expositions of Kahn's work and ideas.

Later in the decade,

more tendentious

publications

appeared,

aligned with

specific movements. In 1958 Le Carr bleuwas launched in Helsinki,tofunction largely

asavehicleforTeam 10ideas,and Ulmwas published by theHochschulefrGestaltung.

Thefirstnumberof theavant-garde International Situationistalso appeared, advancing
a "unitary urbanism." In 1959 Van Eyck became principal editor of Dutch Forum,
making it another arena for the post-ClAM critique. The first (and only) issue of
Metabolism came out in Japan in 1960. During the 1960sthe postwar media reached
a new threshold with the transformationof the architectural journal intoa radical project
in itself. In the paper polemics of the British Archigram, its first broadsheet published
in 1961, and other groups, the "antiarchitecture" position vividly unfolded.
This diverse activity worked to break down national parochialisms and to
penetrate countries isolated by geography, technological backwardness, and
repressive political regimes. It preceded and followed the shifting cultural axis from
Europe to America, as well as to places outside the usual centers of ferment, where
crucial architectural developments were occurring-Scandinavia, Japan, South
America, Eastern Europe, India. Nor was the expanded journalistic network solely
responsible for the circulation of ideas. The internationalization of firms, prestige
associated with the commissioning of foreign architects, the cosmopolitanism of the
schools, wider travel, and other mechanisms of dissemination contributed to the
universalizingof architecture culture. At the same time, decolonization allowed voices
to be heard (or images seen) from regions that a Eurocentric architecture had long
ignored or relegated to exotica. The great metropolises virtually synonymous with
modernism earlier in the century found themselves reduced to the scale of historical
nodes in what would be described by Marshall McLuhan in 1964as a global villaqe."
Thatsameyearthesuccessof BernardRudofsky's"ArchitecturewithoutArchitects"
exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art in New York underscored the desire of
architects to look outside their discipline for new meaning and less egotistic models.
The economic boom of the 1950shad slowed by the beginning of the 1960s,while the
Cold Warwarmed intothe tenseconfrontationof the Cuban missilecrisis and an (outer)
space race. The resurgence of a leftist critique of culture and steady American
escalation of its misguided adventure in Vietnam now elicited a wave of antiAmericanism. Some architects attempted to regain control over a troubling reality
through a return to technological solutions and scientific methodologies, while others
translated their criticism into sociopolitical protest and utopian prophecy. Still others
embraced popular culture or its countercultural spin-efts. learning to like Levittown or
building domes in the desert.
The first tendency constituted a belated success for rationalism, now as a
metalanguage. Structuralism, having originated earlier in the century, replaced the
existentialist Angstof the 1950sas privileged intellectual current. Linguistic, semiotic,
and typological approaches to design flourished on the border between science and
culture,affordingmethodsand modelstothetechnicallyminded wing oftheprofessionarchitect-planners like Kevin Lynch, Christopher Alexander, Yona Friedman-as well
as to new theoreticians of architectural history and form like those in Venice or at the
InstituteforArchitecture and Urban Studies in NewYorkCity, the latterfounded in 1967.
On the critical-activist side, the range of responses ran the gamut from the social
reformism spurred by Jane Jacobs in America to Archigram's futurism. While Jacobs
preached an urbanism continuous with the fabric of the city, Archigram projected a
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