Exp : 8 Electrical Circuit

Title

EML 211

Experiment 8 : Electrical Circuit

A. Measure Voltage, Current, Power & Resistance In The Direct Current

(DC) Circuit
Objective
1. To measure the voltage, current, power and resistance using a volt and ammeter.
2. To understand the theory in series and parallel connections in the direct current
circuit.
Apparatus
1. Multimeter
2. DC power (100, 220, 470, 1K, 2.2K, 4.7K, 10K, 68K, 100K)
3. Three test resistances (provided)
1. Serial Resistors

Figure (1)
Theory
When two resistors, R1 and R2 are connected in the series as shown in the figure (1) above,
the equivalent resistor, R12 in this circuit are:
R12 = R1 + R2
(1)

The current, i through ammeter can be define as, when voltage, V is read using a volt
meter (provided).
v
i=
Amp
(2)
R 1+ R 2

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Procedure
1.1 Section I

I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.

VI.

R1, R2 and V were chosen with suitable values and the value of R1 + R2 is estimated.
Resistor R1 and R2 are connect in series as shown in figure(1) above.
Current, i is calculated.
Battery is connected to the circuit.
Reading of both ammeter and voltmeter are recorded.
V
=
4.8 V
i
=
0.015A
Verified if the current read on ammeter is equivalent to the estimated current using
theory, ie,
voltmeter reading
i = ammeter reading =
R1 + R2

1.2 Section II
I.
II.
III.

Polarity of the battery is reversed.

Reading on the ammeter and the voltmeter is recorded.
A review is written.

2. Parallel Resistors

Figure (2)
Theory
When two resistors, R1 and R2 are connected in series as shown in the figure (2) above, the
equivalent resistor, R12 in this circuit are:

R12=

R 1+ R 2
R1 R 2

(3)

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The current, i 1 thru R1 can be define as,

i 1=

V
R2

(4)

The current, i 2 thru R2 can be defined as,

V
R1
The sum of the current from battery i can be defined as:
i 2=

(5)

i=i 1+i 2

V
R1 R2 /( R1 + R2 )

(6)

Procedure
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.

V,R1 and R2 are selected with suitable values.

Resistor R1 and R2 are connected in parallel shown in figure (2) above.
Current i 1 that pass thru resistor R1 is calculated.
Current i 2 that pass thru resistor R2 is calculated.
Reading on ammeter is observed and had been recorded.

3. Measurement of Voltage, Current, Power & Load Resistance Using A Voltmeter

Figure (3)
3.1 Measure the voltage across the load using a voltmeter.
I.
Voltmeter and resistor are connected as shown in figure (3).
II.
Reading on the voltmeter is taken and recorded.
III.
Step 1 and step 2 are repeated for three test resistors.

3.2 Measure the current though the load using a voltmeter.

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EML 211

Figure (4)
I.
II.
III.

A known resistor (100) is connected in series with the unknown load resistor as
shown in figure (4).
Voltage reading on the voltmeter across the known resistor (100) is taken for three
test resistive load.
Current through the loads are calculated.

3.3 Measuring the power delivered to the load using a voltmeter.

I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.

Figure (5)
A voltmeter is connected across the unknown load as shown in figure (5).
Voltage reading, V1 is taken and recorded.
Voltmeter is then connected to the known resistor load (100).
Voltage reading, V2 is taken and recorded.
Power delivered to the load is calculated.

3.4 To measure the load resistance RL, using a voltmeter.

I.
Circuit shown in figure (5) is referred.
V2
II.
By using the reading V1 and
obtained from section 3.3, we estimated the
R
unknown load resistance, RL.

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EML 211

4. Measurement of Voltage, Current, Power & Resistance Load Using an Ammeter

Figure (6)
4.1 Measuring the current through the load with an ammeter.
I.
Connection is figure (6) is connected.
II.
Ammeter reading is taken.
III.
The ammeter reading indicates the current through the load.
4.2 Measure the voltage across the load with an ammeter.

I.
II.
III.
IV.

Figure (7)
Connection in figure (7) is connected. Use the know resistor, R where the value is
100.
Ammeter reading is recorded.
Voltage across the load is estimated by using the formula

V =IR

(7)

4.3 Measuring the power delivered to the load with an ammeter.

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Figure (8)
I.
II.
III.

Connection in figure (8) is connected. Use the know resistor, R where the value is
100.
Current thru the unknown load is called A1 and the value of it is recorded. Use the
know resistor, R where the value is 100.
The connection as shown in figure (9) is connected.

Figure (9)
IV.
V.

Current pass thru the know resistor is called A2 and it is been recorded
Voltage across the load is calculated by using formula (8).

VR=A2R
VI.

(8)

Power delivered to the load ,PL is estimated by using formula (9)

PL= Voltage x Current
= (A2R)(A1)
=A1A2R Watt (9)

4.4 Measuring the load resistance, RL using an ammeter.

I.
Reading obtained from section 4.3 is used in this section.
II.
Resistance of the unknown load is estimated by using formula (10)
A R
R L= 2
(10)
A1
5. Measurement of Voltage, Current, Power & Load Resistance Using a Voltmeter
& Ammeter

Exp : 8 Electrical Circuit

I.

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Voltmeter, load and load are connected as shown in figure (10).

Figure (10)
II.

Readings obtained from the ammeter as A and voltmeter as V recorded.

Current through the load = A
Voltage across load = V
Power delivered to the load = V x A (Watt)
Resistance of the load, R =

V
R

Ohms

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Result and Calculation

1.
Serial Resistor
1.1 Section I
[i]

R1 = 100
R2 = 220
V = 5V
R1 + R 2 =
320
[ii]
Current obtained from calculation, i
[iii]
Voltmeter reading, V =
4.8V
[iv] Ammeter reading, i =
14.25mA
[v] Theoretical ammeter reading, i, = 15.0mA
[vi] Theoretical Voltmeter reading, V, = 5V

= 15.6mA

1.2 Section II
I.
II.

III.

IV.

2.

Once the batterys polarity in reversed, the needle of multimeter was towards left
(backwards) of zero value.
There is current flow even the batterys polarity is changed. The ammeter and
voltmeter needle shows towards (backwards) zero is due to negative value of
current and voltage. This proved when we used the digital multimeter which
showed a negative value. To solve this, we changed the polarity of ammeter and
voltmeter which is similar to power supply.
Reading of ammeter and voltmeter were taken, there isnt any difference from
section (A), where the ammeter and voltmeter reading were 14.25mA and 4.8V
respectively.
What I could learn from this is, the polarity of power supply (battery or etc) must
be similar (positive to positive or negative to negative) to obtain a positive value
of current and voltage. By the reversing the polarity, we could obtain a negative
value which means the current flow in opposite directions.

Parallel Resistor
[i]
R1
=
100
R2
=
220
V
=
5V
[ii]
From calculation, i 1
[iii]
From calculation, i 2
[iv]
From ammeter reading,
i1
=
44mA

=
=

50mA
22.7mA

Exp : 8 Electrical Circuit

i2
=
i
=
i = i1+i2=

3.

EML 211

21mA
65mA
72.7mA

Measurement of voltage, current, power and resistance of load using one

voltmeter.
3.1.
[i]

Measuring the voltage across load resistors using voltmeter.

Readings of voltmeter from the 3 resistance test :
V1
V2
V3

3.2.

=
=
=

5.0V
5.0V
5.0V

Measuring current across load using voltmeter.

[ii]

The reading of voltmeter across the 100 resistors for the 3 resistance of load
tests:
V1
=
0.9V
V2
=
0.21V
V3
=
0.1V

[iii]

Current across the load :

I1

I2

I3
3.3.
[i]

0.9
100 = 9.0mA

0.21
100 = 2.1mA

0.1
100 = 1.0mA

Measuring power supplied to load using voltmeter.

V1 = 4.9V ( R = 4.7k )
V2 = 0.1V ( R = 100 )

Exp : 8 Electrical Circuit

[ii]

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Power supplied to load :

V
Po 2 x V1
R
0 .1
Po 100 x 4.9

3.4.

= 4.9mW

Measuring load resistor ,RL, using voltmeter.

[iii]

RL

V
V R ( 4.9)(100)
Voltage across load
1 1
4.9k
Current across load V2 / R V2
0 .1

4.

Measurement of voltage, current, power & resistance load using an ammeter.

4.1

Measuring the current through the load with an ammeter.

[i]

Ammeter reading
I = 45mA

4.2. Measure the voltage across the load with an ammeter

[ii]

Ammeter reading
I = 45mA

[iii]

Estimate the voltage, V = IR

V = IR
V= 45(10-3)x 100
V=4.5V

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4.3 Current thru the unknown load,A1

[i]

A1 = 9.6mA

[ii]

Current through the known resistor(100), A2

A2 = 5.6mA

[iii]

Voltage across the load, VR= A2R

VR = 5.6(10-3) X 100
VR = 0.56V

[iv]

Power delivered to the load, PL= Voltage x Current = A1A2R

PL = 9.6(10-3) X 5.6(10-3) X 100
PL = 5.4mW

4.4. Measuring the load resistance, RL using an ammeter.

[i]

RL =

A2 R
Ohm
A1

RL =

(5.6)(100)
9.6

RL = 58.3

5. Measurement of voltage, current, power & load resistance using a voltmeter &
ammeter.
[i]

Current through the load = 48mA

Voltage across load = 4.8V
Power delivered to the = V x A Watt= 0.23W
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Exp : 8 Electrical Circuit

V
Ohms =
A

Resistance of the load, R =

4.8
48 ( 0.001 )

EML 211

= 100

Discussion

1. Experiment 1.1 Section (I)

[i] The ammeter reading obtained from experiment is i = 14.25mA which is near to
the theoretical reading i = 15mA.
[ii] The percentage of deviation =

15.014.25
x 100 = 5% which is relatively
15.0

small.

2. Experiment 1.1 Section (II)

[i] When the battery polarity is reversed, the voltmeter and ammeter reading is
reversed also. To solve this problem, reversed the polarity of ammeter and voltmeter
is required so that the needle of both the ammeter and voltmeter can function
properly.
[ii] The value of the ammeter and voltmeter reading is almost the same as the value
obtained from Section (I). The reading is V= 4.8V and i =14.25mA.
3. Experiment 2.
[i] Experimental result is

i=65 mA meanwhile theoretical result is i=72.7 mA .

[ii] The percentage deviation is

72.765
x 100 = 10.59%
72.7

The error could be the

(i)
Poor calibration caused the inaccuracy of the reading. Correct scale should be
used to measure ammeter and voltage reading, not too big or not too small.
(ii)
Parallax error caused by the observer using incorrect eye level to observe the
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Exp : 8 Electrical Circuit

(ii)

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reading of the instrument. The position of observers eye should be

perpendicular to the reading scale.
The overheating of the circuit and resistor which increase the resistance for
current flow.

4. Precautionary steps to overcome the errors faced.

The observers eye must be perpendicular to reading scale. The reflection of
the needle in ammeter or voltmeter on the mirror and needle should overlap
to obtain accurate reading.
Run the experiment and obtain the results for a few times and get the average
reading to obtain accurate reading.
Ensure the power supply is switched when its not in use. This is to reduce the
chances of getting overheat which would spoil the reading. Avoid direct
sunlight contact or heating element which can increase the surrounding
temperature, maintain room temperature at 25 degree Celcius.
Adjust the range of ammeter and voltmeter to the suitable value to avoid
multimeter to malfunction. Start from high range then reduce to suitable
range one by one.

Conclusion
1.

In series arrangement,
[i]
The equivalent resistance of R1 and R2 is R1+R2
[ii]
Current pass through all resistors are the same.
[iii]
The value of voltage drop across the resistor is proportional to the resistance and
follow the voltage division rule.

2.

In parallel arrangement,

R 1+ R 2
R1 R 2

[i]

The equivalent resistance of R1 and R2 is

[ii]
[iii]

The current pass through the resistors follow the current division rule.
The voltage drop across the all resistors are the same.

References
1. EML 211/2 Engineering Laboratory Manual , Dr.Elmi Abu Bakar, Assoc.ProfDr.Roslan
Ahmad
2. Electric circuit analysis, by David E Johnson, 1999 year
3. Electric circuit theory, by R. Yorke, 1986 year

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Exp : 8 Electrical Circuit

EML 211

II Superposition Theorem, Thevenin and Norton

Theories :
1. Superposition theorem
The superposition theorem states that the voltage across (or current
through) an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the
voltage across (or currents through) that element due to each
independent source acting alone. This theorem is a way to analyse a
linear circuit with more than one independent source by calculating the
contribution of each source separately. In order to negate all but one
power source for analysis, replace all independent voltage sources with
short circuit and replace all independent current sources with open
circuit.

2. Thevenin theorem
Thevenin theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source V TH in
series with a resistor RTH , where VTH is the open-circuit voltage source
at the terminals and RTH is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are turned off. When applying
the Thevenin theorem, all independent voltage sources will be short
circuited and all independent current sources will be open circuited. By
replacing the whole circuit to a simple circuit with one voltage source
and one resistance, calculation on the load resistor will be easier.

3. Norton theorem
Norton theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit with an independent circuit source, I N
in parallel with a resistance, R N. IN is the current pass through the two
terminals and RN is the equivalent resistance at the terminal when the
independent source is turned off. The method of applying Norton
theorem is almost the same but only Thevenin theorem is used to
calculate voltage but Norton theorem is used to calculate current.

Objectives
1.
Introduce fundamental theorems commonly used to simplified a circuit for the
purpose of evaluating or designing
2.
Understand the methods or usage of this basic theorems in practice in a circuit
or network of direct current

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Exp : 8 Electrical Circuit

EML 211

Apparatus
1.
2.
3.

DC power supply (2)

Multimeter (3)
Resistor (100, 470, 1k, 1.5k, 4.7k)

Introduction
To understand if the way of a circuit is r the purpose of designing or analyzing, and
commonly used technique to facilitate the circuit for an univalent circuit. The three
fundamental theorems usual used for the simplification of a circuit are:
[i]
Superposition Theorem
[ii]
Norton Theorem and
[iii]
Thevenin Theorem
1.0

Superposition Theorem
Objective
To learn the concept of superposition theorem in the network circuit fixed torrent.
Theory
Consider the circuit network shown in Figure(1).

Figure(1)
Remove the sources V1 and the network circuit above will be as shown in Figure(2).

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Exp : 8 Electrical Circuit

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Figure(2)
Since R1 and R2 are parallel
R1 R 2
Thus , R1||R2 = R12 =
R 1+ R 2
Therefore, the network circuit can be summarised as shown in Figure(3).

Thus,

Figure(3)

V3
I '3 =
R3 + R 12

Referring to Figure(2),

I '1 =

R2
I' ,
R1 + R2 3

R1
I' ,
R1 + R 2 3
Referring back to Figure(1), now removed only V3. The circuit to be is as shown in
Figure(4).
And

I '2 =

Figure(4)
Now, R2 and R3wil be parallel resistors.
R2 R3
Thus, R2||R3 = R23 =
R 2+ R 3
Therefore, the network circuit can be summarised as shown in figure(5).

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Exp : 8 Electrical Circuit

EML 211

Figure(5)
Therefore,

''
1

''
2

I =I + I

''
3

V1
R1 + R23
Also,

I '2' =

R3
I ''1
R2 + R 3

R2
I ''1
R2 + R 3
Thus, when both V1 and V2 areconnected as shown in Figure(5) above, t current
through the resistor R1 are defined as
I 1 =I '1 + I ''1
The current though resistor R2 are define as
I 2 =I '2 + I '2'
The current though resistor R3 are defined as
I 3 =I '3 + I '3'
And

If
2.0

I '3 > I '3' , the current flow direction will follow the

I '3 s flow direction.

Thevenin & Norton Theorem

Objective
1.
2.
2.1

I '3' =

To learn the concept of Thevenin and Norton theorem in sample network.

Learn the concept of an ideal and actual current source.

Thevenin Theorem

Procedure
1.

Thevenin equivalent circuit and its equivalent values for the circuit network
given in Figure(6) is connected. The equivalent circuit is drawing the space
provided.

Figure (6)
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Exp : 8 Electrical Circuit

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2.

Power supply is connected to the circuit above but do not connect R L. Voltage across
the terminal XY is measured and recorded. This is the Thevenin voltage, ETH.
EOC=ETH
3.
Power supply is removed and the resistance across x-y is measured. Value of
resistance is recorded. This is the Thevenin equivalent resistance RTH.
RSC=RNO =RTH
4.
Voltage drop across the RL load is calculated after it is connected, the following
formula is used.
E R
V RL = TH L
R TH +R L
5.
6.

Power supply s connected with the RL load in the network. The voltage drop across
the load resistor is measured and recorded.
Step 1 to Step 5 are repeated for the circuit in Figure(7) by using Thevenin s
theorem.

Figure(7)

2.2

Norton Theorem

1.

Norton equivalent circuit is drawn for the circuit in Figure(6).

2.

Power supply is connected to the circuit. Load resistor is replaced with an ammeter(010)mA. Ensure the meter is connected to the correct polarization. Current is recorded
as ISC. This current is the Norton current.
ISC=IN=

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Exp : 8 Electrical Circuit

EML 211

Note: Resistance range is equal to RN that has been measured before.

3.

Voltage drop across the RL from the Norton equivalent circuit is calculated
byusingthe following formulas
I R R
V RL = SC N L
RN+RL
4.
RL load is connected and voltage drop is measured.
5.
Step 1 to Step 5 are repeated for the circuit in Figure(7) by using Nortons s theorem.

3.0

Exercise
For the circuit shown below,

Figure(8)
Get a Thevenin equivalent Circuit.

1.

RTh

RTh

R1
V Th

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2. Calculate the voltage AB, E1 by opened the current source.

E 1=

R1
V
R 1+ R 2

15 (103)
3
3
15 ( 10 ) +30 (10 )

x 10

3.33V

3. Calculate the voltage AB, E2 by closed the circuit.

Therefore, the equivalent Thevenin voltage is , ETH.
ETH = E1+E2
I1 =

R1
( I)
R1 + R2
3

E2=0.67 x 15 E TH =3.33+10

30(10 )

1
45(103 )
10V

13.33V

0.67 mA

4.

Now, by removing the power supply and closing circuit at AB, calculate the
equivalent resistor, RTH.

RTH =

1 1
+
30 15

10 k

Result and Calculation

A. Superposition Theorem
Experimental value:

A1

( mA )

A2

( mA )

A3

( mA )
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Exp : 8 Electrical Circuit

Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 4

1.60
-1.00
2.50

2.50
0.60
1.90

EML 211
0.90
1.60
0.60

Table 1
Theoretical value (referring to figure 2):

R1 R 2 1 ( 103 ) ( 1.5 ) ( 103 )

R1 R2=R 12=
=
=600
R1 + R2 1 ( 10 3 )+ 1.5 ( 103 )
V3
9
I '3 =
=
=1.70 mA
R3 + R 12 4.7 ( 103 ) + 600
R2
1.5 ( 103 )
I '3=
( 1.7 ) ( 103 ) =1.0 2mA
3
3
R1 + R 2
1 ( 10 ) +1.5 ( 10 )
R1
1 ( 103 )
I '2 =
I '3=
( 1.7 ) ( 103 ) =0. 68 mA
3
3
R1 + R 2
1 ( 10 ) +1.5 ( 10 )
I '1 =

Theoretical value (referring to figure 4):

R2 R3 =R 23=
I '1' =

R2 R3 1.5 ( 103 ) ( 4.7 ) ( 103 )

=
=1.14 k
R 2+ R 3 1.5 ( 103 ) + 4.7 ( 103 )

V1
6
=
=2.8 1 mA
3
R1+ R23 1 ( 10 ) +1.14 (103)

R3
4.7 ( 103 )
''
I =
I 3=
( 2.81 ) ( 103 )=2.1 3 mA
3
3
R2 + R 3
1.5 ( 10 ) +4.7 ( 10 )
R2
1.5 ( 103 )
''
''
I3 =
I 3=
( 2.81 ) ( 103 )=0.68 mA
3
3
R2 + R 3
1.5 ( 10 ) +4.7 ( 10 )
''
2

Overall theoretical value:

I 1 =I '1 + I '1' =1.0 2 ( 103 ) +2.8 1 ( 103 )=1.79 mA

I 2 =I '2 + I ''2 =0.68 ( 103 ) +2.13 ( 103 ) =2.8 1 mA
I 3 =I '3 I '3' =1.7 0 ( 103 ) 0.68 ( 103 )=1.0 2 mA

Thevenin Theorem
For Figure(6)
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1.
2.
3.

Thevenin voltage, EOC =ETH =4V

Thevenin resistance, RSC = RNO = RTH = 600
Voltage drop across the RL by calculation,
E R
4 x 470
V RL = TH L =
=1. 76 V
R TH + R L 550+ 470
4.
Measured voltage drop across load RL, V RL =1.8 V
For Figure(7)
5.
6.
7.

Thevenin voltage, EOC = ETH = 7.8V

Thevenin resistance, RSC = RNO = RTH = 400
Voltage drop across the RL by calculation,
E R
7.8 x 470
V RL = TH L =
=4.21V
R TH + R L 4 00+ 470
8.
Measured voltage drop across load RL, V RL =3.7 V
2.2

Norton Theorem

For Figure (6)

9.
10.

Norton current, ISC = IN = 6.7mA

Voltage drop across the RL

V RL =
11.

I SC R N R L 6.7 (103)(64 0)(470)

=
=1. 82V
RN + RL
64 0+ 470

Measured voltage drop across load RL, V RL =1. 9 V

For Figure (7)

12.
13.

Norton current, ISC = IN = 10.5mA

Voltage drop across the RL
I SC R N R L 10.5(103)(640)(470)
=
=2. 85 V
RN + RL
640+470
Measured voltage drop across load RL, V RL =2.8 V

V RL =
14.

Discussion

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Exp : 8 Electrical Circuit

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1. Based on the experimental, the experimental results obtained were almost the same compared
to theoretical values with a difference in range of 0.1 to 0.5.

For Thevenin Theorem experiment, the value of V RL measured is 1.8 V which

is the same as the value calculated of the voltage drop across the R L load when it
is connected.

For Norton theorem experiment, the value of V RL measured is 1.8 V which is

higher compared to the calculated value ( 1.5 V ) of the voltage drop across the
R L from the Norton equivalent circuit.

The measured value is different from calculation value because there are some error:

The resistance value of the resistor is not exactly the same as shown by the body
colour of the resistor, there are some deviation. So, the resistance we using in
the
calculation is possible to be higher or lower than actual.

The apparatus used (ammeter and voltmeter) may consists calibration error.

The parallax error caused by the observer.

Some precautions are needed in this experiment:

o Do not connect the circuit with the power supply for a long time because this
will cause the overheating of wire.
o When take the reading from the ammeter or voltmeter, must ensure that the
eye level is correctly with the scale.
o Connect the resistors properly to the circuit.

Conclusion

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Exp : 8 Electrical Circuit

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Throughout the experiment, we learnt usage and fundamentals therorems of Superposition,Thevenin

and Norton are applied in a circuit. There is a small difference in experimental and theoretical results
due to some errors occurred but since the percentage of error is small then it is satisfying.

References
1. EML 211/2 Engineering Laboratory Manual , Dr.Elmi Abu Bakar, Assoc.Prof Dr.Roslan
Ahmad
2. http://www.facstaff.bucknell.edu/mastascu/elessonsHTML/Source/Source2.html
3. http://www.accesscomms.com.au/reference/polarity.htm

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