher,who
thing to idea or

every

what

admits

of

no

denies
mental

bound.

the existence

image.

of matter, and

Greek.

Latin.

Illumination, the act of diffusinglight. Latin.

Latin.
deceives
Illusion, what
by a false appearance.
Latin.
of
in
Immaterial,
body or matter.
philosophy, not consisting
in
the
of
celestial
a
body by the
lersion,
disappearance
astronomy,

interceptionof

its

lightby

another

body.

Latin.

430

GLOSSARY.

Impenetrability,that property
can

the

occupy

Impulsion, the
Immutability,

same

at the

virtue of which

in

of all bodies

space

no

two

Latin.

time.

same

Latin.
body in motion
upon another.
being charged .upon, or ascribed unto

of one
agency
the quality of

Latin.

Incidence, the direction in which

the

and
the

Index,

angle

angle
the

of

formed

by

the

strikes another

or

plane struck

is called

upon

Latin.

incidence.

fore-finger
;

falls upon

body

one

that line and

instrument

any

that

points

out

indicates.

or

Latin.
undivided
Individual,one separate, distinct,
Inertia,that quality of bodies in virtue of
in a state

continue
; and

which

can

of

rest

when

at

be overcome

whole.
which

rest,

only by

they

power

disposed

are

of movion

or

in

when
in

not

the

to

tion
mo-

body

Latin,

itself.

Infinity,boundlessness,appliedequally to space, number, and duration

Latin.
in injinitum, without
limit,without end.
of
the
Latin.
act
or
Inflection,
bending
turning.
Latin.
Inherent, naturally belonging to, and inseparablefrom.
mental.
Latin.
to
the
Intellectual,
understanding,
relating
the state of being stretched,heightened, affected to a very
Intensity,
high degree. Latin.
the
Interception,

Latin.

the space
between
one
Interstice,
thing and another.
turned
Inverse,having changed places,indirect,
upside down.
Iris,the circle round the pupil of the eye. Latin.

Latin.

cutting off or obstruction of communication.

Latin.
Intersect,
mutually to cut or divide.

"

L.

Labyrinth,maze,

inextricable difficulty
or perplexity. Latin.

Latitude, in
on

the

about

geography, distance of places from the equator measured

The
meridian, in degrees and minutes.
degree contains
69 English miles, and
gree.
is the sixtieth part of a dea minute
The
highest possible degree of latitude is at the poles,eacb

being 90 degrees from the equator. Latin.

Lens, a glass for assistingvision, or deriving fire

from

the

collected

rays of the sun.

Lenticular, having the form of a lens.

Level, being at the same
height in all parts.
Literati,the learned ; the plural of the Latin

Saxon.
word

a
literalus,

learned

man.
"

and
of investigating
Logic, the art of right reasoning,for the purpose
useful
Greek.
truth.
communicating
Longitude, in geography, the angle which is formed by the meridian of
in degrees and minutes
any place and the first meridian, measured
on

Lunar

the

equator.

tide,the

Latin.

flowing and

ebbing

of

the

tide

relativelyto

the

moon.

Latin.

Lymphatic vessels, slender transparent tubes through

is conveyed.
a clear colourless fluid,

which

lymph,

or

M.
Magnet, or loadstone,an ore of
gives polarityto a needle.

iron which
Art

has

been

attracts

iron and

enabled,by

means

steel,and
of bars

431

GLOSSARY.
of steel,successfully to imitate

natural

the

magnet

or

loadstone.

Latin.

Magnitude,

greatness,

Manichean,

one

of

maintained

who

a sect

spirit.
Major, in logic,the
general assertion

Latin.

bulk, extension.

first

the existence

propositionof

denial ; as, all

or

of

syllogism, containing

mortal

are

men

evil

supreme

no

some

is perfect.

man

Latin.

Materialist, one

the

denies

who

existence

of

spiritualsubstances.

Latin.

Mathematics, the science which

or numbered.
being measured
Mean,

or

to

lead to

thing capable of

Greek.
which

in physics, that

Medium,
and

for its objectevery

has

lo"ic,an

intervenes

intermediate

another

; in

fair and

justconclusion.

between

one

stance
sub-

propositionemployed

Latin.

Mechanics, the geometry of motion; the science of constructingmoving

Greek.
machinery.
Membrane, a web of various fibres interwoven, for wrapping up certain
parts of vegetableand
Meniscus

animal

bodies.

Latin.

is convex
on
lens, in optics,a glass which
one
the other, the two
surfaces approaching at
on

surface, and

edges.
Latin.
Mephites, poisonous, ill-scented vapour.
of the fluid commonly
called quicksilver.
Mercury, the chymical name
in
circle
Meridian,
geography, a great
encompassing the globe in the
and
direction
of South
and
and
dividing it into eastern
North,
of
f
rom
the
The
western
degrees
hemispheres.
equator tc
latitude,
both
this circle.
on
poles, are marked
Every spot of the globe
in every twenty-four hours, that is,has
to its meridian
comes
once
concave

its instant

of

the

Latin.

noon.

Metaphysics, otherwise
beings in general.

called
It

Ontology, the
employs abstract

science

of the affections
See

reasoning.

of

Abstract.

Greek.

Meteorology, the science

and quickly passing
Microscope,

an

optical instrument, which, by

glass,renders
unassisted

is,of

of meteors, that
Greek.

bodies

floatingin

the

air,

away.

of

means

visible objects too

distinctly

nifying
greatly-mag-

minute

for the

Greek.

eye.

Minor, in logic,the second, or particularpropositionof

example, in this syllogism,

syllogism ;

for

"

All

But, The
Therefore, The
"
All men
the first proposition,
is
"The
a
king
man," is the

men

are

king
king
are

is

mortal
a

man

is mortal.

mortal,"

is the

major

; the

second,

called the
"
Latin.
is
conclusion.
is
the
the
the
third,
king
mortal,"
premises;
Latin.
easiness
of
moved.
being
Mobility,

minor;

Mode, in logic,particular form or structure

which
Monad, a minute
particleof matter

and

these

two

of argument.
admits
of no

are

Latin.
further

Greek.

Monochord,

musical

instrument

of

one

string.

Greek.

Myops, short-sighted. Greek.

N.
ffadir,the point in the heavens
directlyunder
Navigation, the art of sailing. Latin.

foot.

Arabic.

vision.
subdi-

432

GLOSSARY.

Negation, denial,the opposite of affirmation. Latin.

Notion, thought; representation of any thing formed

by the mind.

Latin.

o.

Objectivelens, in optics,that glass of

looked

telescopewhich

is turned

to the

Latin.

object or thing
Oblique, not direct,not perpendicular,not parallel. Latin.
Observatory, an edifice reared for the purpose of astronomical
at.

tions.
observa-

Latin.
Latin.

undiscoverable.
Occult, secret, unknown,
of
Octave, in music, a regular succession
first and

the

eighth having

the

and

to eight ; the
one
emitting the same

Latin.

sound.

lens, in optics,that glass of

Ocular

from

notes
name

same

"

telescope which

is

applied

to

the

Latin.

eye.

Opaque, impervious to the rays of light, not transparent. Latin.

and
laws
of vision,or sight. Greek.
Optics,the science of the nature
Latin.
Orb, sphere, heavenly globular body.
round
the sun or another
Orbit,the circular path in which a planet moves
planet. Latin.
Oscillation, alternate
of

moving

backward

and

forward,

like the

pendulum

Latin.

clock.

P.
Paradox,

contrary
Parallel

exceeds

which

tenet

to

or

the

received

tion
opinion ; affirma-

Greek.

appearance.
lines which

lines,in geometry,

maintain

contradicts

distance.

same

through the whole of their length

They are the opposite of convergent

divergent. Latin.
Parallelism, stale of being parallel.
Parallelogram, a geometrical figureof four sides,having this property,
that the opposite sides are
equal and parallel,and the opposite
Greek.
angles equal.
Pellvcid, transmittingthe rays of light,transparent. Latin.
forwards
and
a
Pendulum,
body suspended so as to swing backwards
for
is
used
A pendulum
without
obstruction.
generally
measuring
instrument
an
time ; the
is, that every
great perfectionof such
vibration
or
tity
quanswing shall be performed in exactly the same
and

Latin.

of time.

Perception, the

of

power

susceptibleof

perceiving,knowledge,
being passed through.

Latin.

consciousness.

Latin.

Permeable,
Perpendicular, in geometry, one line standing on another, or on
side
the slightest inclination
to one
plane, without
with
the
horizontal
line
or
other, and forming right-angles

zontal
hori-

a
or

the

plane.

Latin.
Latin.
Phalanx, a military force closely imbodied.
presented by the changes of a heavenly body, parPhasis, appearance
ticularly
those

language.
Phenomenon,
in common

of

the

and

Greek

The

moon.

striking appearance
use.

plural phases

is

adopted

in our

Latin.
in

nature.

The

pluralphenomena

is

Greek.

Philosophy,knowledge

natural

or

moral

; system

in

correspondenceto

433

GLOSSARY.

which

truths

important

explained ;

are

academical

of science.

course

Greek.
natural
philosophy.
delicately,
opposite to forte.
music, soflly,

Physics,
Piano,
Piston,
such

or

pump

as

syringe,"

for

Italian.

fitted to the

substance

circular

moveable

the

Greek.

of nature,

science

the

in

the

cavity of a tube,"
suction, expulsion,

of

purpose

French.
condensing of fluids.
star ; those
heavenly bodies,
Planet, a wandering
or

round
perform their courses
which
in
a
glass
optics,
Plano-concave,
which

Plano-convex,

opticalglass

an

has

our

called

globe being one,

planets. Greek.

plane, and

the

plane, and

the

surface

one

which

has

surface

one

Latin.

raised.

other

are

Latin.

hollow.

other

the sun

Latin.
substance.
Plenum,
space filled with
Plumb-line, a weight appended to a string,for the purpose

of ascertaining

perpendicularity.
tance
Circles, circles parallelto the equator and the tropics, at the disits respective
from
a half each
of twenty-three degrees and
pole. Latin.
the pole. Latin.
Polarity, tendency towards
Greek.
sides and angles.
Polygon, a figure having many
Polar

Polytheism,
Porous,

the

pluralityof gods.

minute

small

full of

of

doctrine

Greek.

Greek.

spaces.

Presbytes, far-sighted. Greek.

Prescience, foreknowledge. Latin.
Predicate,in logic,what is affirmed

of

the

subject,as,

is rational.

man

Latin.
Latin.

Predilection,preference given from preconceived affection.

of
the
Pre-established
metaphysical doctrine
Harmony,
of

adaptation

mind

to

by

matter,

creative

act

of

an

the

original
Supreme

is performed.
action
Will, in virtue of which every human
for the purpose
of glass, contrived
Prism, a triangular optical instrument
of light. Greek.
with
the rays
of making experiments
Problem, a proposition announcing something to be first perfoimed, and
then

demonstrated.

Proboscis,
Prominent,

Che

snout

Greek.
or

trunk

of

elephant

an

or

other

animal.

Latin.

Latin.
juttingout, projectingforward.
with a view
to proof. Latin.
or affirmed
Proposition, a point advanced
Latin.
Proximity, nearness.
Latin.
Pupil, in optics, the apple or central opening of the eye.
ascertain
machine
contrived
the
of
the
to
a
expansion
degree
Pyrometer,
of solid bodies

Pyrrhonist,

the

by

force

fire.

of

doubter

universal

and

Greek.

unbeliever

; derived

from

Pyrrhus.

Q.
Quadrant,

the
to

fourth

part

of

Quadrilateral, consistingof
Quotient, in arithmetic, the
which

numbers
have

VOL.

measure

quotient of

II."

altitudes

measure

9.

circle ; an instrument
of that form, contrived
and distances
of celestial bodies.
Latin.

four
number

each

sides.

Latin.

resulting from
other.

Thus,

on

the division

of

dividing 36 by

two

4 w0

484

GLOSSARY.

R.
of a circle
from the centre
Radius, in English ray, a straightline drawn
radii
in
is
Latin.
the
circumference.
The
to
use.
plural
or
sphere
substance
of
the
more
a
thinner,
rendering
transparent; it
Rarefaction,
Latin.
condensation.
the
of
is
opposite
Latin.
Ratio, proportion.
of fair conclusions
Ratiocination, a process of reasoning, a deduction
admitted
from
premises. Latin.
Latin.
receives
and contains.
Recipient,that which
Reciprocally,mutually, interchangeably. Latin.
right-angles.
Rectangular, containing one or more

sists
right-angle con-

of 90 degrees.

Rectilinear, consisting

Latin.
straightlines.
back
of the
sending

of

the

in
Reflection,

catoptrics,
Latin.
surface.

opaque

Reflux,the ebbing,
Refraction, in

from

from

water

disposition to
Refrangibility,
broken

or

refracted.

Refrangent medium,

of

lightfrom

an

Latin.

ray of light on
of a different

liquely
passing obdensity, as

Latin.

glass.

or

of

another

into

medium

one

air into

tide.

the

flowing back of
dioptrics,the deviation
or

rays

leave

the direct course,

capabilityof being

Latin.
which

that

alters

or

breaks

off the

of rays.

course

Latin.

Reminiscence,

Repulsion,

the

Latin.
of recollection,memory.
of
back.
Latin.
driving
power

the power
act

or

^Resinous, consistingof,or similar to, resin, a principlecontained

tain vegetables.
Latin.
Resonance, sound repeated. Latin.

Respiration, the

are

of

act

Reticulated, formed
Retina, the delicate

painted the

Retrograde, moving
Reverberation, the

breathing.

like

net-like

images

Latin.

Latin.

net.

in cer

membrane
of the

at

of the eye,

the bottom

objectswhich

on

contemplate.

we

which
Latin.

direction.
Latin.
in a backward
of
Latin.
back.
act
beating or driving

Revery, loose,wild, irregularmeditation.

S.
inferior attendant
an
Satellite,
planet revolving round a greater. Latin.
Latin.
Scalpel,a surgical dissecting-knife.
rhetoric, logic,arithmetic, music, geomScience,knowledge : grammar,
etry,
liberal arts.
have been styled the seven
astronomy,
in geometry,

Segment,
from

part of

extremity of any

one

the

arc

constitutes

which

chord

of the

formed

circle

arc, from

music.

greater third and

minor

third,and

The

semitone

major

straight line drawn

the

formed
as

the

cumference
part of the cir-

nominated
straight line is de-

its resemblance

Semicircle, the half of a circle ; the segment

the chord, and
one-half
the circumference
Semitone, in music, half a tone, the least of
modern

by

the other, and

The
that arc.

to

to a

arc.

all intervals

is the

difference

Sensation,perceptionby

fourth

means

of the

senses.

Latin.

as

Latin.
admitted
between

15 to 16.
; its relation is as
is the difference between
the greater third and
its relation
is as 24 to 25.
Latin.
the

bowstring.

by the diameter

into
the

The

tone
semi-

the

lesser

436

GLOSSARY.

bers

by

See

vol.

Tide,

the

in

of

the

which

degree

of elevation

are

adapted,

instruments
of

composition ;
the
passing

musical

in

Transit,

the

of

sending

which

voice

and

along

the

and

to

Latin

heavenly

one

assumes,

harmonious

the

to

pitch-pipe.

of

body

one

the

in order
a

astronomy,
of another.
Latin.

Transmission,

in rivers

water

of 5 to 6

Dutch.

and

Saxon

sea.

the

music,

the relation

by

the lesser

fallingof the

rising and

alternate

shores

Tone,

the ratio of 4 to 5 ; and

i. let. vi. and vii.

substance

or

and

body

tion
execu-

Greek.
the disk

over

through

or

to another.

Latin.

Transparent, clear, permeable

as
light,
air,water, glass.

to

Latin.

direction.
Latin.
Transverse, in a cross
Triangle, a geometrical figureconsisting of three sides and three angles.

Latin.

Tube,

Latin.

pipe, a long hollow

Tunicle,

small

coat

body.
covering.

or

Latin.

u.
Ultimate, final,beyond which
of the same
Unison, emission
what

Untenable,

farther

no

Latin.
progress.
sounds.
Latin.

harmonious

or

maintained

be

cannot

is

there

supported.

or

TVacuum,
Valve, a

Latin.

empty space.
door, a moveable
imitated
by art

and

for

opens

giving

their

oppose

in

membrane
in the

through
of

swiftness

the

same

motion.

Velocity,speed,
Vertical, perpendicular, upright.
formed

Vibration,

motion

four

all

in

and

two

and

backwards

in

of

two

the

at

two

of

body,

machines, which
to
direction,but shuts

one

Latin.

angles,

in

geometry,

are

straight lines, in whatever

point of intersection,and of

equal.

are

animal

an

various

passage.
Latin.

Vertical

intersection

the

by
direction, making
the opposite
which

those

of

fluids

to

passage

return

the vessels

construction

forwards.

Latin.

Latin.

Visual, relating to vision or sight, belonging to the eye.

Vitreous, composed of or resembling glass. Latin.
Vivid, lively,brisk, sprightly. Latin.

Latin.

w.
gradual
gradual

Waning,
Waxing,
of

the

Wind-gun,
air

or

moon.

gun
wind.
a

diminution
increase

Saxon
which

magnitude and light. Saxon.

magnitude and light,particularly

of apparent

of apparent
and Danish.

forciblyemits

ball

by

means

of

compressed

z.
Zenith,

the

Nadir,

point

in

the

heavens

exactly over-head

j the

opposite of