University of the Philippines Baguio

College of Science
Department of Biology
Exercise No. 4

The Calcareous Sponges, Glass Sponges, and

Demosponges of the Phylum Porifera
(Worming Dead S1) De Jesus, M.P.; Magaoay, A.C.L.; Pitoc, M.T.R.; San Pedro, S.M.S. & Tade, C.M.E.
20 February 2015
20 February 2015
Introduction
A.

Background of the Study

Porifera in Latin means pore bearing. This phylums defining

characteristic is having microvillar collars which surround the flagella
and it has units that arise from either single cells or syncytia
(Pechenik, 2014).
Most sponge species are in marine environment but there are
some on freshwater. They are mostly attached and sessile stationary
animals. Sponges provide habitat for a number of animals and even
bacteria and cyanobacteria (Pechenik, 2014).
They lack nerves and musculature. They eat the food particles
that are floating in water. They dont have organ systems like
reproductive, digestive, and so on. There are 20 distinct cell types
that are present in sponges (Pechenik, 2014).
Sponges are lined with flagellated cells in its inner surface. The
empty space is the spongocoel. The cells lining the spongocoel are
called choanocytes or collar cells. Adjacent to the choanocyte layer
there is the nonliving layer called mesohyl layer. The amoeboid cells
that move through the mesohyl are called archaeocytes. They are
responsible for digestion and takes part in elimination of wastes.
Eventually they would become specialized and secrete supporting
elements found in the mesohyl layer. These supporting cells are
either calcareous or siliceous spicules or they may be fibers that
contain collagenous protein called spongin. The cells that secrete
spicules are called sclerocytes and those that secrete sponging
fibers are called spongocytes. These elements are for support and
also for identification. For fresh water sponges they have dormant
structures called gemmules. These are resistant to desiccation,
freezing and anoxia. Gemmule formation is an effective means of
asexual reproduction (Pechenik, 2014). Another means of
reproducing is by budding. Most poriferans are hermaphrodites. They
produce both eggs and sperms but at different times (UCMP, n.d.).
There are also flattened contractile cells on the outer surface of
sponges called pinacocytes. They form a layer called pinacoderm.
For most sponges, their pinacocytes dont have a basal lamina. The
contraction of pinacocytes results to minor and major shape

changes. They also take part in regulating water flow. Some

pinacocytes are ciliated (Pechenik, 2014).
Sponges rely on water flow for gas exchange, food, waste
removal and the dissemination and collection of sperm. The water
flows through narrow openings called ostia and they exit via large
openings called oscula (Pechenik, 2014).
The sponges morphology advance in order to aid in
maximizing the current flow through the spongocoel and to increase
the amount of surface area for food collection. The three basic levels
of sponge construction are asconoid, syconoid and leuconoid. Each
reflects a higher degree of evagination of the choanocyte layer away
from the spongocoel. This increases the surface area within the
sponge (Pechenik, 2014).
Sponges are distributed into four classes based on chemical
composition and morphology. These are Calcarea, Demospongiae,
Hexactinellida and Homoscleromorpha (Pechenik, 2014).
B.

Significance of the Study

Studying porifera or sponges provides insight to key

evolutionary transitions, such as emergence of multicellularity and
the nervous system. They could also synthesize compounds that
have biotechnical applications (Thacker, et al., 2014).
C.

Objectives of the Study

In this experiment, different slides were studied under the

microscope. Stipules were seen and differentiated as well. Preserved
poriferans were also observed. Characterization was also done to
enhance knowledge regarding the Phylum Porifera.
Materials and Methods
Using the compound light microscope and some prepared
slides, the students were able to determine and differentiate the
specimens from the phylum Porifera, and this includes species
under: class Calcarea, class Demospongiae and class
Hexactinellida.

Upon preparing the compound light microscope, several

prepared slides were given by the instructor and among those
species given, the longitudinal and cross section of Grantia sp.,
Spongin skeleton, Leucosolenia spicules, Spongilla spicules, Grantia
spicules and other kinds of spicules were then observed under the
microscope. In addition, Euplectella aspergillum encased in a clear
plastic and species such as the Spongia, Clathria prolifera and
Halidona porifera each contained in labeled jars were also observed.
For the species under class Calcarea which includes Grantia sp., the
ostium or prosopyle, incurrent canal, choanocyte chamber, apopyle,
spongocoel, osculum, pinacoderm, choanoderm, mesophyll layer
were examined if such of these parts can be seen in the longitudinal
and cross sectional view of the specimen. Another species belonging
to the said class is the Leucosolenia spicules as well as the Grantia
spicules. The spicules of the phylum Porifera were primarily identified
under the microscope due to their appearance and classification,
namely: monaxons, triaxons, tetraxons and polyaxons. For the
subsequent species, the Spongin skeleton, Spongilla spicules,
Spongia, Clathria prolifera and Halidona porifera all belong under the
class Demospongiae while the Euplectella aspergillum belongs to the
class Hexactinellida.
Results
The Grantia sp. have a syconoid type of canal system, both the
longitudinal section and cross sectional view exhibits the ostium or
prosopyle which is the opening located at the peripheral region of the
organism; the incurrent canal serves as a channel where water flows
inside the system; the choanocyte chamber is the sac like cavity
lined by choanocytes between the inhalant and exhalant systems;
the cell lining of this cavity is then called the choanoderm; after water
goes through the chamber, it exits into the apopyle, an opening pore
before the spongocoel then exits through the osculum although these
structures can be elaborately seen using the longitudinal section.
This species has three dermal layers the outermost being the
pinacoderm, the mesophyll layer in between and the innermost is the
choanoderm.
Spongilla spicules, Leuscosolenia spicules and other spicules
that were found and viewed under the microscope were the
monaxons, triaxons, tetraxons, polyaxons and microscleres. Among
the monaxons, monactines and diactines were observed. Under the
monactines, several of them were classified as style which
resembles a stake and the other is the tylostyle which looks like a
phallus, for the diactines, oxea have tapering ends and tylote has
knob-like ends. In triaxons, triactine rgulier and triactines en
diapson are frequently seen, also calthrops, forceps and
pectactine were found which are types of tetraxons. Sigmas a
microsclere was observed and also a fragment of a megasclere. But
aside from the usual narrow structures, there was also a circular
spiky structure found that may be either sphaeractine which is a
polyaxon or a polyactine.

Several Spongin fibers were also viewed under the

microscope, these are skeletal materials that are flexible and made
from protein. The external features of the Euplectella aspergillum
was similar to the structure of a vase which gained its name Venus
flower basket and also because of fibers that makes up its body
structure. The Spongia, Clathria prolifera and Halidona porifera were
all contained in jars submerged in a solution and had undergone
preservation processes which in turn lost its natural color and turned
brown.
Discussion
Porifera is an animal phylum consisting organisms that is
generally called as sponges. It is the only phylum of the animal
subkingdom Parazoa and characterizes the least evolutionarily
advanced group of the animal kingdom. Sponges are subdivided into
three classes (Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 2012).
Class Calcarea (Calcareous Sponges)
Sponges in this class are identified by skeletal spicules that are
composed of calcium carbonate. The spicules often protrude through
the epipinecodermal covering of the body wall that gives the
organism a rough texture. Although several species are brightly
colored, calcareous sponges are generally dull in appearance. They
are also small, usually only a few inches high. (Columbia Electronic
Encyclopedia, 2012). Members of this class are among the simplest
sponges, and include all three types of body constructionasconoid,
syconoid, and leuconoid (Pechenik, 2014). When spicules are
present, they are not fused and are usually monaxons and/or
tetraxons
(Invertebrate
Paleontology,
n.d.).
Class Hexactinellida (Glass Sponges)
These are deep-sea sponges that have skeletons that are
composed of spicules of silica and they lack epidermal covering.
Glass sponges are pale in color and are cup- or basket-shaped
(Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 2012). Their canal systems may
be either syconoid or leuconoid. The outer layer of Hexactinellida are
syncytial (having many nuclei within a single plasma membrane) and
there is no presence of a pinacoderm layer which makes them
different from other sponges (Pechenick, 2014). Sponges with
siliceous spicules that are usually triaxons and commonly fused to
form a net or box-like pattern (Invetebrate Paleontology, n.d). The
osculum is covered by a grillwork of fused spicules and the
spongocoel is big. The cylindrical skeleton sometimes has the
appearance of spun glass when the living tissue is removed. The
glass sponge known as Venus's-flower-basket ( Euplectella ) serves
as home for shrimps that is trapped by the lattice of spicules.
(Columbia
Electronic
Encyclopedia,
2012).
Class Demospongiae (Demosponges)
Most sponges belong in this class. It includes sponges with a
skeleton made up of silicon-containing spicules or spongin fibers or

both. In the latter case, the spongin provides a matrix in which the
spicules are surrounded. The Demospongiae vary in size from small,
encrusting forms to very large, irregular masses. All are leuconoid;
many are brightly colored. The freshwater sponges (family
Spongillidae) belong to this class and they are frequently green
because of symbiotic algae that live in the amoebocytes (Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, 2012). When present, spicules are
commonly monaxon, tetraxon, or polyaxon, but never triaxon
(Invertebrate Paleontology, n.d.).
Class Homoscleromorpha
Class Homoscleromorpha is formerly considered as class
Sclerospongiae. They are generally found in coral reefs that are in
deep water or in caves. Although most of them lack spicules, when
spicules are present, they are completely siliceous like in
hexactinellid, but they have distinct different morphology. In addition
to these, they possess distinct basal membrane and their epithelial
cells have cilia (Pechenik, 2014).
Spicules and Spongin Fibers
Spicules and spongin fibers are skeletal structures of sponges.
Spicules are formed by carbonates of lime or silica in the form of
needle like fragments. Spongin fibers are composed of a silk-like
scleroprotein (Chandra, n.d.).
Major part of skeletal system of sponges is constituted by
spicules. They are secreted by special mesenchymal cells called
scleroblasts. They radiate from the center in the shape of spines or
rays. Spicules have a core of organic material which is deposited
either calcium carbonate or silica (Chandra, n.d.).
Secretion by specialized mesenchyme cells known as
scleroblasts leads to formation of spicules. Calcoblast is a scleroblast
secreting a calcareous spicule while a producing siliceous spicule is
called silicoblast. Because of the incomplete division of scleroblast,
cell giving rise to binucleate scleroblast monaxon spicules are
formed. The two nuclei initiate to move away from each other.
Calcium carbonate from sea water begins to deposit in between the
space of two nuclei forming an axis. The cell divides into two, the
founder cell and the thickener cell as the calcium carbonate needle
between the nuclei begins to lengthen. When the spicule is
completely formed, both the cells detach and goes off into the
mesenchyme. Triradiate spicules are concealed by three scleroblast
cell which lie in a triangular manner (Chandra, n.d.).
Spicules have two types base on the formation of materials:
Calcareous which is made of calcium carbonate and is a
characteristic of the class Calcarea and Siliceous which is made of
silica and found in the class Hexactinellida (Chandra, n.d.).
According to the size, spicules are classified into two major
types. Megascleres are in large size and constitute main supporting
framework of sponge body. Microscleres are small-sized and appear
in the mesenchyme (Chandra, n.d.).

There are three types based on the number of axis present in

the rays of spicules. Monaxon are spicules that grow sideways in a
single axis. These can be straight needle-like or rod-like. Their ends
may be pointed, knobbed or hooked. If a spicule has only one
pointed end it is called monoactinal. If there are two points it is called
diactinal. But if it has a disc at both ends it is amphidisc. Triaxon
spicule produces six-rays that has three axes and cross one another
at right angles. These are found only in class Hexactinellida. Tetraxon
spicules are made up of four rays radiating from a common point.
Triradiate are also tetraxons in which one of the four rays is lost. All
rays are equal in calthrops. Polyaxon is a type of spicule that radiates
from a center point with numerous equal rays. They are usually
common among the glass sponges (Chandra, n.d.).
Spongin is an organic elastic substance containing
scleroprotein that is rich in sulfur and is chemically similar to
collagen. It contains hydroxyproline and glycine in large amounts and
also contains glucosamine, glucose, galactosamine and galactose
mannose, fucose, arabinose and uronic acid. Spongins are soluble in
KOH but insoluble in water and acids. It cannot be digested by the
digestive enzymes and it is chemically inert. Spongin also contains
great amount of iodine (Chandra, n.d.).
Spongin fibers are made of an axial core that is surrounded by
helically coiled fundamental fibrils which are secreted by the
spongioblast cells derived from the mesenchyme. The spongioblast
cells are arranged in rows and the collection of sponging materials
leads to the development of a vacuole. Later, spongin secreted by
each spongioblast cell joins with the next cells to form long fibers. To
provide firmness to the sponge body, spongin fibres form a network
(Chandra, n.d.).
Grantia sp.
Grantia is a genus of calcareous marine sponges. This group
of sponges establishes the sycon body plan in which the wall of the
group is folded into a sequence of internal and external canals
wherein water circulates to bring in dissolved oxygen while
eliminating waste products (Kelly, et al., 2003).
Water enters a Grantia sponge through several incurrent
canals (ostia) and passes through internal pores or prosopyles that
act like flood gates or valves. The incoming water that bears
dissolved oxygen, dissolved solids, and suspended food like plankton
and bacteria, enters the radial canals that are lined with choanocytes.
These choanocytes are flagellated collar cells that keep the water
moving throughout the sponge. By the use of flagella, the water is
moved through. Suspended food particles are strained through the
choanocytes and then digested through phagocytosis by
amebocytes. The amoebocytes transport nutrition to other parts of
the sponge colony and acts as the circulatory system of the
organism. Water from the radial canals enters the central opening
(spongocoel) through apopyles which are small pores. The exit for
the sycon type sponges is a single and moderately larger opening
that is referred as the osculum (Kelly, et al., 2003).

Sponges including Grantia exhibit only two germ layers, the

endoderm and ectoderm. There is no mesoderm as with more
advanced invertebrate and vertebrate animals. Another primitive
characteristic of sponges is the option of sexual or asexual
reproduction. Sexual reproduction allows genetic mixing while
budding and fragmentation allows Grantia sponges to form same
offspring. Environmental conditions including water temperature, tidal
stage, and the phase of the moon are considered for these sponges
to reproduce sexually (Kelly, et al., 2003).
Euplectella aspergillum

Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. (2012). Porifera: Introduction.

Retrieved
25
February
2015
from
http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/porifera.html#ix
zz3Sih1me30.
(n.d.). Invertebrate Paleontology. PROTOCISTA, EUBACTERIA, &
PORIFERA.
Retrieved
25
February
2015
from
http://paleo.cortland.edu/tutorial/Protista/porifera.htm
(n.d.). Encyclopedia of Life. Euplectella aspergillum. Retrieved 25
February 2015 from: http://eol.org/pages/1033413/overview

Euplectella aspergillum having a large central atrium, is a thinwalled, cylindrical, vase-shaped tube. The body is composed entirely
of silica in the form of 6-pointed siliceous spicules. In the case of
glass sponges like Euplectella aspergillum, the spicules are arranged
together to form a very fine mesh that gives the sponges body a
firmness that is not found in other sponge species. This also allows
glass sponges to survive at great depths in the water column. There
is more siliceous tissue called a syncytium which forms very fine
fibers covering the framework of spicule, which look like a web over
the framework. The syncytium shows that the sponge has a frame of
tissue with no distinct cell boundaries but that have stacks of nuclei.
The top of the sponge has a sieve-like disc over the end and this
helps for anchorage in to the substrate by the presence of fine, hairlike fibers. Recent study has proved that these fibers have the same
arrangement as in optical cables like those used in present
communications. They trap and convey light. One of the theories why
sponges do this is to attract symbiotic algae or as an attractant for
the shrimp which lives within the sponges body cavity (Encyclopedia
of Life, n.d.).

Kelly, C.D. et al. (2003) Grantia Sponge. Retrieved 25 February 2015

fromhttp://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/olympusmicd/galleries/d
arkfield/grantia.html

References:

Answers to Questions

Book:
Pechenik, J.A. 2014. Biology of Invertebrates, Seventh Edition. New
York: McGraw-Hill Education.

Class Calcispongiae

Internet:

Yes. Embryos were present in the prepared slide of Grantia sp.

The ova were most prominent in the cross section of the specimen.

Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. (2012). Porifera: Porifera: Class

Demospongiae (Demosponges). Retrieved 25 February 2015
from http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/poriferaclass-demospongiae-demosponges.html#ixzz3SigvofuU
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. (2012). Porifera: Class Calcarea
(Calcareous Sponges). Retrieved 25 February 2015 from
http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/porifera-classcalcarea-calcareous-sponges.html#ixzz3SigZl4z9
Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. (2012). Porifera: Class
Hexactinellida (Glass Sponges). Retrieved 25 February 2015
from http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/poriferaclass-hexactinellida-glass-sponges.html#ixzz3SighGryG

(n.d.). Les Spongiaires. Retrieved 25 February 2015 from

http://paleopedia.free.fr/spongiaires.html
(n.d.). Chandra, G. Skeletal Structures In Porifera. Retrieved 25
February 2015 from http://www.iaszoology.com/skeleton-in-sponges/
(n.d.). UCMP. Porifera: Life History and Ecology. Retrieved 25
February
2015
from
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/porifera/poriferalh.html

Journal:
Thacker, R.W., et. al. 2013. "The Porifera (PORO): Enhancing Plant
Systematics with an Anatomy Ontology". Journal of
Biomedical Semantics.

1.

2.

Are ova or embryos present in the prepared slide?

What is the body type called?

Members of this class are among the simplest sponges, and

include all three tpyes of body constructionasconoid, syconoid, and
leuconoid (Pechenick, 2014).
3.

What determines the complexity of the canal system?

Each form reflects an increased degree of evagination of the

choanocytes layer away from the spongocoel that increases the the
extent of the flagellated surface area in the sponge. The complexity
of the canal system depends on the greater amount of surface area
that is available for food collection (Pechenick, 2014).

Spicules and Spongin Fibers

1.

What are the functions of the spicules and spongin skeleton?

Spicules and spongin fibers are skeletal structures found in

sponges and they are main frame work that act as a support. They
give rigidity and firmness to sponges (Chandra, n.d.).
2.

How they are formed?

Secretion by specialized mesenchyme cells known as

scleroblasts leads to formation of spicules. Calcoblast is a scleroblast
secreting a calcareous spicule while a producing siliceous spicule is
called silicoblast. Because of the incomplete division of scleroblast,
cell giving rise to binucleate scleroblast monaxon spicules are
formed. The two nuclei initiate to move away from each other.
Calcium carbonate from sea water begins to deposit in between the
space of two nuclei forming an axis. The cell divides into two, the
founder cell and the thickener cell as the calcium carbonate needle
between the nuclei begins to lengthen. When the spicule is
completely formed, both the cells detach and goes off into the
mesenchyme. Triradiate spicules are concealed by three scleroblast
cell which lie in a triangular manner (Chandra, n.d.).
Spongin fibres are made of an axial core that is surrounded
by helically coiled fundamental fibrils which are secreted by the
spongioblast cells derived from the mesenchyme. The spongioblast
cells are arranged in rows and the collection of sponging materials
leads to the development of a vacuole. Later, spongin secreted by
each spongioblast cell joins with the next cells to form long fibers. To
provide firmness to the sponge body, spongin fibres form a network
(Chandra, n.d.).
Class Demospongiae
1.

2.

What features distinguish them from other classes?

Skeletons of this class are composed of spicules of silica and

they lack epidermal covering. Glass sponges are pale in color and
are cup- or basket-shaped (Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,
2012). The outer layer of Hexactinellida are syncytial (having many
nuclei within a single plasma membrane) and there is no presence of
a pinacoderm layer which makes them different from other sponges
(Pechenik, 2014). Sponges with siliceous spicules that are usually
triaxons and commonly fused to form a net or box-like pattern
(Invertebrate Paleontology, n.d.). The osculum is covered by a
grillwork of fused spicules and the spongocoel is big (Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, 2012).
Appendix

Figure 1. Types of Spicules

Image retrieved from http://oceanlink.info/LEYS/images/SPICULES.gif

What type of canal system does it have?

It has a leuconoid construction and it is the most complex

among the three constructions because of the increased degree of
evagination of the choanocyte layer away from the spongocoel
(Pechenik, 2014).
2.

What features distinguish them from other classes?

The spicules of and fibers of this class maybe composed of

spongin and/or silica but not calcium carbonate. Recent study shows
that the skeletal fibers of this class also contain chitin (Pechenik,
2014). Spicules that are present in this class are commonly
monaxon, tetraxon, or polyaxon, but never triaxon (Invertebrate
Paleontology, n.d.).
Class Hexactinellida
1.

What type of canal system does it have?

Hexactinellid canal systems may be either syconoid or

leuconoid (Pechenik, 2014).

Figure 2. Types of Canal Systems

Image retrieved from http://biophysics.sbg.ac.at/png/scans/spongasl.jpg

Figure 3. Euplectella

Figure 6. Halidona porifer

Figure 7. Monaxons
Image retrieved from http://paleopedia.free.fr/spongiaires.html

Figure 4. Clathria prolifera

Figure 8. Triaxons
Image retrieved from http://paleopedia.free.fr/spongiaires.html

Figure 5. Spongia

Figure 9. Tetraxons
Image retrieved from http://paleopedia.free.fr/spongiaires.html

Figure 10. Polyaxons

Image retrieved from http://paleopedia.free.fr/spongiaires.html

Figure 11. Microscleres

Image retrieved from http://paleopedia.free.fr/spongiaires.html