Electromagnetic waves and antenna basics

Radio signals are a form of electromagnetic wave, and as they are the way in which radio signals
travel, they have a major bearing on RF antennas themselves and RF antenna design.
Electromagnetic waves are the same type of radiation as light, ultra-violet and infra red rays,
differing from them in their wavelength and frequency. Electromagnetic waves have both electric
and magnetic components that are inseparable. The planes of these fields are at right angles to
one another and to the direction of motion of the wave.

An electromagnetic wave
The electric field results from the voltage changes occurring in the RF antenna which is radiating
the signal, and the magnetic changes result from the current flow. It is also found that the lines of
force in the electric field run along the same axis as the RF antenna, but spreading out as they
move away from it. This electric field is measured in terms of the change of potential over a
given distance, e.g. volts per metre, and this is known as the field strength. Similarly when an RF
antenna receives a signal the magnetic changes cause a current flow, and the electric field
changes cause the voltage changes on the antenna.
There are a number of properties of a wave. The first is its wavelength. This is the distance
between a point on one wave to the identical point on the next. One of the most obvious points to
choose is the peak as this can be easily identified although any point is acceptable.

Wavelength of an electromagnetic wave

The wavelength of an electromagnetic wave

The second property of the electromagnetic wave is its frequency. This is the number of times a
particular point on the wave moves up and down in a given time (normally a second). The unit of
frequency is the Hertz and it is equal to one cycle per second. This unit is named after the
German scientist who discovered radio waves. The frequencies used in radio are usually very
high. Accordingly the prefixes kilo, Mega, and Giga are often seen. 1 kHz is 1000 Hz, 1 MHz is
a million Hertz, and 1 GHz is a thousand million Hertz i.e. 1000 MHz. Originally the unit of
frequency was not given a name and cycles per second (c/s) were used. Some older books may
show these units together with their prefixes: kc/s; Mc/s etc. for higher frequencies.
The third major property of the wave is its velocity. Radio waves travel at the same speed as
light. For most practical purposes the speed is taken to be 300 000 000 metres per second
although a more exact value is 299 792 500 metres per second.

Frequency to Wavelength Conversion

Although wavelength was used as a measure for signals, frequencies are used exclusively today.
It is very easy to relate the frequency and wavelength as they are linked by the speed of light as
shown:
lambda = c / f
where
lambda
=
the
wavelength
in
metres
f
=
frequency
in
Hertz
c = speed of radio waves (light) taken as 300 000 000 metres per second for all practical
purposes.
Field measurements
It is also interesting to note that close to the RF antenna there is also an inductive field the same
as that in a transformer. This is not part of the electromagnetic wave, but it can distort
measurements close to the antenna. It can also mean that transmitting antennas are more likely to
cause interference when they are close to other antennas or wiring that might have the signal
induced into it. For receiving antennas they are more susceptible to interference if they are close
to house wiring and the like. Fortunately this inductive field falls away fairly rapidly and it is
barely detectable at distances beyond about two or three wavelengths from the RF antenna.

Antenna polarisation or polarization

Polarisation is an important factor for RF antennas and radio communications in general. Both
RF antennas and electromagnetic waves are said to have a polarization.
For the electromagnetic wave the polarization is effectively the plane in which the electric wave
vibrates. This is important when looking at antennas because they are sensitive to polarisation,
and generally only receive or transmit a signal with a particular polarization.

For most antennas it is very easy to determine the polarization. It is simply in the same plane as
the elements of the antenna. So a vertical antenna (i.e. one with vertical elements) will receive
vertically polarised signals best and similarly a horizontal antenna will receive horizontally
polarised signals.

An electromagnetic wave
It is important to match the polarization of the RF antenna to that of the incoming signal. In this
way the maximum signal is obtained. If the RF antenna polarization does not match that of the
signal there is a corresponding decrease in the level of the signal. It is reduced by a factor of
cosine of the angle between the polarisation of the RF antenna and the signal.
Accordingly the polarisation of the antennas located in free space is very important, and
obviously they should be in exactly the same plane to provide the optimum signal. If they were at
right angles to one another (i.e. cross-polarised) then in theory no signal would be received.
For terrestrial radio communications applications it is found that once a signal has been
transmitted then its polarisation will remain broadly the same. However reflections from objects
in the path can change the polarisation. As the received signal is the sum of the direct signal plus
a number of reflected signals the overall polarisation of the signal can change slightly although it
remains broadly the same.

Polarisation catagories
Vertical and horizontal are the simplest forms of antenna polarization and they both fall into a
category known as linear polarisation. However it is also possible to use circular polarisation.
This has a number of benefits for areas such as satellite applications where it helps overcome the
effects of propagation anomalies, ground reflections and the effects of the spin that occur on
many satellites. Circular polarisation is a little more difficult to visualise than linear polarisation.
However it can be imagined by visualising a signal propagating from an RF antenna that is
rotating. The tip of the electric field vector will then be seen to trace out a helix or corkscrew as

it travels away from the antenna. Circular polarisation can be seen to be either right or left
handed dependent upon the direction of rotation as seen from the transmitter.
Another form of polarisation is known as elliptical polarisation. It occurs when there is a mix of
linear and circular polarisation. This can be visualised as before by the tip of the electric field
vector tracing out an elliptically shaped corkscrew.
However it is possible for linearly polarised antennas to receive circularly polarised signals and
vice versa. The strength will be equal whether the linearly polarised antenna is mounted
vertically, horizontally or in any other plane but directed towards the arriving signal. There will
be some degradation because the signal level will be 3 dB less than if a circularly polarised
antenna of the same sense was used. The same situation exists when a circularly polarised
antenna receives a linearly polarised signal.

Applications of antenna polarization

Different types of polarisation are used in different applications to enable their advantages to be
used. Linear polarization is by far the most widely used for most radio communications
applications. Vertical polarisation is often used for mobile radio communications. This is because
many vertically polarized antenna designs have an omni-directional radiation pattern and it
means that the antennas do not have to be re-orientated as positions as always happens for
mobile radio communications as the vehicle moves. For other radio communications applications
the polarisation is often determined by the RF antenna considerations. Some large multi-element
antenna arrays can be mounted in a horizontal plane more easily than in the vertical plane. This
is because the RF antenna elements are at right angles to the vertical tower of pole on which they
are mounted and therefore by using an antenna with horizontal elements there is less physical
and electrical interference between the two. This determines the standard polarisation in many
cases.
In some applications there are performance differences between horizontal and vertical
polarization. For example medium wave broadcast stations generally use vertical polarisation
because ground wave propagation over the earth is considerably better using vertical
polarization, whereas horizontal polarization shows a marginal improvement for long distance
communications using the ionosphere. Circular polarisation is sometimes used for satellite radio
communications as there are some advantages in terms of propagation and in overcoming the
fading caused if the satellite is changing its orientation.

Antenna feed impedance

When a signal source is applied to an RF antenna at its feed point, it is found that it presents a
load impedance to the source. This is known as the antenna "feed impedance" and it is a complex
impedance made up from resistance, capacitance and inductance. In order to ensure the optimum
efficiency for any RF antenna design it is necessary to maximise the transfer of energy by
matching the feed impedance of the RF antenna design to the load. This requires some
understanding of the operation of antenna design in this respect.
The feed impedance of the antenna results from a number of factors including the size and shape
of the RF antenna, the frequency of operation and its environment. The impedance seen is
normally complex, i.e. consisting of resistive elements as well as reactive ones.

Antenna feed impedance resistive elements

The resistive elements are made up from two constituents. These add together to form the sum of
the total resistive elements.

Loss resistance: The loss resistance arises from the actual resistance of the elements in
the aRF ntenna, and power dissipated in this manner is lost as heat. Although it may
appear that the "DC" resistance is low, at higher frequencies the skin effect is in evidence
and only the surface areas of the conductor are used. As a result the effective resistance is
higher than would be measured at DC. It is proportional to the circumference of the
conductor
and
to
the
square
root
of
the
frequency.
The resistance can become particularly significant in high current sections of an RF
antenna where the effective resistance is low. Accordingly to reduce the effect of the loss
resistance it is necessary to ensure the use of very low resistance conductors.

Radiation resistance: The other resistive element of the impedance is the "radiation
resistance". This can be thought of as virtual resistor. It arises from the fact that power is
"dissipated" when it is radiated from the RF antenna. The aim is to "dissipate" as much
power in this way as possible. The actual value for the radiation resistance varies from
one type of antenna to another, and from one design to another. It is dependent upon a
variety of factors. However a typical half wave dipole operating in free space has a
radiation resistance of around 73 Ohms.

Antenna reactive elements

There are also reactive elements to the feed impedance. These arise from the fact that the antenna
elements act as tuned circuits that possess inductance and capacitance. At resonance where most
antennas are operated the inductance and capacitance cancel one another out to leave only the
resistance of the combined radiation resistance and loss resistance. However either side of
resonance the feed impedance quickly becomes either inductive (if operated above the resonant
frequency) or capacitive (if operated below the resonant frequency).

Efficiency
It is naturally important to ensure that the proportion of the power dissipated in the loss
resistance is as low as possible, leaving the highest proportion to be dissipated in the radiation
resistance as a radiated signal. The proportion of the power dissipated in the radiation resistance
divided by the power applied to the antenna is the efficiency.
A variety of means can be employed to ensure that the efficiency remains as high as possible.
These include the use of optimum materials for the conductors to ensure low values of resistance,
large circumference conductors to ensure large surface area to overcome the skin effect, and not
using designs where very high currents and low feed impedance values are present. Other
constraints may require that not all these requirements can be met, but by using engineering
judgement it is normally possible to obtain a suitable compromise.
It can be seen that the antenna feed impedance is particularly important when considering any
RF antenna design. However by maximising the energy transfer by matching the feeder to the
antenna feed impedance the antenna design can be optimised and the best performance obtained.

Coaxial Feeder / RF Coax Cable Tutorial

The most common type of antenna feeder used today is undoubtedly coaxial feeder or coax
cable. Coax cable, often referred to as RF cable, offers advantages of convenience of use while
being able to provide a good level of performance. In view of this vast amounts of coax cable,
coax feeder are manufactured each year, and it is also available in a wide variety of forms for
different applications.
Applications of coax cable
Coax cable or coaxial feeder is used in many applications where it is necessary to transfer radio
frequency energy from one point to another. Possibly the most obvious use of coax cable is for
domestic television down-leads, but it is widely used in many other areas as well.
While it is used for domestic connections between receivers and aerials, it is likewise also used
for commercial and industrial transmission lines connecting receivers and transmitters to
antennas. However it is also sued where any high frequency signals need to be carried any
distance.
The construction of the coaxial cable means that signals that the levels of loss and stray pick-up
are minimised. In view of this it is also used in many computer applications. Coax cable was
used for some early forms of Ethernet local area networks, although now optical fibres are used
for higher data rates, or twisted pairs where frequencies are not so high as these cables are much
cheaper than coax.

RF coax cable history

RF coaxial cable is a particularly important part of today's RF and electronics scene. It is a
component that could easily be overlooked with little thought of how it appeared. In the late
1800s there were a huge number of basic discoveries being made in the field of electricity.
Radio, or wireless as it was originally called was not understood well, and the first transmissions
were made in the 1890s. Some transmissions were made earlier but not understood.
The first known implementation of coax cable was in 1884 when Ernst von Siemens (one of the
founders of the Siemens empire) patented the idea, although there were no known applications at
this time. It then took until 1929 before the first modern commercial coax cables were patented
by Bell Laboratories, although its use was still relatively small. Nevertheless it was used in 1934
to relay television pictures of the Berlin Olympics to Leipzig. Then in 1936 an a coaxial cable
was installed between London and Birmingham in the UK to carry 40 telephone calls, and in the
USA an experimental coaxial cable was installed between New York and Philadelphia to relay
television pictures.
With the commercial use of RF coax cable establishing itself, many other used the cable for
shorter runs. It quickly established itself, and now it is widely used for both commercial and
domestic applications.
What is coax cable? - the basics
Coax cable, coaxial feeder is normally seen as a thick electrical cable. The cable is made from a
number of different elements that when together enable the coax cable to carry the radio
frequency signals with a low level of loss from one location to another. The main elements
within a coax cable are:
1. Centre conductor

2. Insulating dielectric

3. Outer conductor

4. Outer protecting jacket or sheath

The overall construction of the coax cable or RF cable can be seen in the diagram below and
from this it can be seen that it is built up from a number of concentric layers. Although there are
many varieties of coax cable, the basic overall construction remains the same:

Cross section though coaxial cable

1. Centre conductor
The centre conductor of the coax is almost universally made of
copper. Sometimes it may be a single conductor whilst in other RF cables it may consist
of several strands.

2. Insulating dielectric
Between the two conductors of the coax cable there is an
insulating dielectric. This holds the two conductors apart and in an ideal world would not
introduce any loss, although it is one of the chief causes of loss in reality. This coax cable
dielectric may be solid or as in the case of many low loss cables it may be semi-airspaced
because it is the dielectric that introduces most of the loss. This may be in the form of
long "tubes" in the dielectric, or a "foam" construction where air forms a major part of the
material.

3. Outer conductor The outer conductor of the RF cable is normally made from a copper
braid. This enables the coax cable to be flexible which would not be the case if the outer
conductor was solid, although in some varieties made for particular applications it is. To
improve the screening double or even triple screened coax cables are sometimes used.
Normally this is accomplished by placing one braid directly over another although in
some instances a copper foil or tape outer may be used. By using additional layers of
screening, the levels of stray pick-up and radiation are considerably reduced. The loss is
marginally lower.

4. Outer protecting jacket or sheath Finally there is a final cover or outer sheath to the
coax cable. This serves little electrical function, but can prevent earth loops forming. It
also gives a vital protection needed to prevent dirt and moisture attacking the cable, and
prevent the coax cable from being damaged by other mechanical means.

How RF coax cable works

A coaxial cable carries current in both the inner and the outer conductors. These current are equal
and opposite and as a result all the fields are confined within the cable and it neither radiates nor
picks up signals.
This means that the cable operates by propagating an electromagnetic wave inside the cable. As
there are no fields outside the coax cable it is not affected by nearby objects. Accordingly it is
ideal for applications where the RF cable has to be routed through or around buildings or close to
many other objects. This is a particular advantage of coaxial feeder when compared with other
forms of feeder such as two wire (open wire, or twin) feeder.
Further reading
There are further articles and pages about coax cable on this site. Topics include the velocity
factor, coax cable loss, coax cable power rating, and the environmental considerations for these
RF cables. The menu can be seen at the bottom end of the left hand menu.
Coax cable environmental resistance

Coax cable, or as it is sometimes called RF cable can be expensive, but it is also required to
withstand some harsh environmental conditions. In view of its cost, care needs to be taken
otherwise the performance of the coax cable will deteriorate and the RF cable will require
replacement. By taking suitable precautions, the life of the coax cable can be maximised and the
periodic replacement costs for RF cables can be reduced.
There are many factors that affect coax cables to greater or lesser degrees:

Humidity and water vapour

Sunlight

Corrosive vapours and liquids

Effect of humidity and water vapour on coax cables

One of the biggest enemies for coaxial cable is that of water vapour. If it enters a coax cable then
it can significantly degrade its performance, requiring the cable to be replaced. Moisture causes
two main effects that give rise to an increase in the level of attenuation or loss in the cable. The
first is an increase in resistive loss arising from oxidation of the braid that gives rise to an
increase in the resistance of the braid or outer conductor in the coax cable. The second is an
increase in the loss arising in the dielectric. Water absorbed into the dielectric heats up when
power is passed along the coax cable. This heat is as a result of power loss in the cable.
Water vapour, or even water itself can enter the coax cable through a number of ways:
1. Through the termination of the coax cable (i.e. through connector or other termination
method)

2. Through pin-holes in the jacket

3. By water vapour transmission through the jacket.
1. Moisture entry through coax cable termination
The most obvious method of humidity
entering a coax cable is through the termination. One very good example is the small termination
box provided with many TV antennas. When used externally these termination enclosures
provide little protection against the elements and the coax will quickly deteriorate. Even when a
connector is used to terminate the coax cable there will be problems if the coax is used
externally. Very few connectors are weather proofed, and even if they are supposedly
weatherproof, then it is wise to take additional precautions.
Normally the best method is to use self-amalgamating tape. This tape comes in the form of a roll
and appears like thick PVC tape but it has a thin paper backing on one side to keep each layer
separate and prevents it amalgamating with itself before use. It is used in a similar way to
insulating tape. The backing strip is peeled off and then it is wrapped around whatever it is to be
waterproofed - in this case a coax cable termination - overlapping each winding by about 50% of
its width to ensure a good seal. When applying the tape keep it stretched so that it is applied
under tension. Also it is best to start from the thinner end of the job, i.e. where the diameter of
whatever it is being applied to is smallest. Where there is a connector on a cable, start on the
cable and work towards the connector. Also when winding ensure that there are no holes of voids
in which water could condense or enter. Keep the self-amalgamating tape in intimate contact
with whatever it is to be waterproofed.
2. Moisture entry though pin holes in coax cable jacket Most coax cables have some small
holes in their jacket along their length. It is therefore quite possible that moisture will enter
through any imperfection in the coax cable jacket. If the pin holes are located externally where
they can be affected by the weather then moisture will enter. Unfortunately it is very easy for
small abrasions to occur during the installation of a cable and these can include small pin holes
right through the jacket. Great care must therefore be taken when installing a cable, and in
particular when the coax cable is passed trough a wall or other barrier.
3. Water vapour transmission through the coax cable jacket All materials exhibit a finite
vapour transmission rate. Accordingly if a coax cable is constantly in contact with moisture, then
this will permeate through the jacket. In view of this coax cable should never be buried directly
in the ground. Either use some external protection such as a waterproof pipe, and ensure that no
water enters it so that small patches of water form in it. Alternatively use the "bury direct" cables
that are available. It is also found in airborne applications that the large temperature extremes
encountered cause water condensation in the coax cables. This moisture can collect in low areas
of the cable causing local areas of corrosion. One method of overcoming this is to fill any voids
in the aircraft where coax cable are carried with non-hardening moisture-proof compound.

Effect of sunlight on coax cables

Sunlight has an effect on many substances, and the same is true of coax cable jackets or sheaths.
It is particularly the ultra-violet light that causes the degradation to the cables. To increase the

life of coax cables, manufacturers use high molecular weight polythene. Polyvinylchloride
(PVC) jackets exhibit less than half the life expectancy of the high molecular weight polythene.

Effect of corrosive vapours on coax cables

Using a coax cable in the vicinity of corrosive liquids and vapours can reduce the life of a cable
faster than if it was used externally. Salt water is a common problem on sea going vessels, and
chemical vapours may be present on other installations requiring coax cables. Although the
rigours of the weather can be very tough, some vapours and liquids can speed the deterioration of
the coax cable even faster. The use of tin or silver coatings can provide some additional
protection but this is not permanent. However it is recommended that specially environmentally
hardened cables be used where extreme conditions are anticipated.
Coax cables are normally quite tolerant to being used in a variety of conditions. However to
ensure the longest operational life it is best to ensure that they are not exposed to environmental
conditions that would cause their performance to deteriorate. If they are then it is necessary to
adopt a few precautions to ensure that the coax cable life is maintained for as long as possible.