[a a) eee THE INDIAN INSTITUTE OF WELDING (A Membor Society of The International Institute of Welding) Head Quarter & Rogd. Office Addross: “MAYUR APARTMENTS”, Flat No.4 BI N, 3A, DR. U.N. BRAHMACHARI STREET, KOLKATA - 700 017, INDIA Phono: 01 33-2281 3208 | Telefax: 91 93 2287 1350 E-mail: Indlanyelding@vsnlznet| ‘Website: httowwjiwindia.com Programme schedule for 48th. IIWANB Refresher Course in Chennai For IW Diplomas 19™ DEC to 23" DEC 2011 Organized by THE INDIAN INSTITUTE OF WELDING CHENNAI BRANCH Heortly Asokan (VENUE ISNT CHENNAI CHAPTER 1NO.59, READYMADE GARMENT COMPLEX ‘SIDCO INDUSTRIAL ESTATE ‘GUINDY ~ CHENNAT 00032 Time 19/12/2011 20/12/2011 21/12/2011 22/12/2011 (23/12/2011 | EE Monday Wednesday Thursday Friday \ Me Ravichandran DrHasan Sheikh Prabh Objective Test 09:00-10:45. Metals, Structure and Resistance Weldabitty ‘Steet Production, Design and Welding Low Alley Steel Construetion is eee aa TEA We DiKrishnaral tavichandran MrVMuralidharan | Mr.DV Prabha T:o0-1245 Structure of Welds, Heat Residual Stresses Interview GMAW and | Treamentand Testing | Quality Assurance | — and Distortion | rca’ = Lunch zm aml ‘umaravel 7 Me. Rampraksh MeNaganathan D Penmathusr Hef8-15:30 MMAW and SAW Wear and Imerview | | wor Are Welding Surfacing | Equipment “Ts0-1845- | TEA a a ] Prof. Sundaresan | MeM.Kumaravel uh Stantessstect, Interview Non ferrous GTAW and PAW Dissimilar Welds and | Gas Welding and Welding Cast tron | cating L : |Indian Institute of Welding - ANB Refresher Course — Module 01 Metals — Structure and Weldability Gi Contents - + Structure of Metals + Structure of Steels + Weldability of SteelsA Metallurgical Process + Welding is the joining of two or more pieces of metal by applying — Heat or ~ Pressure or both .... to form a * Localized union through — Fusion ~ Re-crystallization across the interface Why should Welding Technologists learn metallurgy Welding is mostly done for fabrication of metals and alloys The final properties of the welded assembly will depend on the metallurgical structure of the parent metal and the weld. All welding processes involve heating and cooling of the components being welded Thus to ensure a satisfactory welded component, itis necessary to understand metallurgical structures and how they and the weld thermal cycle, determine the properties of the weld joint.Welding a major fabrication process General Engineering Construction - Earthmoving equipment, cranes Infrastructure - Buildings , bridges , roads, flyovers, tunnels Projects -, refineries, fertilizers, steel plants, chemical & petrochemical plants ‘Automotive sector - 2- wheelers, cars, trucks, buses Railways - Coaches, locomotives, wagons Shipbuilding and aircraft Power plants & pressure vessels Consumer durable - Refrigerators, ACs, Almirahs Dotence - Tanks, APCs, Aircraft, Rockets Food processing - Dairy, brewery, cooking, freezing eqpt. Materials of Construction ; ; HeLa feels Mild steels, High strength low alloy steels Al general oncinoerng Infrastructure, Automatve, Shipbuilding, Raltays High tensile stets Defence, penstocks for hydel plants Creep resisting steels. Boilers and piping in thermal power plants: Stainless steels - Austenitic Chomicl& perochomical plan, retneres, yogenic plant, fod processing, pharmaceuticals : Alumina Light structurals, boats, dairy equipment, busbars Copper, Nickel and alloys, Titanium \eseo, piping & heat exchangers in chemicals & food iStructure of Metals Structure of metals + All metals and alloys are crystalline bodies with their atoms arranged in regular order, which is periodically repeated in three directions + They distinguish them from amorphous bodies whose atoms are in random order + Metals obtained by conventional methods are polycrystalline bodies, consisting of great number of fine crystals differently oriented with respect to one another + All typical properties of metals can be explained by the fact that they contain highly mobile electrons.wy Common Properties of Metals + Out of more than 106 elements’ known, 76 are metals + All metals do exhibit some typical properties, common to them: =~ high thermal and electrical conductivity - dus to presence of 7 free electron — positive temperature co-efficient of electrical resistivity — thermo-ionic emission = good reflectivity of light — lend themselves to plastic deformation - due to ordered arrangement of atom Pure Metals & Alloys + In their ordinary structural state pure metals are of low strength and do not possess required physicochemical and structural properties for required service, in most cases. Consequently they are seldom used in engineering applications. + Overwhelming majority of metals are thus used as, alloys. + Exampl ~ Steel, Cast iron, Copper alloys, Aluminium alloys etc.a Structure of metals ‘The basic structure of a metal or aloyis a crystal consisting of the metal atoms located in a specific arrangement or lattice For iron you have 2 crystal structdres. - polymorphism ic 3-dimensional Pe Peers ‘Alpha iron upto 912 degC Gamma tron - 912 ~ 1394 deg ¢ Dolta iron ~ 1394 - 1539 deg C HCP- Hexagonal Close packedUnit Cell Polycrystal boundaryea Crystal boundary or Grain boundary In these regions there exists a film of metals, some three atoms thick, in which atoms do not conform to any pattern This crystal boundary is of amorphous nature Metallic bond acts within and across the crystal boundary and therefore not necessarily an area of weakness Impurity atoms has got tendency to segregate at grain boundary or crystal boundary. Depending on the nature of impurity atom they may strengthen or weaken the boundary Grain Boundary unde Re Blew) [ES onseatinmice gestae DS a eeitinctneie ceDefects in Metals - Dislocations + Any real crystal always has defects in its structure and deviates from perfect periodicity + These defects are called Lattice defects / Lattice imperfections / Dislocations + Metals and alloys get deformed when dislocations are forced to move by the application of force + Any solute atom, phase or inter-metallic that resists the flow of dislocations are the strengthening agents in any alloy system Structure of metals nases are distinct states of aggregation of matter = Gases : Always single phase = Liquids : Puce liquid or solution single phase, immiscible liquids eg, Oil & water ~ two phases ~ Solids: Different erytal structures (even having the same composition ) form different phases. Can be single or multi phase + Aphase is a homogeneous and physically distinct portion of the material + Microstructure, as seen under a microscope reveals the phases that exist in the material together eet eo at it roe 9Structure of metals. + Grains = During solidification from the liquid phase or e-crystallization from one solid phase t 7 mother, crystals nucleat srt lee pois Jimpinge on one another a rains. + Structure = Structure of a metal /alloy ‘metallurgical phases present, their dispersion, shape, orientation and grain size. All of these go to determine its physical and ‘mechanical properties Structure of Steels 106 Carbon & Alloy steels of 2% cand ‘or other alloying elements — Typical alloying elements are Ni, “ Mav we + Steels are alloys of iron with a max. carbon content + Plain carbon steels contain less than 1.65 Mn, 0.6 Si + Alloys steels contain Mn, Si, Cuin greater quantities = Alloying additions enhance their mechanical properties ae | Phases in steel + Ferrite: = solid solution of carbon in a-iron; A Maximum solubility of C: 0.0223 at mre + Austenite: ~ solid solution of carbon iny.ron; (pos Maximum solubility of C: 211% at 1U6"C + Delta(6) ferrite: ~ solid solution of carbon in delta iron; Maximum solubility of: 6.09% at 495°C "Phases in steel + Graphite: — crystalline form of carbon having a hexagonal crystal structure, Only forms on very slow co * Pearlite: — Lamellar structure consisting of alternate bands of Ferrite and Cementite + Cementite (Fe3C): = an inter-metallic compound having a complex orthorhombic structure; C - 6.67% by wt. Even though this is @ meta-stable phase, carbon is almost always present in this form in steels. Fe-C phase diagram Tron - (onbow * The Fe-C (iron-carbon diagram) helps us to understand the phases in steel * Important Concepts to understand are: — This is an “Equilibrium” diagram. = steels & (rons! — “Phase fields” & “reactions” — “Critical temperatures” a clear distinction 12yao y= fasten — Phase transformation reactions in steel ; poe = peritectic reaction (1495°C) : Hi |, = UouidFe+ Ferre = Austenite | : + Eutecticreaction (2146°C) = Liquid Fe = Austente + ‘Cement (eutectic mocture of austenite and cementite called Ledeburte} + Eutectoid reaction (727°C) = Austonte = Ferrite + Comentite (Eutectic mixture of Fetrke and Comentite callod Pestle) 13 iPhase transformation reactions in steel.. ‘+ Micro-stractures of slowly cooled steels ~ Eutectoidstel + (0.77%C)~foly partic = Hypo-eutectoid sted + (0.77%) —Pro- eutecoid fer + Perlite ~ Hyper-outectid te * £0.77KC)~Fro- tutectoldcemense + Peart Sectoa oft en carbon agin stig te evalng ‘rausfermation of two difereat carbon steels, Tor auszente fenite torrenteEffect of composition & cooling rate on microstructure Austenite: foo Ferrite: bee Alarge variety of microstructures can be developed in ferric steel by changing composition & cooling rate Effect of cooling ‘alternate bands of ferrite + pearlite Faster cooling \V.Fine pearlite 35~40Rc Fast cooling Fine pearlite 20 25Re (air cooled ) Slow cooling —* Coarse pearlite 5-10Rc (furnace cooled ) Cooling rate Poarlitic structure Is lamellar with rate on Pearlite 15{) Temperature - Time — Transformation T-T-T Diagrams v Martensite Martensit + Vory hard and brittle phase. + Formed on rapid cooling below Ms temperature Tempered Martensite : however has a good combination of strength and toughness and is auseful structure and is developed by re-heating martensite + Hardness depends on carbon content of stee! Martensite Carbon % | 0.1 ] 0.2 || 03 [0.4] 05 | 06 | 08 Hardness Rc] 38 | 44 || 50 | 57 | 60 | 63 | 65 16Bainite : Formed in alloyed steels when austenite is cooled rapidly passed the nose of the C-curve . + Extremely fine mixture of ferrite + cai le but not lamellar like pearlite + Formed between 500 ~ 220 C Upper Bainite or lower Bainite depending on temp. + Has higher hardness and toughness than pearlite Bainite + accicular Ferrito @ CCT diagram (1030 steel) Microstructure (1030 steel) Sere plo eat variety of microstructures & hence properties can be obtained in steel by controlled cooling 173 Vv Mild steel for structural purposes + Carbon 0.15 0.25 % ( covered by IS: 2062 ) + Used in as-rolled and air-cooled condition in the form of plates, channels & other structural sections + Structure: Ferrite + 25% fine pearlite + Properties : Y.S. - 300 to 350 Mpa UTS - 400 to 450 Mpa El - 26-30 Low carbon steels - 0.1% C + Structure : Mainly ferrite + small amount pearlite + Properties : YS - 200-300 mpa, UTS - 300-370 mpa elongation 28-40% + Very good ductility, used as cold rolled sheets in automobile and white goods industry Demands on materials of construction igher strength Improved toughness down to cryogenic temperatures Resistance to corrosion by a wide variety of chemicals and corrosive media. High temperature oxidation resistance Resistance to creep at high temperatures her strength : weight ratio Wear and erosion resistant Should be weldable 18Mechanisms for improving strength and toughness Strength / hardness improved by : Solid solution hardening <—~ Dispersion of second phase <~ Phase transformation <~ Pracipitation hardening ~ carbides | ‘compounds Ageing (time dependent precipitation hardening ) < Workhardoning << High strength / weight ratio: _-+> Titanium — As strong as steel half the weight +5 Aluminium ~ 1/3 the weight half the strength. ‘Age hardening Aircraft alloys nearly as strong as stee! Toughness improved by will Grain refinement /fir ein $78. grainsee Jor PP” Yo ow impurity I ustenite phase — promoted by Nickel, Manganese etc. fess Martensite formation For carbon steels very fast cooling rates required to form Martensite + 3deg C/sec —Fine pearlite + 35 deg C/ sec - Very fine pearlite + martensite + 140 deg C / sec ~ martensite we bo yan? 19we Effect of alloying additions + Alloying elements such as Ni, Cr, Mn, Si, Mo & V shift the nose of the C-C-T curve to the right. Exception Cobalt which shifts it to left + This is because they slow down growth of pearlite. Eg - 0.5% Mo slows growth rate X 100 + Martensite can thus be formed at much slower cooling rates + Ina Ni-Cr-Mo low alloy steel cooling rate of 8 deg C / sec ~ Full martensite 0.3 deg / sec - Bainite + martensite 0.02 deg / sec ~ Pearlite Note : Alloy elements do not affect the hardness of the Martensite they only affect tho ease with which Martensite ys 400-700 MPa High strength low alloy structural steels HSLA sheels Carbon in samo range as mild stecls 0.15 - 0.25% Low amounts of alloying elements Mo, Cr, Cu, Nietc added eg. weathering steels to IS: 11587 Structure accicular ferrite and bainite or ferrite and tempered martensite Srongor and toughor than pearlitic steels with higher strength Hardenability Is increased which affects weldability urs 500-800 MPa Elongation | 18-25% 20v Grain size and its effects Grain size significantly influences the properties of a steel, Finer the grain size higher the strength and toughness The original or recrystallized austenite grain size determines the ferrite and pearlite grain size. ASTM grain size No = 2" grains / sq inch viewed at 100 X mag Critical temperatures for Carbon steels + At ~Eutectoid temperature during cooling ( Ar 1) heating (Ac 1) + A3-TempoftheF+AtoAphase 3. boundary and is a function of carbon content + Acm ~ Temp of the AtC to A phase >» boundary and again a function At of carbon content Micro — alloyed HSLA steels + Fine dispersion of alloy carbides results in strengthening by precipitation hardening + Small amounts of carbide forming elements eg. Nb, V, Ti etc added Total amount 0.20% max as such called Micro-alloyed steels + Controlled rolling at low finish roll tomperatures results in very fine grain size ASTM 12 14. Also improves strength. + Range of medium and high tonsile steel developed to give improved strength and toughness without impairing weldability. Covered by 18:8500 - 1901 + Gives comparitively lower elongation but better toughness than low alloy HSLA steels urs 600-650 MPa Ys 400500 MPa Elongation 20-22% + Properties :oe Properties of typical Micro-alloyed steels Grade/Trade] %C | %Mn ] %Si | %MA | YS urs: name MPa pa ‘asiwagss | 020 | 150 | 050 | 005Nb | 350min |" 600min Gre mato | 025 | 180 | 050 | NoeveTi | 410min | 540-660 20.20 ‘SAILMA4S | 025 | 1.60 | 0.50. | NbeveTi | 450min | 670-720 =0.20 SAILMAASOHI | 0.20 | 1.50 | 0.50 | Nosveni | 450min | 570-720 | £0.20 cvn= 19.69 Min at - 200 [ tistenco | 020 | 190 | oso | 020 | 44min | s00min Welded & higher strength structures Introduction of welded structures implied + High heat input of the welding arc / heat source and influence of arc atmosphere + Solidification of the molten filler metal and fused portion of base metal into a separate weld zone + Parent metal on both sides of the weld affected by the weld thermal cycle - Heat affected zone ( HAZ ) + Metallurgical effects on both reheating and cooling Introduction of higher strength steels to reduce weight and cost of structure + Alloying elements added to develop strength + Lead to more complex metallurgical changes 22ast ww Weldability of Steels Weldability + Weldability is defined as the | Macrograph of a weld joint & HAZ capacity of a metal to be welded under the fabrication conditions imposed, into a suitable designed structure, and to perform satisfactorily in the intended service ‘Weldability Is the ease with which a metal can be welded to-give the required service Weldability Is the number of problems you face to weld a material 23Pee Weldability problems + Cracking — In the weld — solidification cracks ~ micro-fissuring + In the HAZ — Hydrogen cracking + Liquation cracks + Porosity + Oxidation of reactive metals + Reduced joint strength — In the weld : ~-In the HAZ + Reduced corrosion resistance 24e wy Problems in welding structural steels Hydrogen induced cold cracking ( HICC ) + HAZ cracking + Delayed cracking Hot cracking + Solidification cracking + Conterline cracking + Due to high S & P levels which produce low melting films at grain boundaries + Reduced by higher Min content Solidification cracking Za | 2 {ntermectate Zone 1 fectaal : Peet | Sa s» | steals having unfavourable Ma ratio SIL. | are prone to such eracking 1 25ae + Is generally associated with welding of fairly large highly restrained structures + Occurs predominantly in plate material + Due to presence of non - metallic inclusions + Difficult to detect by NDT techniques, Maybe assessed by STRA of tensile test in short transverse direction + Cracks can occur in parent plate / HAZ and generally run parallel to the plate surface Microstructure susceptibie to Lamellar tearing near @ C-Mn lamellar tearing steel weld Prevention: Use joint designs that minimise transverse constraint & butter with a softer layer 26[esFege jereck B fener i matiensite austenite) j base metal 7 ‘Mechanism of HAZ cracking 3 factors causing Hydrogen induced cold cracking + Abrittle martensitic micro-structure produced by rapid cooling in HAZ area heated above At line + Presence of Hydrogen from the welding process + Presence of contractional and residual stresses Mechanism + Hydrogen absorbed by the weld poo! diffuses to the fusion zone and HAZ as the weld solidifies and cools +, Forms pockets of molecular hydrogen which exerts, additional stress on the susceptible microstructure + Incombination with existing stresses causes cracking generally in HAZ but can also take place in multi-pass welds 27Factors influencing HICC + Presence of Hydrogen - Process + Presence of stress ~ Weld design + + Formation of hard microstructure Chemical composition ( intrinsic to material ) Cooling rate - Combined thickness of joint = Heat input of process ~ Degree of preheat if any and inter-pass temp Chemical composition expressed in torms of carbon equivalent C.E. is the measure of the susceptibility of the material to form a hard microstructure ( martensite ) Thus Carbon Equivalent has become synonymous with Weldability ofasteo! Lok = %C + %MnJ6 + %(Cr+Mo+V)/5 + %(Ni+Cu)/ 416 | 6 i . ‘ ‘Combined thickness of joints Butt wolds & comer wolds of equal thickness - T1 +12 Butt wolds & comer wolds of unequal thickness Ay of Tt over 75 mm + T2 Fillet welds — 11 + 12+T3 Directly opposed simultaneous fillet wolds ~T1 +24 13/2 Tworods -D1+D2/2 Canad ius te 28Heat input during welding + Is calculated from the Arc livided by the welding speed =e Arc voltage X Welding current kJ/mm Welding speed (mm/sec ) X 1000 + For other welding process divide by following factors SAW (single wire ) - 0.8 GTAW = 12 GMAW = 1.0 “s a Pe 0° Ave Coogy Shc Volkege x Ae pe Neleliny- (iwrrer &3 Hydrogen levels for different processes and consumables + Scale A: Above 15 ml/ 100 gm diffusible hydrogen content in weld — Rutile electrodes, LH electrodes which have been exposed to moisture + Scale B : 10-15 ml/ 100 gm diffusible hydrogen content - LH electrodes redried at 250 C + Scale C : 5-10 ml/ 100 gm diffusible hydrogen content - Gas ‘Metal arc welding ( MIG ) process, LH electrodes redried at 350 ic + Seale D : bolow 5 ml/ 100 gm diffusible hydrogen content - Gas Tungsten Arc welding ( TIG ) process, LH electrodes redried at 450 29Given a steel of known composition or C.E. Practical requirements of Welding Engineer Upto ivhat combined thickness can be welded with * normal rutile electrodes, without danger of HAZ cracking Upto what thickness can be welded using Low Hydrogen electrodes Upto what thickness can be welded using Low Hydrogen electrodes properly redried as per manufacturers recommendations Above what thickness pre-heat is required and degree of pre-heat. Is it necessary to impose any restrictions on heat input by the welding process and parameters used Combined influence of base-metal thickness and carbon content on weldability 30J 15.9595: 1996 recommendations for welding of carbon and ‘carbon — manganese steels + Annexure F gives detailed guidance on pre-heat requirements and inter- pass températures for avoiding hydrogen induced cold cracking considering the following factors - Carbon equivalent of stee! = Combined thickness to be welded = Heat input of process in kJ / mm = Hydrogen level of process in Scales A to D + Simplified table for Fillet welds + Detailed graphs for other conditions Covers steels under IS : 2062 - 1992 and IS 8500 - 1991 of C.E. upto 0.53 ‘ingen 31Acknowledgements We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of the following faculty members for developing this module + MrSoumya Sarkar + MrR.Banerjee + MrAA.Deshpande + Dr.Shaju Albert 32THANK YOU 33Indian Institute of Welding - ANB Refresher Course Module 02 Structure, properties, heat treatment and testing of welded joints Formation of regions having different microstructures during welding Weld is a composite having different properties in different zonesEvolution of structure in weld pool / weno ® @ eee Seeun if a etaly mete Frnt (So basamaalisy TE mushy zone (+L) Part of the base metal gets partially melted during welding Metallurgical Zones in a typical weld Composite zone Unmixed zone Partially Heataffected melted zone zone Unaffected -base metalEquiaxed dendrite During solidification impurities are pushed towards GB.we Evolution of microstructure during solidification ‘equiaxed dendritic |* % Solute G = thermal gradient, R = Growth rate Effect of weld speed on the structure of fusion zone of Al Curved columnar grains point towards weld direction at low speed.= tustente = Ge Fene | 5 Datta won | OM = Cementie lam Sresten ata | name ene | Pei Secton ofthe ren casbon digger stowing te cooing, ‘tansfermatio of two diferent carbon steels, Zora aus.ene to fenvte Feerenttewe Various regions in HAZ formed during welding The Weld and Heat Affected Zones Weld zone : structure + Fusion Zone: Boundary of wold and HAZ + HAZ 4: Zone heated below 600 C, base metal unaffected + HAZ2 ~ Subciitical zone 650-727 C, tempering and some spherodisation + HAZ 3 Inter-ritical zone Al to A3, partial tanslomaton o Austenite recrystased fine grain size. + HAZ 4 ~ Super-ritical zone above A3 full transformation o austenite. On cooling F + Por hard B or Ml may form depending on tale and composition + HAZ ~ Supor critical zone above 1050, grain growth of recrystalised austenite, Feduced strength & impact ‘lumnar soldication 6Structural features of ferritic steel Ferrite + TS = f(P) ~ %C:; grain P PEL size catide spacing a ‘Continuous plate ie Hi { ® [Upper Bainite ER TS= plate width % 5 FSS |eaise wits spacing 2 Bor Broken platelets < S EV [Lower Bainite oe oa 3 a carbide is spacing) 3 5 (sss Broken fine platelets & = | Martensite Baw Brite & unstable 7 No ppt. “ Needle (lens) shepe Microstructure & hardness of HAZ in steelWeld cracking Bajcees hla ea ae ‘To maintain strain compatibility both must croop at same rate. Thus coarse grain portion hhas to support higher stress. This is why HAZ Is more susceptible to cracking Post Weld Heat Treatmen Carried out to achieve any one or more of the following objectives Stress relief Dimensional stability Resistance to stress corrosion Improved toughness and mechanical propertiesCommon Heat Treatment Processes + Group | — recrystallisation annealing or more , commonly known as “stress relieving” * Group II — full annealing & normalizing * Group Il! — solution annealing * Group IV ~ hardening & tempering Temperature Dotibuton Across | Carbon Equilibsivm Diagram Half The Weld 5 ny 1 Feito 2, 1 Comeatiowt a. Temp. below At: a. Mixture of ferrite & pearlite grains; hence microstructure not affected. b. Temperature below A3: 2. Pearlte transformed to Austenite, A3 temp isnot exceeded, hence not all ferrite transforms to Austenite. On cooling, only the transformed grains will be normalized. . Temperature just exceeds A3, thereby causing full Austenite transformation. ‘a. On cooling all grains will be normalized. d, Temperature significantly exceeds A3 line permitting grains to grow. 1. On cooling, ferrite will form at the grain boundaries, and a coarse peariite will form inside the grains. Acoarse grain structure is more readily hardened than a finer ‘one, therefore if the cooling rate between 800°C to 500°C is rapid, a hard microstructure will be formed (brittle fracture ‘may occur inthis region)Welding versus heat treatment eeeeeeeeee _ ont °C felding (much highes Ferre, mene Tempore ana Shortar time ove A, i lemperaturey 1200: Heat Treating Temperature 72546 @ Caron, wi% (0) Interpretation of HAZ structure needs a different set of CCT diagram Atypical CCT diagram of a plain carbon steel used for heat treatment ene nn 1,600 80 — = ‘Ag 1.400 2 Fike pearite-]1200% 00 € : 100 g Aisi iorostest Jeo Sooo 1.990, 072M, 0.288: 8 5 Feito, P-poatte 4600 8 Bbatnt Mt matersto 200 hsed eee leg 10" 10° iol 10° Cooling time, sec Microstructure depends on the time spent between 800- 500deg C during coolingStress Relieving + Effective for reducing residual welding stresses in — Heavily-restrained welds — Welds that are susceptible to cracking + Dominant mechanisms in stress-relieving are: ~ Relaxation of stress by eliminating distortions in lattice and by forming new grains in distorted grains ~ Promoting plastic flow by reducing yield stress a Stress Relieving + Purpose:to relieve intemal stresses, reduce hardness and increase the ductity of strain hardened metal to @ corain extent + Heating temperature of ’srass relieving" isnot associated with phase transformations + Itis carried out by heating to a suitable temperature below the transformation temperature, holding at this temperature for a predetermined period of time and followed by uniform cooling Typical §R. Ternperature for LA steels ~ 596 to 675% Typical §.R. Temperature for chrome-moly steels is higher — 880 to 720°CRelief of residual stress av. % Relief of Stress vs Time & Temperature Stress relieving temperature C au au sm Full Annealing ‘The second group consists of second order or full annealing, which involves phaso recrystallisation and consists of heating the steels above the phase transformation temperatures. This treatment is followed by slow cooling. Full annealing substantially changes the physical and mechanical properties and may refine a coarso grained structure ‘The purpose of annealing is to obtain softness, improve machine- abllity, increase or restore ductility and toughness, relieve internal slresses, reduce or eliminate structural in-homogeneity, refine grain size and to prepare steel for subsequent heat treatmentwe Full Annealing + Consists of heating the steo! 30 - 50°C above the ac3, holding at this temperature and then slowly cooling at a rate of 30 -200°C, per hour, depending on the composition of stoel +The rate of heating for annealing of rolled stock or forging maybe as high as the furnace can provide. For welded assemblies rate of heating may need to be controlled to avoid stresses and distortion + Holding time is usually 30 minutes to an hour per ton of charge + Slow cooling enables the austenite to transform to pearlite, ferrite and / or cementite structure depending on the composition + The more stable the austenite is, the slower should be the cooling to allow this transformation. Thus alloy steels, where the austenite is more stable, should be cooled more slowly (at the rate of 30- 400°C per hour) than carbon steels (at a rate of 180-200°C per hour) Solution Annealing + To dissolve all carbides, nitrides and other inter-metallic compounds in a phase stable at high temperature. ‘Temperature depending on phase diagram of the alloy Carried out mainly on non-ferrous alloys, maraging steels and other precipitation hardening stainless steels prior to quenching and precipitation hardening / aging treatment Austenitic stainless steels may also be solution treated and quenched to eliminate harmful carbide precipitationNormalizing Normalizing of steel is a process of heating steel to a temperature 40-50° C above Ac3, holding at this temperature for a short time and subsequent cooling in air This is used to eliminate coarse-grained structures obtained in previous working (rolling, forging or stamping), to improve the structure in welds or to reduce internal stresses Also to increase the strength of medium carbon steels to a certain extent (in comparison with annealed steel) and to improve the machinability of low carbon steels, Hardening & tempering In the third group - hardening, alloys are heated above the critical phase transformation temperatures, held at this temperature and then quenched (rapidly cooled) in water, oll ‘or motten sait baths During heating the ferrite and considerable amounts of cementite (or pearlte in eutectoid steels) are transformed into austenite Cooling at a rapid rate ensures that austenite is transformed into a hard phases called martensite. Higher alloyed steels may harden by air cooling ‘The hardened stee! is then tempered below the At temperature between 350 650 C to develop the required combination of strength and toughness.Classification of Mechanical Tests Uniaxial & uniform loading . Non-uniform / multi-axial ‘Tensile / compression sBend test “Stress Relaxation +Rotating beam fatigue ‘Fatigue (Load / Strain Control) +Impact (CVN) “Creep sHardness sNotch tensile test KIC, JIC ete Material parameters required for stress analysis of engineering structures primarily come from uniaxial tests : Test Variables Mechanical Test: ‘Tensile / Compression Creep v= constant Lor stress = constant ova a) iene ‘Test variables al *Cross head velocity: v sLoad: L *Strain: e EE eilLoad coll Fixed Cross Head Stress relaxation Fatigue: v=f() Strain Control Load Control e= constant v=0Tensile test Unifonn Necking urs a ~\ Proportionallimit: YS Fracture Li SE yams {--%oElongation \ f -Fisicdefmaton 7 | Seceas asic strain PI LC steel et YS & UTS are matt properties, These ace : incependent specimen dmension. Duty Strain depends on specimen size. Shorter specimen exhibits higher ductility due to necking, E,YS & UTS decrease as tomperature increases. Creep Test + Increep test the specimen is held at constant temperature in an electric resistance heating furnace and is subjected to a static tensile load. The load causes the specimen to elongate gradually and the amount of elongation measured periodically. + Amount of elongations is plotted against periods of time to obtain the creep curve. + One standard of creep strength is the stress to roduce a creep rate of one percent per 100,000 rsCreep test: shape of creep strain time plot Tertiny Primary Secondary steady sate \ Steady state creep rae time torupture ‘ime Creeps @ slow time dependent deformation. All metals & alloys under go creep. tis measurable i test temporature is > 0.5T,, (malting point in deg Kelvin). tis a strong function of stress & temperature. Creop test at a given temperature and stress gives us time to rupture, steady state (minimum) creep rate, rupture strain Stress & temperature dependence of creep time Master rupture plot Safe sess LMP=T 204g tr) Temperature Rupture data are more readily available for design & selection of material for high temperature components (boiler & turbine).Hardness Hardness is a measure of resistance to deformation. Three common methods cof measuring hardness: Scratch, Rebound & indentation Hardness. Hardness [Indenter | Magnitude Toad biel » re-post! pate EE (aR AO AS | ar Pos0" 4 ca so! i Diamond To noK Vickers pam pon a8 13669, pene) 20-3009 L ” erordnes Rockwell | Dimond cone: [Re-0-100° Stee | 150K Ra: 0-100: Bass | 60K a: 0-100; A 100 Ks Hardness gives an idea of strength & heat treatment of metals. Fatigue test ‘Ametal subjected o a fluctuating stress fails al a stress much loner than that required to cause fracture. Th's phenomenon is called fatigue. Mild steel “AS op anemm nN igy SNeuve Rotating beam fatigue testing machine Toan to , K5 ete : ? cons \ eavironnent ase Toe Nf Fatigue strength = Endurance limit = f (size, surface finish, surface prop, residual stress, UTS, inclusion content, environment) 19so Jack hammer component, shows no yielding before fracture. Hydrogen embrittlement test Stee! picks up hydrogen during welding, pickling, heat treatment, electroplating or corrosion due to cathodic charging. This makes the stool notch sensitive and makes it susceptible to delayed fracture. A —__. Charpy impact testis not No hydrogen —_ suitable to detect hydrogen a embrittlement. s ase Slow strain rate test, slow Hydrogen charged bend test, notch tensile tests . Togir show loss of ductlit P There is a critical stress below which delayed fracture does not take place.Stress corrosion tests P. ‘Chemical species Alloy Temperature [chierdes in wate? | Austenitic steel | Above room tem ‘NaOH, KOM soln. | Carbon stee! | 100 deg C ‘aratesin water [Carbon steel | 100 degC _ 'WH3 or ammonium | Copperlioys | Room temp. Pp saltsin water fracture : ' ™ 3 = ied fama [> threshold Charpy Impact Test + Arectangular bar with a square cross section and a notch of specified geometry at the mid length supported near its ends is struck a single blow behind the notch sufficient to break the specimen generally by the swing of a weighted pendulum. Notch toughness is thon assessed by any or more of the following parameters: + Percent shear appearance of the fractured surface + Energy absorbed + Amount of leteral deformation of the compression surface bebiind the notchImpact testing ‘Temp. HAZ has coarse grain & high transition temperature. This ‘was the cause for fallure of Liberty shi Impact Test Rests ny = Copper Nylon My Ste01 # Acnyie tine | so 400-600 800150 Temperature tegre0sC)A Fracture mechanics el| Newfee [Crack propagates when] | surface: y [elastic stored energy is. | sam ad large enough to create new surface, =r. +7] Ductile: 7, >> ¥, Brittle: y,>> Crack tip stress Feld K, JEy Criterion for unstable crack growth: K > Ke ° r @,=/(K.r.8) nom (6 KaoR (GF) canbe easily estimated it we know tho load at wich GF 1 for infinite Plate YCE takes place. Quite difficult for ductile material K-SIF Experimental FM P - => Kay) > «LEM iy Bal ‘) B=thickness For most commercial alloys do not exhibit such plots. Variation of facture ao NB. Normal design: if a plate deforms, increase thickness. FM based design: ifa plate cracks, reduce thickness.oe Acknowledgements We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of the following faculty members for developing this module DrR.N.Ghosh MrR.Banerjee Mr.A.A.Deshpande Dr.Shaju Albert THANK YOU 24Indian Institute of Welding - ANB Refresher Course Module 03 Steel making and welding of Alloy steels wan 1 2.11.2,Manufacture Of Pig iron is produced in a blast furnace Iron ore, coke and lime stone are charged from the top and hot air blown from the bottom Charge meits to produce slag and pig iron - tapped and poured into moulds 1 Pig iron contains 3.0 to 45 per cent cérbon and other elements like sulphur, phosphorous, silicon étc, mon caus2.11.3. Manufacture Of Steel 1 Various grades of steel are produced by : rect reduction of iron ore by carbon by melting the charge a 0 Carburising wrought iron by heating it out off air contact’ 1 Decreasing carbon content of pig iron by oxidation 2.11.4. Modern Methods Of Steel Making 1 The major method of stee! production today is the BOF ~ LD process where ‘oxygen is blown from top to refine the steel 11 EAF steel making In arc furnaces Is the second most important process, Here steel scrap, sponge iron etc, are melted by electric arc or indidction coils. By adding alloying elements. special steels are produced, ayi701s2y7r0 Direct reduction steel making process2.11.5. Special Treatments In Steel Making Different steel making processes contain sub processes or treatments to : Reduce oxygen , hydrogen and nitrogen Improve cleanliness Eliminate central porosity and segregation Improve mechanical properties These are achieved through : Degassing De-sulphurising De-oxidation o Ooooo0o000 pron 2.11.6. De-oxidation Of Steel 1 The cleanliness of steel is improved by lowering the content of oxygen and controlling its extent in liquid stee!_and enables the desired final composition and solidification structures 1 In addition to vacuum degassing strong deoxidisers such as aluminium, silicon and titanium when added to molten steel are . effective In reducing the oxygen content so that carbon cannot react with oxygen during degassingTypes of steel based on de-oxidation practice rere Killed Stoo! 3 > The term Indicates that the steel has bean completely deoxidised by the addition of an agent such as sllicon or aluminium, before ‘casting, 0 that there fe practically no evolution of gas during folaincation > Killed steels are characterised by a high degree of chemical homogenelty and freedom from porosity > Formation of the carbon monoxide bubbles can be eliminated through the addition of deoxidising agents such as aluminium, ferrosilicon and manganese > In the case of aluminium, the dissolved oxygen reacts with it to form aluminium oxide (Alumina, AI203). The formation of ‘lumina net only prevents the formation of bubbles or pe But the tiny particles or Inclusions also pin graln boundaries ‘during heat treatment processes, preventing grain growth. p70 Completely deoxidised steel - “killed steels”. a They have a more uniform analysis and are relatively free from ageing. For a given carbon and manganese content, killed steels are usually harder then rimmed steels. ‘Steel that are generally killed include: Steels with carbon contents greater then 0.25% All forging grades of steel Structural steels with carbon content between 0.15 to 0.25% Some special steel In the lower carbon ranges ret ryto Partially de-oxidised steels ee ‘Semi killed Stee! Gas evolution is not completely suppressed by de-oxidant addition Greater degree of gas evolution than in Killed steel but lesser than In rimmed stee! Rimmed Steat Characterised by a great degree of gas evolution Marked difference in composition across cross-section and from top to bottom of the ingot pmo uw AOD process for decarburisation of stainless steels In argon oxygen Degassing process Nitrogen & argon is used to avoid oxidation of Chromium, at the same time reducing carbon in the bath to very low levels by partial oxidation ano2.11.7. Defects In Steel a + 1 Common defects in semi-finished and finished Steels are: Brittleness in the hot or cold state Porosity or voids Piping Lamination Surface defects such as : Scabs Cinder patch Laps Burned steel Oooooo8000 apne 2 2.11.8. GROUPING OF STEEL Nee ee Plain carbon steels D Low carbon steels 0 Medium carbon steels O High carbon steels Alloy steels 0 Microalloyed Steels - Alloys upto 0.25% CO Low Alloy Steels - Alloys upto 10 % 0 High Alloy Steels - Alloys above 10% enn2.12.3. Selection Of Steels ee O Selection of steels for production and manufacture of various products is done according to the properties required to suit working conditions and the purpose they are to serve C1 Other considerations are weldability and the cost of fabrication 0 Cracks, distortions, porosity, lack of fusion, and penetration are the common problems to decide weldability rao 6 2.12.5. Low Alloy High Strength Steels SL ———— 0 Such steels containing low carbon with additions of copper, nickel, titanium, niobium, chromium, tungsten in small percentages are used for the manufacture of: Ships Bridges Cranes Pressure vessels etc. Weldability of such steels is medium. Preheating, control of current and weldin: speed Is essential to produce a good weld. oooogLow Alloy Steels 1 Cryogenic steels for low temperature applications 1 Creep-resisting steels for high temperature applications 1 High strength Quenched & Tempered steels wa7ron 7 2.13.1. Low Alloy Steels For Cryogenic Applica Seen ee eee ee EEE 0 The terms “ low temperature “ and“ cryogenic may be defined as involving temperatures fo minus 100 to minus degree centigrade. Application areas for cryogenic steels : 1 Space applications ( Cryogenic air separation plant © Chemical process industries O Storage tanks for liquefied chemicals & gases 1 Medical and food processing. warz0n 1s2.13.4. Effects Of Nickel On Low Temperature Properties Neen ee EEE OI Nickel plays a significant role in cryogenic steels . 1 It increases the strength and toughness of steel at low temperatures. 0 It imparts notch toughness to steel, reflected in the lowering of the DBT ( Ductile ~ Brittle transition temperatures. 1 Cryogenic Nickel steels normally have 2% minimum percent nickel and addition of each percentage increases the tensile strength by about 600 psi. aren 2.13.8. Toughness Tests ee C0 Cryogenic steels must have high strength as well as high toughness values at sub zero temperatures . izod and charpy notched bar tests conducted at a range of temperatures provide data to find out such values Oi These tests have been developed with the assumption that the energy absorbed by a material is proportional to the notch toughness at different temperatures. no2.13.9. Charpy Test SS D A,rectangular bar with a square cross section , and a notch of specified geometry at the mid length supported near its ends is struck a single blow behind the notch sufficient to break the specimen generally by the swing ofa weighted pen luium. Notch toughness is then assessed by : 1 Percent shear appearance of the fractured surface 1 Energy absorbed 1D Amount of lateral deformation of the compression surface behind the notch . paren Nickel Steels Popular varieties are 2.25 %Ni 3.5% Ni 5 % Ni 9% Ni rrLiquification Temperature of gases and associated material of construction O Gas Liquification Material Temperature Propylene -47.7degC —_2,25%NI Steel Carbon Di Sulphide -50.2 degC 3.5 %Ni Steel Hydrogen Sulphide -59.5 degC 3.5% Ni Steel Carbon Di Oxide -78,5degC 3.5% Ni Steel Acetylene -84degC 3.5% Ni Steel Ethylene(LEG) -103.8degC —_5-9% Ni Steel Methane (LNG) -163 degC 9% Ni Steel warren 2 Welding of 2.25 To 5% Nickel Steel 1 2.25% Ni Steels (ASTM A203) are supplied in normalised condition: Electrode AWS E 8018-C1 3.5% Ni Steels (ASTM A203/300) are supplied in normalised / QT condition: Electrode AWS E 8018-C2 1 5% Ni Steels (ASTM A645) are supplied in QT conditions Electrodes 1 Similar to being used for 9% Ni Steel wean 7Selection of electrodes for Fine — grained and Nickel Steels for ‘oryogenic service 1 This group contains fine grained steels and steels bearing nickel from 1 to 7% eg A333 grades to give improved low temperature toughness. 0 For fine grained plain carbon-manganese steels E7018- 1 electrodes maybe used. 1 For nickel bearing grades electrodes with matching composition are used -E8018-C1 2.5% Ni -E8018-C2 3.5% Ni -E8018-C3 1.0% Ni ~EB018-C4 1.5% Ni £9915 —C5 6.5% Ni BAM 8 Welding of LNG tankers using 9% nickel steels —————— ‘The 9% Nickel Steels are ‘Quenched and Tempered Steels having high strength and ‘extreme toughness at very low operating temperatures. ASTM A353 and A553 are typical grades. Both are having ‘good notch toughness even at ~ | 196 degC_a553.has.higher- YS (585 N/mm2 min .) as compared to A353( 515N/mm2 min ). UTS for both is in the range of 690 to 825 N/mm2 warren vrWelding of 9% Nickel Steel ——— 1 Normally for lower thickness preheat is not recommended. With higher thickness and severe joint restraint. Preheating in the range of 100 - 200 deg. C is employed. 11 9% Ni based electrodes are not suitable due to inadequate toughness in weld. 1 AWS ENICrMo-3 Or ENICrMo-6 are popular electrodes © Due to Magnetic Blow AC welding Is often used, nm Creep Resisting Steels SNE 1 Steels to withstand elevated temperature and high pressure 1D Applications ~ boilers and pressures vessels & steam pipes in thermal power plants, Chemical High pressure synthesis , parts in oil refineries etc. Chrome ~ moly steels have been found to be most sultable for this purpose due to thelr high temperature strength and oxidation resistance, 1 Chromium from 0.5 to 9% and Mo from 0.5 to 1.0% (| soietimes with little vanadium are popular materials. 1D These steels are air hardening steelsCreep resisting steels used for Boiler fabrication i n7ron 2.14.5. Oxidation And Corrosion At Elevated Temperatures —— 1 One of the simplest form of corrosion Is oxidation of the metal which occurs by the process of diffusion of oxygen inwards and of alloying elements outwards. 1 Above 535 deg. Centigrade oxidation rate of plain carbon steel increases rapidly. Addition of chromium to steel increases the resistance to oxidation by forming a tightly adhered layer of chromium rich oxide on the surface of the metal retarding the inward diffusion of oxygen. 7 C1 Silicon and aluminum in steel also increase the oxidation resistance appreciably. apron 02.14.3. Creep Resistance a O Creep is defined as the time dependent iq deformation which occurs after the application of load to a solid especially at elevated temperatures. 1 Creep strength is important above the temperature range of 425 to 535 deg. Centigrade and is a primary factor in determining design stresses above these temperatures . Oi Creep test is carried out to determine the creep rate directly related to the applied stress and the test temperature. eam 2.14.4. Creep Test os C1 In creep test the specimen is held at constant temperature in an electric resistance heating furnace and is subjected to a static tensile load. The load causes the specimen to elongate gradually and the amount of elongation measured periodically. 3 Amount of elongations is slotted against periods of time to obtain the creep curve. One standard of creep,strength is the stress to produce a creep rate of one percent per 100,000 hrs erro3.5.15. Correlation Between Room Temp. Tensile Strength And 100000 Hrs Rupture Strength For 2.25 Cr-1 Mo STEEL avn Seer rere TENSILE 100000HR | RUPTURE STRENGTH STRENGTH AT |427DEG. 482 DEG. | H538 DEG. 27 DEG. (Mpa) |CENT(Mpa) |cENT(Mpa) | CENT(Mpa) 655 365 262 186 724 445 302 | 193 793 524 334 200 Taraant » Welding of Chrome Moly Steel LS 1 These steels are readily weldable with conventional arc welding and electroslag processes. The air hardening property of the base metal and high alloy content of the weld metal demand correct welding procedures including reheat, postweld heat treatment , low hydrogen’ consumables and right weld deposit composition to prevent HAZ and weld metal cracking. * 1 Recommended Preheat temperatures are given in Table . wanrpont 3Recommended Preheat Temperature(deg.C ) Thickness o <12.7 mm 12.7-57 mm > 57 mm OQ 0.5Cr - 0.5Mo 20 95 150 O 1.0Cr - 0.5Mo 120 150 150 G 1.25Cr-0.5Mo 120 150 150 O 2.0Cr- 0,5Mo 150 150 150 O 2,25Cr - 1.0Mo 150 150 150 Q 3.0Cr - 1.0Mo 150 150 150 O 5.0Cr ~ 0.5Mo 150 150 150 O 7.0Cr - 0.5Mo 200 200 200 OD 9.0Cr = 1.0Mo 200 200 200 Welding of Chrome Moly Steel Post Weld Heat Treatment CCr.-Mo Weldments, specially in pressure pipings have to be stressed relieved as required by relevant codes. Welded Joints in pipings are given local stress relieved while vessels and similar fabrications are wholly stressed relieved. BTable gives stress relieved temperatures which are below critical range and result in reduced hardness and residual stress level and increased + ductility of weld metal and HAZ. . rao %