_____________________________________________________ Central Regulation of

Visceral Function
dr. Suwono

CENTRAL REGULATION OF
VISCERAL FUNCTION
1.

The part of the nervous system that regulates the activities of smooth
muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands is called the autonomic nervous system.
Functionally, it usually operates without conscious control. It is regulated by
center in the brain, in particular by the cerebral cortex, hypothalamus, and
medulla oblongata.

2.

The autonomic nervous system regulates visceral activities, and it

generally does so involuntarily and automatically. The activities usually lie
beyond conscious control. They are automatic.

3.

The autonomic nervous system is generally considered to be entirely motor

fibers. The axons are efferent fibers, which transmit impulses from central
nervous system to visceral effectors. So they are called visceral efferent fibers.
Visceral effectors include cardiac muscle, smooth muscles, and glandular
epithelium.

4.

The afferent fibers convey impulses from the visceral organs to the central
nervous system. The hypothalamus, which largely controls the autonomic
nervous system, receives impulses from the visceral sensory fibers.

5.

There are two efferent neurons and a ganglion between them. The first
neuron runs from central nervous system to a ganglion, and synapses with
the second efferent neuron. The last neuron that ultimately synapses on a
visceral effector. The neurotransmitters released are acethylcholin (Ach) or
norepinephrine (NE).

6.

The autonomic nervous system consists of two principal divisions: the

sympathetic and the parasympathetic. Many organ innervated by the
autonomic nervous system receive visceral efferent neurons from both
components of the autonomic nervous system. In general, impulses from one
division stimulate the organ to increase the activity, whereas impulses from
the other division decrease the organs activity. This condition called dual
innervations and the influence may be excitatory or inhibitory.

7.

Autonomic visceral efferent pathways always consist of two neurons. One

extends from the central nervous system to a ganglion. The other extends
directly from the ganglion to the effector. The first efferent fiber called
preganglionic fiber (neuron), and conveys efferent impulses from the central
nervous system to autonomic ganglia. The second efferent fiber called
postganglionic fiber (neuron) relay the impulses from autonomic ganglia to
visceral effectors.

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_____________________________________________________ Central Regulation of

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dr. Suwono

8.

The sympathetic division, the preganglionic fibers have their cell bodies in
the lateral gray horns of the twelve thoracic segments and first two or three
lumbar segments of the spinal cord. So they called thoracolumbar division.
The cell bodies of the preganglionic parasympathetic division are located in
the nuclei of cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X in the brain stem and in the
lateral gray horns of the second to fourth sacral segments of the spinal cord.
So they called craniosacral division.

9.

The autonomic ganglia may be divided into three general groups: the
sympathetic trunk ganglia consist of paravertebral (lateral) and prevertebral
(collateral) ganglia, and parasympathetic ganglia called terminal (intramural)
ganglion. The autonomic nervous system also contains autonomic plexuses.
They contain nerve cell bodies of postganglionic fibers.

10.

Postganglionic fibers of sympathetic division may be come from

sympathetic trunk or from prevertebral ganglion. But the postganglionic
parasympathetic fibers always come from the terminal ganglion.

11.

The autonomic nervous system fibers release neurotransmitters at

synapses as well as at points of contact with visceral effectors (neuroeffector
junctions). The neuroeffectors junction may be either neuromuscular or
neuroglandular junctions. Based on the neurotransmitter released, the
autonomic nervous system may be divided into cholinergic and adrenergic
fibers.

12.

The cholinergic fibers release acetylcholin (Ach): all sympathetic and

parasympathetic preganglionic fibers, all parasympathetic postganglionic, and
few sympathetic postganglionic fibers (fibers to the sweat glands, blood
vessels in skeletal muscles, skin, and the external genitalia). The effects are
short-lived and local, because will be inactivated by acetylcholinesterase
(AchE).

13.

Adrenergic fibers produce norepinephrine. It found in most sympathetic

postganglionic fibers. The effect are long lasting and more wide spread,
because inactivated more slowly by catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) or
monoamine oxidase (MAO) and may enter the blood stream. These actions are
augmented by NE and epinephrine released by the adrenal medulla. NE and
epinephrine are released by the adrenal medulla will be destroyed by enzymes
in the liver.

14.

Ach is synthesized and stored in an inactive form in the axon terminals of

cholinergic fibers. The release of ACh needs Ca ions, and then Ach will
crosses the synaptic cleft and bind with receptors on postsynaptic membrane.
The membrane depolarized and Ach is inactivated by AChE.

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_____________________________________________________ Central Regulation of

Visceral Function
dr. Suwono

15.

The effect produced by ACh is determined by type of postsynaptic receptor.

There are two types of receptors: nicotinic and muscarinic receptor. Nicotinic
receptors are found on parasympathetic and sympathetic postganglionic
neurons. Muscarinic receptors are found in all effectors innervated by
postganglionic parasympathetic neurons, but only some effectors innervated
by sympathetic fibers.

16.

NE is released by postganglionic sympathetic fibers. The types of the

postsynaptic receptors determine the effects. Receptors that found on visceral
organs are called alpha and beta-receptors. In general stimulation of alphareceptors result in increase in permeability of postsynaptic membrane to Na
ions, and followed by depolarization. So the alpha-receptors are generally
excitatory. Stimulation of beta-receptors results in an increase in permeability
of a postsynaptic membrane to the outward movement of K ions and the
inward movement of Cl ions. This causes hyper-polarization of postsynaptic
membrane. So the beta-receptors are generally inhibitory.

17.

Most effectors contain alpha and beta-receptors. Some visceral effector

cells contain both. NE, in general stimulates alpha-receptors to a greater
extent than beta-receptors, and epinephrine, in general, stimulate both alpha
and beta-receptors. There are some exceptions to the general rule. The heart
muscle has beta-receptors that operate as excitatory receptors and cause the
heart contract more forcibly. In the smooth muscle cells of the blood vessels
that flow to the skeletal muscle, the beta-receptors greatly outnumber the
alpha-receptors. NE, binds only to alpha-receptors, causes vasoconstriction.
Epinephrine, binds to both receptors, and because a preponderance of betareceptors, causes vasodilatation.

18.

Most visceral effectors have dual innervations. The stimulation of each

division depends on the organs. Sympathetic stimulation causes increase
heart activity and parasympathetic stimulation causes decrease in activity.
Digestive activities will increase when parasympathetic stimulated.
Sympathetic stimulation causes the digestive activities decrease.

19.

The parasympathetic division concerned with activities that restore and

converse body energy. It is a rest-repose system. In normal condition
parasympathetic impulses to the digestive system dominate over the
sympathetic impulses. Thus energy-supplying food can be digested and
absorbed.

20.

The sympathetic division concerns with the process of energy expenditure.

In normal condition the sympathetic activity counteracts the parasympathetic
activity. So the sympathetic impulses just enough to carry out normal
processes requiring energy. Fear condition stimulates the sympathetic and the
bodies become alert and perform feats of unusual strength. Activation of

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dr. Suwono

sympathetic division sets into operation a series of physiological responses

collectively called the fight-or-flight response.
21.

Visceral autonomic reflex adjust the activity of a visceral effector. It results

in contraction of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle or secretion by a gland.
Examples: regulation of heart action, blood pressure, respiration, digestion,
defecation, and urinary bladder functions.

22.

The visceral autonomic reflex consists of receptor, afferent neuron,

association neurons, visceral efferent preganglionic neuron, visceral efferent
postganglionic neuron, and visceral effector.

23.

Visceral sensations do not always reach the cerebral cortex. Most remain
at subconscious levels. Under normal conditions we are not aware of
muscular contraction of the digestive organs, heartbeat, changes in the
diameter of blood vessels, and pupil dilatation and constriction.

24.

The body adjusts such visceral activities by visceral reflex arcs. The center
of the reflexes may be in the spinal cord or lower part of the brain. Such
centers are the cardiac, respiratory, vasomotor, swallowing, and vomiting
centers in the medulla. The hypothalamus is the center of temperature
regulation.

25.

Some visceral sensations do give rise conscious recognition: hunger,

nausea, and fullness of the urinary bladder and rectum.

26.

The autonomic nervous system is not a separate nervous system. Axons

from many parts of the central nervous system are connected to both the
sympathetic and the parasympathetic divisions. So they can influence the
activities of the autonomic nervous system.

27.

In the brain there are autonomic centers: in the cortex, in the thalamus
and in the hypothalamus. First thalamus will sort the incoming impulses,
and then relays them to the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex will turn over
control and integration of visceral activities through hypothalamus. The
hypothalamus is the major controller and integrator of the autonomic nervous
system functions.

28.

The axons form tracts from hypothalamus to sympathetic and

parasympathetic nuclei in the brain stem and spinal cord through relays in
the reticular formation. The lateral and posterior parts of hypothalamus
appear to control the sympathetic division. The anterior and medial parts of
hypothalamus seem to control the parasympathetic division.

29.

Stimulation in the posterior and lateral parts of hypothalamus causes

increase in visceral activities: increase in heart rate, rise in blood pressure

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_____________________________________________________ Central Regulation of

Visceral Function
dr. Suwono

due to vasoconstriction, increase in rate and depth of respiration, dilation of

the pupil and inhibition of the digestive tract activity.
30.

Stimulation of anterior and medial parts of hypothalamus causes:

decrease in heart rate, lowering blood pressure, constriction of pupils,
increased motility of digestive tract.

31.

Control of autonomic nervous system by the cerebral cortex occurs

primarily during emotional stress. Extreme anxiety, the cortex will stimulate
hypothalamus. Then hypothalamus will influence cardiac and vasomotor
centers, and alters the heart rate and blood pressure. If the stimulation is
extremely unpleasant, the stimulation causes vasodilatation, lowering blood
pressure and fainting.

32.

By nature, visceral responses occur as involuntary activities. The

responses occur without any influences of consciousness. The research
showed that visceral responses could be controlled in conscious way. The
phenomena called biofeedback. It means a process in which people get out
constant signals, or feedback, about visceral body functions. By using special
monitoring devices, they can control these visceral functions consciously.
Biofeedback can be applied in people with migraine headache, in childbirth,
and yoga.

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