Problems in Calculus of One Variable - I. A. Maron - Text PDF

I.A.
Maron
Problems
in
Calculus
of
One Variabl
H. A.
MAPOH
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I.
A.
MA RON
Problems
in
Calculus
of
One
Variable
(With elements of theory)
TRANSLATED
FROM THE RUSSIAN

by
LEONID LEVANT
MIR PUBLISHERS
MOSCOW
UDC 517=20
First published
1973
Revised from the 1970 Russian edition
Ha
0223-200
041(01)-73
aneAUucKOM R3biKe
Contents
From
Chapter
the
Author
Introduction
I.
1.1.
1.2.
to
Mathematical Analysis
Function.
Domain
of
Definition
1.4.
Inverse Functions
1.5.
Graphical Representation
1.6.
Number
1.7.
Evaluation
1.8.
Testing Sequences
1.9.
The Limit
28
of
Limits
for
1.10.
Calculation of Limits
1.11.
Infinitesimal and
1.12.
of
of
Functions
a
30
Sequence
41
Sequences
48
Convergence
50
Function
tion and
22
Sequences. Limit of
of
of
Infinite
55
Functions
60
Functions. Their
Defini-
Comparison
Equivalent
68
Infinitesimals. Application
to
Finding
Limits
71
1.13.
One-Sided Limits
1.14.
Continuity
and
Their
1.15.
of a
75
Function. Points
of
Discontinuity
77
Classification
Arithmetical Operations
on Continuous Functions.
of a Composite Function
The Properties of a Function Continuous on
Continuity
II.
84
a Clo-
sed Interval. Continuity of an Inverse Function
87
Problems
91
Chapter
1.16.
11
15
Investigation of Functions
1.3.
11
Number
Real Numbers. The Absolute Value of a Real
1.17.
Additional
Differentiation
Definition of
2.2.
Differentiation of
2.3. Successive
Leibniz Formula
93
Functions
of
2.1.
the
98
Derivative
Explicit
Differentiation
Functions
of
Explicit
100
Functions.
107
Contents
and
Implicit
2.4.
Differentiation of Inverse,
cally
Represented
2.5.
Applications of the Derivative
2.6.
The
Parametri-
Functions
Ill
115
Differential of a Function. Application to App-
roximate Computations
2.7.
Chapter
III.
122
Additional Problems
Application
126
Calculus
Differential
of
Investigation
to
of
Functions
131
....
3.1.
Basic Theorems on Differentiable Functions
3.2.
Evaluation
3.3.
Taylor's Formula. Application to Approximate Cal-
131
Indeterminate Forms. L'Hospital's Rule
of
culations
3.4.
143
Application
Taylor's Formula
of
Evaluation
to
of
Limits
147
3.5.
Testing a Function
3.6.
Maxima and Minima
Finding
Function
for
Monotonicity
of a
152
Values
Least
the
of
159
3.8.
Solving Problems in Geometry and
3.9.
Convexity
and
148
Function
and
Greatest
the
3.7.
Concavity
of
Physics
Curve.
....
Points
162
of
166
Inflection
3.10.
Asymptotes
3.11.
General Plan
170
Investigating Functions and Sket-
for
ching Graphs
174
3.12.
Approximate Solution
dental
Equations
3.13.
138
of
Algebraic
and
Transcen183
Problems
Additional
190
Chapter IV. Indefinite Integrals. Basic Methods

and
Integration
4.1.
Direct
4.2.
Integration
by
of
....
190
Expansion
195
Integration
Method
the
of
Substitution
199
4.3.
Integration by Parts
202
4.4.
Reduction Formulas
211
Chapter V. Basic Classes
of
Integrable
Functions
214
Rational Functions
5.1.
Integration
5.2.
Integration of Certain
5.3.
of
214
Expressions
219
Euler's Substitutions
222
5.4.
Other Methods
Integrating Irrational Expressions
224
5.5.
Integration of
Aid
of
Binomial
228
Differential
Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions

Integration of Certain Irrational Functions with the
230
....
237
5.6. Integration
5.7.
of
Irrational
of
Trigonometric
or
Hyperbolic
Substitutions
Contents
5.8.
Integration of Other Transcendental Functions
5.9.
Methods
of
Integration (List of Basic
Forms
of
242
tegrals)
Chapter VI. The Definite Integral

6.1.
Statement
niz
of
247
the
Problem. The
Lower and Upper
Sums
Integral
6.2.
240
In-
247
Evaluating Definite Integrals
by
Newton-Leib-
the
Formula
256
Estimating an Integral. The Definite Integral as a

Function of Its Limits
6.3.
6.4.
Changing the Variable
6.5.
Simplification of Integrals Based
of
Symmetry
of
in a
Definite
6.7.
Approximating Definite Integrals

Additional Problems
7.1.
finite
7.2.
7.3.
7.4.
the
Computing
7.6.
7.7.
Formulas
....
307
310
Integral
Definite
Sums with
the Limits of
the Aid of De-
310
Integrals
Finding Average Values
of a
312
Function
Computing Areas in Rectangular Coordinates ...

Computing Areas with Parametrically Represented
7.10.
317
327
The Area of a Curvilinear Sector in Polar Coordinates

Computing the Volume of a Solid
The Arc Length of a Plane Curve in Rectangular
331
336
345
The Arc Length
of a
Curve Represented
Parametri-
348
cally
7.9.
294
301
Coordinates
7.8.
275
Properties
the
Boundaries
7.5.
262
288
by Parts. Reduction
Integration
Chapter VII. Applications of
Integrands
6.6.
6.8.
on
Integral
The Arc Length

Area
of
Surface
7.11. Geometrical
of
Curve in Polar
Revolution
of
Applications
Coordinates
351
354
Integral
360
Computing Pressure, Work and Other Physical

Quantities by the Definite Integrals
7.13. Computing Static Moments and Moments of Inertia.
367
....
372
cf
the Definite
7.12.
Determining Coordinates
7.14.
Additional
of the
Centre of Gravity
Problems
Chapter VIII. Improper Integrals

8.1.
8.2.
8.3.
Improper Integrals with Infinite Limits

Improper Integrals of Unbounded Functions ....
Geometric and Physical Applications of Improper
Integrals
8.4.
Answers and Hints
Additional Problems
383
387
387
397
409
415
418
In fond memory
my
of
From
parents
the Author
This textbook on mathematical analysis
is
based on
many
experience of lecturing at a higher technical college. Its aim

train
the
as
done
is
Much
students
active
in
years'
is
to
to mathematical exercises,
approach
a seminar.
at
attention
is
to problems improving the theoretical
given
background. Therefore standard computational exercises are supple-
mented by examples and problems explaining the theory, promoting its deeper understanding and stimulating precise mathematical
thinking.
Some counter-examples explaining
tain conditions
in
the need for cer-
formulation of basic theorems are also
the
in-
cluded.
The book
opens with
cipal
definitions,
solution
of
along
designed
is
a concise
the
theoretical
following
lines.
Each section
introduction containing the prin-
theorems and formulas. Then follows
detailed
one or more typical problems. Finally, problems with-
which are similar to those solved but

Some of them are provided with hints.
Each chapter (except Chap. IV and V) closes with a separate
section of supplementary problems and questions aimed at reviewing
and extending the material of the chapter. These sections should
prove of interest to the inquiring student, and possibly also to
lecturers in selecting material for class work or seminars.
The full solutions developed in the text pursue two aims: (1)
out
solution
are
given,
contain certain peculiarities.
to
provide
lecturers
with
students to the textbook
time-saver,
most
of
the
since
they can refer the
standard exercises of a
character and concentrate mainly on the solution

more sophisticated problems, thus gaining time for more rewar-
computational
of
for
From
10
ding work;
on
their
and
own
(2)
to
the
Author
meet the needs
of those
who
are working
or following correspondence courses, providing a sub-
stitute for the oral explanations given to full-time students.
The student
vely, that
is
will
find
to say,
if
the
book most
useful
if
he uses
it
acti-
he studies the relevant theoretical material
on to the worked-out solutions, and finally

reinforces the newly-acquired knowledge by solving the problems
given for independent work. The best results will be obtained
when the student, having mastered the theoretical part, immediately attacks the unsolved problems without referring to the text
carefully
before going
solutions unless in difficulty.
Isaac
Mar on
Chapter
INTRODUCTION
TO MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS
1.1. Real Numbers.

The Absolute Value of a Real Number
Any decimal
a real
terminating or nonterminating,
fraction,
is
called
number.
Periodic
rational
decimal
fractions
number may be written
rational
called
are
in the
form
numbers.
of a ratio,
Every
of
two
p and q and vice versa.

Nonperiodic decimal fractions are called irrational numbers.
If
X is a certain set of real numbers, then the notation
means that the number x belongs to X, and the notation
means that the number x does not belong to X.
A set of real numbers x satisfying the inequalities a < x < b
where a and b are fixed numbers, is called an open interval (a, b).
A set of real numbers x satisfying the inequalities
is
integers
xX
x^X
y
a^x^b
called a closed interval

the inequalities
terval
[a,
b)
or
[a,
b].
a^x<b
or
A set of real numbers

a<x^.b, is called a
Open, closed, and
(a, b].
satisfying
half-open inhalf -open intervals are
x,
covered by a single term interval.

Any real number may be depicted as a certain point on the
coordinate axis which is called a proper point. We may also introoo infinitely
duce two more, so-called improper points, + and
removed from the origin of coordinates in the positive and nega-
<
respectively. By definition, the inequalities

oo
oo hold true for any real number x.
interval {a
e, a
s) is called the e-neighbourhood of the
tive directions,
<x<+
The
number a.
The set
of
of
real
numbers x >
+00.
numbers x <
the improper point
The
of
set
of
real
M
M
is
M -neighbourhood
called the
is
called the
M- neighbourhood
improper point -00.
The absolute value
of
number x (denoted
that satisfies the conditions

\x\
\x\
= x
=x
<
if
if
xÔ.
0;
\x\)
is
number
Ch.
12
The properties
Introduction to Mathematical Analysis
absolute values are:
of
means
that
a^xâ;
that
xâ
a;
|
(2) the inequality
â
|x|>a means
the inequality
(1)
(4)
xy\K \x\+\y\;
x y\>\\x\ \y\\;
(5)
xy\=\x\\y\
(3)
or
jc<- a;
x
(6)
1.1.1.
Prove that the number
0.1010010001... 1000... 01...

is
irrational.
To prove this, it is necessary to ascertain that the

decimal fraction is not a periodic one. Indeed, there are n
between the nth and (n+\)th unities, which cannot occur
Solution,
given
zeros
in a periodic fraction.
1.1.2.
mal
Prove
places
1.1.3.
that
numbered
Prove
any number, with zeros standing in all deci10" and only in these places, is irrational.
the
that
number a and
tional
sum
an
of,
difference between, a ra-
or the
number
irrational
is
an
irrational
number.
+ =
Solution. Consider the sum of a and p. Suppose a

y is a
P
a is also a rational number, since
rational number, then P
Y
it
is
the difference between two rational numbers, which contradicts the condition. Hence, the supposition is wrong and the number
a+
is
1.1.4.
rational
irrational.
Prove
product a|J and the quotient a/[i of a

and an irrational number P is an irrational
the
that
number a ^=
number.
1.1.5.
is
(a)
a rational
Find all rational values

number.
(a) Suppose x and

the difference y
x
express x through q
Solution,
bers.
us
now
Vx
x2
direct
check
y=\/ x* +
are rational
q,
+ x + 3 = q* + 2qx + x\
it
is
\-2q
easy to ascertain that
q^
+3
num-
number. Let
also a rational
+ x+3 = q + x,
x
By
is
x=\/ x + x-{-3 x
r
which
y=\/~x <iJr x Jr 3
=q
Then
of x at
/^
LI. Real Numbers. The Absolute Value
Prove the reverse, namely, y

if
where q
Real Number
of
= ]/ x + x + 3
2
is
rational
any rational number not equal
is
13
to
number
1
/2 .
Indeed,
g4-2? + 7g*-6? + 9
(1-2?) 2
K
The
latter expression
is
_ ^_^ + 3
(l-2^)a
~|1-2<7|
Solution.
rational.
the
since
_1_\
q=*=
2J'
/2 .
an irrational number.
is
+ V2
Assume the contrary,

Then the number
also rational,
Whence
rational at any rational q not equal to
Prove that the sum V~3
1.1.6.
is
\/~2
Prove that
(b)
is
(^-^ + 3)2
K
is
it
i.e.
is
number [/3 + |/*2
that the
the quotient of two rational
numbers.
number
K2 = l[(K3 + K2)-(/3-K2)l
is
which contradicts the irrational nature of the number

Problem 1.1.5). Hence, the supposition is wrong, and the
rational,
V2
(see
number
K3 + 1/2
irrational.
1.1.7. Prove that for every positive rational number r satisfying

the condition r 2
2 one can always find a larger rational number
<
+ h(h>0) for which
Solution. We may
<r + 2r/z + That
2
i.e.
fc(fc>0)
for
(b)
(c)
(d)
h
sufficient to put
is
+ <
+ 2rh + h = 2,
and
r
(r
/i)
>
for every positive rational number s satisfying

2 one can always find a smaller rational number
which
(s
k) >
2
2.
Solve the following inequalities:
1.1.9.
3 <
x + 2x 8<0;
\x 7x+ 12 >x 7x+
\
<
Prove that
1.1.8.
(a)
it
Then h 2
)/(2r+\).
the condition
s
why
2.
h<\.
assume
is
/i.
= (2 r
ft
+ hf <
(r
2x
1;
(x-2) 2 >4;
2
12.
Solution,
inequalities
(a)
The inequality
|2#
3|<1
< 2x 3 <
1
1,
whence
2
<
2*
<
and
<*<
2.
is
eqivalent
to
the
Ch. I
14
(d)
x2
The given inequality

0, whence 3
7x+ 12 <
Find
1.1.10.
valid for those values of x at which
is
<x<
whether
out
4.
the
equations
following
have any
solutions:
= x + Hence, there are no
+ 5, whence x== 5/2. This

Hence, there are no solutions.
have x = x
x = x 5, whence # = 5/2, which contradicts
(a) \x\=x
5?
b]
(b) |x|=x
Solution, (a)
we have x
solutions. At x
we have
x=-x
value satisfies the initial equation.
x>0
At
(b)
AtxÔ
<
we
5.
5.
<
we have
x
our supposition (#<0). Thus, the equation has no solution.
At
Determine the values
1.1.11.
x satisfying the following equa-
of
lities:
x\
(a)
x+
5*
(b)
+ 6| = (x 5*+6).
2
Determine the values
1.1.12.
of
x satisfying the following equ-
alities:
+ 4x + 9) + (2x 3) - x + 4x + 9 +
(b) |(x 4) (x + 2)| = |x 4 |x + 2|.
Solution, (a) The equality |a + 6| = |a| +
(x
(a)
2x
|;
|fe|
only
is
valid
if
x2
+ 4*+9:=(.x:+2) + 5 >
2
any values of x the equality is satisfied at those values

which 2x
3>0, i.e. at *>3/2.
\b\ holds true if and only
(b) The equality \a
6| = |a|
and b have the same sign and
at
at
In
our
case
equality
the
which
xx
will
x2
1.1.13. Solve the
|
3*
(b) \x
hold true
4>jc +
2
Whence
(a)
and
both summands have the same sign. Since
if
for the values of
of
if
x at
2.
__
2>1;
\x\^V$-
inequalities:
5| + 3 >
|5x|.
5x| >
|
2JC
|jc
0;
1.1.14. Find the roots of the following equations.

sin x
sin x
1;
(a)
(b)
x2
Solution,
of
x at
2\x\ 3 = 0.
(a)
This equation will hold true only for those values
which sin*<0,
that
is
why we may
rewrite
it
in
the
Domain
Function.
1.2.
15
of Definition
following way:
sinjc = sinA;+
x = nk (l) n/6 (k = 0,
1,
whence
or sin
a:
1, 2,
..).
This equation can be solved in a regular
(b)
xÔ
the cases
and
writing it in the form
x^.0.
|a:|
Substituting y for
whence
#,
not
in.
fit
= 3,
y2
1.
We may
/a ;
way by considering
also solve this equation
2|jc| 3 =
re-
0.
we obtain
|,
Since y
= \x\^0,
the value y 2
does
Hence
y=\x\ = 3,
= 3,
i.e.
x 2 ^=3.
Function.
1.2.
Domain of Definition
The independent variable x
is
defined by a set
of its values.
independent variable x(tX there corresponds one definite value of another variable y then t) is called
the function of x with a domain of definition (or domain) X or,
in functional notation, y y(x), or y
f(x), or y = q>(x), and so
forth. The set of values of the function y(x) is called the range
of the given function.
In particular, the functions defined by the set of natural numbers 1, 2, 3,
are called numerical sequences. They are written
in the following way: x Xi x 2y
... or {x n \.
to each value of the
If
1.2.1.
fix
),
Given the function
/ (x)
=(*+
\)/(x
1).
Find f(2x), 2f(x),
[f(x))>.
Solution.
f(20=i;
2f
W _2};
/<>-!; tfW]'-(f{)'.
Given the function
1.2.2.
(a)
Show
that at x lt x 2
( 1,
1)
the following identity holds true:
/(*>+/(*)=/ (t-).
Ch.
16
I.
Solution. At
f(x l)+
On
1,
M=
log
(1
x)/(l + x) >
+ log
and
= log
;g
;;
hence
.
i,
the other hand,
+ ^2
^1
*l
we have
1)
+ *2
\ __
j
\l-jrX1X2J
Qg
~f-
-j-
XXX 2
X X
Qg
^2
-^l ~l~
-\~
x i x 2~i~~ x i ~h x 2
XiX 2
(1 *i) (\x 2
(!+*!) (l+x 2
log
which coincides with the right-hand member

(b) Given the function / (x) = (a x + a' x )/2
f{x
1.2.3. Given the
f(a+\); f(a)+\.
1.2.4.
= (x+
f (x)
=x
3
Given the function f(x)

/(>-/(">
1.2.5.
and
a)
l)/(x
(1).
Show
that
/( 1);
Find
1).
Find
1.
^*.
\<Cx<
3-^1,
(
x/(jc
Find /(-l),
Solution.
Hence
^
/ (ji/2)
The points
/(2ji/3),
f(ji/2),
The point x =
points
= n/2,
1)
= 2n/3
-J
/(6).
within
lies
= 3x
2),
/(4)
0,
0<*<jx,
jt<*<6.
tan(*/2),
>
=
1
belong
the
interval
to
the
interval
- tan (ji/4) / (2n/3) = tan (jt/3) = 4, x = 6 belong to the interval

1
4)
The function
f (x)
is
36-2
defined over
= 17
f(x)-{
if
5,
if
2*
if
jc<2,
2<*<3,
> 3.
[ji,
1,
0).
[0,
ji).
6].
Hence
'
the whole
by the following law:

2x 3 + 1.
l/(*-2),
\^3.
= 16^2 = T
2.
jc
1.2.6.
> 0).
Given the function
The
Hence
(a
+ y) + f(x-y) = 2f(x)f{y).
function
expression
of
number
scale
Find:
f(V2)
Function.
1.2.
/(|/8),
Domain
of Definition
17
(/log, 1024).
AB=2
ABCD
with side
the square
a straight line
is drawn
perpendicularly to AC. Denoting the distance from
the vertex A to the line
as x, express through x the area S
cut off from the square by the straight
of the triangle
In
1.2.7.
MN
MN
AMN
line
MN.
and
at
Find this area
=2
If
S^
x> V2
S(x)
= ]^2/2
AC = 2 V~2
If*<K"2,
that
0<*<2l/T.
S (X)
at
1).
Note
Solution.
hence
then
(Fig.
AMN
2
-
then
=4 (2 K2~
-^)
2
jc
+4* j/y
4.
Thus,
Fig.
S(*)
0<x</2",
V2< x^2\/2.
-x \\x\f2 4,
2
= {V~2 j2) = V Since

S (2) = 4 + 8 V~2 4 = 8 (K~2~ 1).
<
S (V2/2)
Since
|/T/2
1.2.8.
Bring the number a, which
K2~
equal
is
to the
nth
>
2~,
J/
decimal
expansion of V~2 into a decimal fraction, into corplace

respondence with each natural number n. This gives us a certain
in the
an
function
Solution.
Calculate q)(l),
tp (ri).
Extracting
cp
(2),
q)(3),
we
square root,
find
q)(4).
\f2 =1.4142...
Hence
= 4;
q>(l)
Solution. f(x)
9
14
(a')
1.2.10.
known
= 4;
q>(3)
cp
(4)
= 2.
f (x) = 49/x + x at the points for which 7/x + x=3.

= 49/x + x = (7/x + x) \4,but 7/x + x = 3, hence
2
Calculate
1.2.9.
cp(2)-l;
2
= 5.
Find a
that /(0)
Solution.
function of the form
= 5;
=
1)
10;
/ (1)
/ (x)
= ax'
= 6.
= 5=a'0 + b-0 + c,
f(l)= I0â b + c,
/(l)=6 = a + 6 + c.
2
f(0)
-\-
bx -f
c,
if
it
is
Ch.
18
I.
Determine the coefficients a, b c from the above system.

2
5.
a = 3; b=r.2; c
2x
5\ hence / (x) = 3x
y
1.2.11.
Find
/(0)=15;
1.2.12.
= a + bc*
f(4) = 90.
= 30;
f(2)
Find
have:
function of the form
(c>0),
f(x)
if
We
cp [xp (a:)]
and
[cp (jc)]
=x
cp (jc)
if
and ^(x)
= 2x
Solution.
= 2*
i|)[<p(*)]
1.2.13.
<
= 2*".
Given the function

5x2+1
f(x)~ 2x
Find f(3x);
1.2.14.
(*
3f (x);
);
[f
'
(x)]\
Let
< x<
at
(3*
4
3x
0<*<1,
l<x<3.
at
Find f(2), /(0), /(0.5), /(-0.5),
0,
at
/(3).
for an exponential function y

a x (a>0;
the argument x
x n (fl=l, 2, ...) form an
arithmetic progression, then the corresponding values of the function y n
aXn (n= 1, 2, ...) form a geometric progression.
1.2.15.
Prove that
a=l) the values
if
of
1.2.16.
1.2.17.
+ 6, q)(#) = 5*. Solve
Find /(*)
if
/(*+l)
1.2.18.
=*
the equation
+2
3jc
/ (x)
=
|
q)
(x)
Evaluate the functions

/
for the points at
1.2.19. f (x)
X)
= x + l/x
2
which
l/x
and
(p
(x)
= x* +
/*
+ x = 5.
= x 2; solve the equation

\f(x) + <f(x)\ = \f(x)\ + \<t(x)\.
= x+l;
y(x)
A rectangle with altitude x is inscribed in a triangle

with the base b and altitude h. Express the perimeter P and
area 5 of the rectangle as functions of x.
1.2.20.
ABC
Find the domains
1.2.21.
(a) /
Function.
1.2.
X)
(d) f(x)
Domain
of Definition
of definition of the
19
following functions:
= \/It=l+V6=i;
= Vs\nx
log^^
(e)
= \og x 5\
5x-\-6
/W = log- -4x + 6
(0 f(x)
x'2
(g)
(h) /(*)
(j)
log
= arc sin
(4
x)\
/W = logcosx;
(k)/(x)ârccos
3
4
+ 2 sin;c
(i)
Solution,
consists
values.
of
To
The domain of definition of the given function

those values of x at which both items take on real
ensure this the following two conditions must be satis(a)
fied:
1
By solving
the
inequalities
>0,
xÔ.
we obtain x^l;
x^.6.
domain of definition of the function will be the segment

(e) The function is defined for the values of x for which
the
Hence,
[1,6].
log^^->0.
This inequality will be satisfied
-5^1>1,
or x 2
if
5x + 4<0.
we find 1â:^4. Thus, the segthe domain of definition of the function.

(f) The function is defined for all positive x different from unity,
which means that the domain of definition of the function consists
oo).
of the intervals (0, 1) and (1,
Solving the latter inequality,
ment
[1,4]
is
20
Ch.
(k)
The function
defined for the values of x for which
is
-1
Since 4+2 sin x
the inequality
>0
^ 4+2
A
any
at
sin x
<
^
1.
the problem
x,
+ 2 sin x
is
reduced to solving
Whence
3<4+-2sinx,
By
(1)
|*|
The
function
*>0,
a:
(g)
...).
for
the values of x for which
This inequality is satisfied at x
0.
<
( oo,
0).
of definition of the following functions:
f (x)
= log|4-x
=V
&
2
|;
cos (sin x) +- arc sin
Find the ranges

( )
1, 2,
= j/arc sin (log x)

= log log log x;
= l + 2 a-in, + _J_.
/ W
(d) f (x)
(e)
= 0,
(k
2fcn;
defined in the interval
/ (x)
(b) / (x)
(C)
is
> x.
Find the domains
1.2.22.
(a)
Hence, the function
defined
is
whence
we obtain
solving the latter inequality
_ + 2:ri<x<^ +
sinx>- 7
i.e.
of the following
= 2- cos 3*
y=j^
~
x
functions:
Solution, (a) For the function

inequality must be satisfied
/(x)
arc sin (log 2 x)
to be
defined the following
^ 0,
whence
log 2 x^ 1 and l^x^2.
function log 2 log 3 log 4 x is defined for
(b) The
whence log 4 x>l and x>4. Hence, the domain
log 3 log 4
of
x>0,
definition
is
4<x< +
oo.
the interval
(c) The given function is defined
satisfied simultaneously:
x=^=0;
but the inequalities

is why the function
< x<
1
l^x^l
is
if
the following inequalities are
and
x>2,
x>2
are incompatible, that

and
not defined for any value of x.
(e)
Domain
Function.
1.2.
of Definition
The following inequalities must be
x)^0
cos (sin
and
21
satisfied
x2
2x
<
simultaneously:
1.
The first inequality is satisfied for all values of x, the second,

|*|=1. Hence, the domain of definition of the given function
consists only of two points x=\.
for
(f)
We
have
cos 3x
Since
-1
< cos3x<
whence, taking into account that y
y^2y
(g)
or
Solving with respect to x

x
The range
>
0,
1,
we obtain
1.
we obtain
'
Ty
of the function y will be

1
-<
we have
1,
4*/
determined from the relation
>0.
Whence
1.2.23. Solve the equation
arc
Solution.
tanVx(x
+ 1)+
arc sin l^x 2
+ x+
jx/2.
Let us investigate the domain of definition of the funcThis function will be defined
tion on the left side of the equation.

for
x2
whence x
at
+ *>0, 0< x + x+ <

2
1,
-\-x = 0.
member
Thus, the left

x =0 and # 2
1.
of
By
the equation attains real values

check we ascertain that
a direct
only
they
are the roots of the given equation.
This problem shows that a study of domains of definition of a

function facilitates the solution of equations, inequalities, etc.
1.2.24. Find the domains of definition of the following functions:
,
(a)
y=
(b)
2x 3
r
= \og
sin (a: 3)
+ j/l6 x\
22
Ch.
(c)
I.
= V 3 x + arc
cos^
The function f (x) is defined on the interval [0,

domains of definition of the following functions:
1.2.25.
are the
/(3r>);
(a)
f(x-5);
(b)
(c)
What
1].
f(tan*)?
Solution. The given functions are functions of functions, or superpositions of functions, i. e. composite functions.
a) Let us introduce an intermediate
argument u
3x 2 Then the
2
2
function f(3x )j=f(u) is defined if
i.e.
<l,
whence
1/]/3<*<;
Similarly:
(c)
0<w<l,
0<3x
l/|/3.
O^tanx^l,
fcrt<
whence
(k
= 0, +1, 2,
...).
The function f (x) is defined on the interval

domains of definition of the functions
1.2.26.
are the
(a)
1.3.
(sin*);
(b)
f(2x
[0, 1].
What
+ 3)?
A function f (x) defined on the set X is said to be non-decreasing

on this set (respectively, increasing, non-increasing, decreasing), if
for any numbers x 19 x 2 X, x <x 2y the inequality f (xj^ f (x 2 )
(respectively,
fW<f(4
The function
f (x)
f(*i)>f(* 2 ). /(*i)>/(* 2 ))
satisfied.
is
said to be monotonic on the set

if
it
possesses one of the four indicated properties. The function f (x) is
said to be bounded above (or below) on the set
there exists a
if
(or m) such that
number
for all
(or m^Lf(x)
for all xX). The function f (x) is said to be bounded on the set
is
X
xX
f(x)^M
if
it
is
bounded above and below.
The function
T>0
f (x)
is
called
periodic
f (x)
if
there
exists
number
x belonging to the domain

of definition of the function (together with any point x the point
x-\-T must belong to the domain of definition). The least number T
possessing this property (if such a number exists) is called the
period of the, function f (x). The function f (x) takes on the maximum value at the point x
and
if f(x )^f(x) for all xX,
Q
the minimum value if f(x )^f(x) for all xX. A function f (x)
defined on a set X which is symmetric with respect to the origin
of coordinates is called even if /(
x) = f(x), and odd if f ( x) =
such that
(x
-f-
T)
for all
$X
-/(*).
In analysing the behaviour of a function
termine the following:
it
is
advisable
to
de-
1.
The domain
2.
Is
1.3.
23
of definition of the function.

the function even, odd, periodic?
3. The zeros of the function.
the zeros.
4. The sign of the function in the intervals between
5. Is the function bounded and what are its minimum and maximum values?
The above items do not exhaust the analysis of a function, and
later on their scope will be increased.
1.3.1. Find the intervals of increase and decrease of the funcax 2 -f- bx
c
and its minimum and maximum values.
tion / (x)
Solution. Isolating a perfect square from the square trinomial,
we have
If
> 0,
then the function f(x) will increase at those values of x

the
satisfying
the function
inequality
when x + b/(2a)
decrease
f (x)
<
+ b/(2a) > 0,
i.e.
0,
i.
x<
at
decreases in the interval
reases in the interval
b/(2a),
the function / (x) assumes the
+oo).
minimum
e.
at
>
b/(2a).
oo,
Obviously, at
value
and
b/(2a),
Thus,
)
if
>
and
0,
inc-
x = b/(2a)
>
the function has no maximum value.

At a
the function f (x) will increase in the
Similarly, at a
<
oo, ^ and decrease in

takes
x = b/(2a) the function
val
f (x)
r
whereas
has no
it
1.3.2.
(a)
1.
point x
is
We
at
value
b*
the function
of
maximum
Problem
attained
b*
4a
(b)
maximum
interoo);
4ac
rectangle,
b/(2a),
= 3x + 5x 1.
The minimum value
= 5/6
4ac
minimum value.
minimum value
(b) Find the rectangle with the

rectangles of a given perimeter.
Solution, (a) Apply the results of
interval
on the
b \
Find the
the
by
area from
all
3 0, b=5,
function at the
1.3.1: a
the
among
>
37
12'
denote by 2p the length of the perimeter of the required

and by x the length of one of its sides; then the area 5
Ch.
24
of
J.
be expressed as
the rectangle will
= x(p x)
S = px
or
2
.
Thus, the problem is reduced to the determination of the maximum

value of the function S (x) =
x2
px. Apply the results of Probb
c
lem 1.3.1: a
0. The maximum value is attai1 < 0,
p,
b/(2a)=p/2. Hence, one
ned by the function at the point x
of the sides of the desired rectangle is p/2, the other side being
equal to p
x
p/2, i.e. the required rectangle is a square.
Show that
the function f (x)
1.3.3.
(a)
of
+ 3x + 5
domain
increases in the entire
definition;
its
x2 ) decreases in the interval (1, +oo).

x/(l
(b) the function g(x)
Solution. The function is defined for all points of the number
x 2 on the number
scale. Let us take arbitrary points x x and x29 x x
scale and write the following difference:
<
(x t )-f (x x )
= (4 + 3x + 5) - (x\ + 3x, + 5) =
= (*2 *l) (A + X X + X\ + 3) =
2
>
and the expression in the brackets is positive

Since x 2
xx
i.e. / (* 2 ) >f(Xj), which
x 1 and jc 2 then / (x 2 )
0,
f (xj
means that the function f (x) increases for all values of x.
at all
1.3.4. Find the intervals

wing functions:
(a)
/ (x)
of
>
increase and decrease for
the
follo-
= sin #-|-cos x;
tan(*+n/3).
Solution, (a) Using the familiar trigonometric formulas, we
(b)
find
]/^ 2 cos (x ji/4).

f (x)
It
known
is
that
the
function
2nn
and increases
in the
and the intervals
of
decreases
^.x^(2n+\)
(2n\)ji<^x^2nn
+ 2azji<
a:
the
intervals
(n=0
of decrease of
n/A
+ (2n+
increase of the
1,
2,
the function
1) ji
(ai
...).
= 0, +1,
same function
-J-
are:
/ (x)
.
..).
are:
+ (2n 1) k< x< n/4 + 2nn (n = 0, 1,

Find the minimum and maximum values of
= a cos x-\-b sin x (u
b 2 > 0).
j (x)
n/A
1.3.5.
in
intervals
Hence, the intervals

ji/4
cos
..).
the
function
= Vcl
f (x)
= a/)/ a + b
2
maximum
minimum
the
the
cos
value
sin
value of
(xa) =
1.3.6.
25
The given function can be represented
Solution.
where cos a
1.3.
a),
= 6/ Ka + b'\
2
+\/ a
being
f (x)
a)|^
cos(a: a)-=l),
Since |cos(x
(at
t)
equal
1,
j/a 2
to
(at
at
the
fr
1).
minimum
Find the
value of the function
=3<*'- 2,,+ 8
f(x)
Solution.
-V b cos (x
equals
f (x)
of
as:
We
denote by
(p
the exponent,
(x)
(p(*) = (*
2)
(x)
takes on
The function f(x)=-3w
same point as the function (p (#).
Hence
(x)
cp
=x 6jc 4 + 2x 2
Whence it is clear that the function

value (equal to zero) at x
0. That is
the function f (x) is equal to 3
1.
e.
minimum
[(x
(p
i.
8.
the
=x
+
3)
(x)
why
value
3].
attains the minimum

the minimum value of
1.3.7.
Test the function

f (x)
<x<
where
ji/2,
increase and decrease.
for
of
= tan x + cot x,
1.3.8. Given: n numbers

x at which the function
f (x)
ai )
a2
a,,
+ (x-a +
2
2)
takes on the minimum value.

Solution. Rewrite the function
f(x)
= nx
2(a, + a +
2
an
f (x)
in
Determine the value
+ (x-a n f
the following way:
+a n )x+(a +al+
2
wherefrom it is clear that f (x) is a quadratic trinomial ax 2 + bx

c,
where a = /t>0. Using the results of Problem 1.3.1, we find that
the function assumes the minimum value at x =
b/(2a)
i.
e. at
x=
(aj
+a +
2
Thus, the
sum
+a n )/n.
of
the
squares
of
deviations
of
the value of x
x is the
from n given numbers attains the minimum value when

mean arithmetic value for these numbers.
1.3.9.
which
of
Which
them
is
of
the
given
functions is (are)
nor odd?
(are) neither even,
even,
odd;
and
26
Ch.
= \og(x+V\+x*);
f(x)
(a)
I.
= log^l+x'
f(x) = 2x x+l;
/(x)
(b)
(c)
/W = *S^T-
(d)
Solution,
/(+
(a)
can
It
be
seen that
/(+
+ f ( x) ^=0.
x)
+ f(- ^)-log(^ + KTT^ + log(-^+KTT^ =

2
x)
= log
= / *) for all
= log
m_ ^ = iog
hence, / (x)
(b)
(are)
(a)
= f(x)
Which
( 1
+*
-- x 2 )=0,
which means that the function
v =
1
\+x)
x from
for all
is
is
odd.
io 6
g
1+jc'
domain
the
of
definition
odd.
of the following functions
is
(are)
even and which
odd?
= 4 2x* + sm
f(x) = V \+x + x
f(x)
(b)
a:,
Hence, the function
1).
1.3.10.
is
f(x)
Thus,
( 1,
Indeed,
(d)
f (x)
(e)
f (x)
x\
\r \ x + x
2
;
= sin x + cos x;
= const.
Prove that
1.3.11.
then the function
if
f (x)
+ b),
(ax
a periodic
is
where a
>
function with period T

with period T/a.
0, is periodic
Solution. Firstly,
f[a(x+
since T
positive
is
T/a)
the period
number such
+ b]=f [(ax + b) + T] = f (ax + b)

function f(x). Secondly,
the
of
let
7\ be a
that
f[a(x+T
1)
+ b]=f(ax + b).
Let us take an arbitrary point x from the domain of definition

b)/a. Then
and put x'
(#
of the function f (x)
+ T + b] =
= f(ax' + b + aT = f(x + aT
follows that the period T<a7\, i.e. 7\>7> and
Whence
the period of the function f(ax + b).
T/a
(x) = A sin (ayx +
where
Note. The periodic function
9
+ = / (ai=^+
ft)
=/(x)
=f
[a {x'
l)
l ).
it
is
are constants,
is
cp),
/I,
co,
called a harmonic with amplitude |j4|, frequency
co
and
initial
function
1.3.12.
phase
(p.
sin(o)A:
27
1.3.
Since the function sin* has a period 2k, the

2n/(s>.
has a period T
(p)
Indicate the amplitude \A\, frequency

T of the following harmonics:
initial
co,
phase
(p
and period
(a)
/ (x)
(b)
/(*)
/(x)
(c)
= 5 sin \x\
= 4sin(3* + n/4);
= 3sin(jt/2) + 4cos(x/2).
1.3.13.
Find the period
(a)
= tan 2x;
(b)
(c)
/ (a;)
each
for
f(x)=cot(*/2);
\(x)^s\x\ 2nx.
tanx has
Solution, (a) Since the function

tan 2x has a period n/2.
1.3.14.
(a)
f (x)
(b)
/(a:)
Find the period
= s\n* x + cos
(a)
sin 4
= 1 y sin
whence
(b)
Jt,
the function
each of the following functions:
for
x;
+ cos x= (sin x + cos

2
2x
cos 4x)
x)
2 sin
x cos 2 x =
= -| + -j-sin ^4x + y)
T = 2n/a = 2n/4 = n/2

= |cosjc| = Kcos x^K(1 + cos2x)/2; but
has a period T = n\ hence, the given function
/(x)
2.x;
a period
= |cosa:|.
Solution,
cos
of the following functions:
the function
has the same
period.
Prove that the function / (x) = cos x 2 is not a periodic one.

Solution. Let us prove the contrary. Suppose the function has a
period T\ then the identity cos (x
cos x 2 is valid.
T) 2
1.3.15.
By
the conditions
of
we have
x2
equality of cosines
for a certain integer k
+ 2Tx + T x = 2nk.
2
But this identity is impossible, since k may attain only integral

and the left member contains a linear or quadratic function
the continuous argument x.
values,
of
1.3.16.
Find the greatest value
of the function
2
f(x)= r
1.3.17.
Which
of the following functions are even,
odd:
(a)
/W=^(l-x) + /(l+x)
2
2
;
and which are
Ch.
28
I.
= x*-\x\;
= x sin x x
/(x) = (l + 2*) /2*?
(b)
f(x)
/ (x)
(c)
(d)
1.3.18.
Find the period
(a)
= arc tan (tan x)\
/ (x)
(b) f
(jc)-2cos^.
Prove that the functions
1.3.19.
(a)
for
f(x) = x + s\nx;
(b)
f (x)
= cos Vx
are non-periodic.
1.4.
Inverse Functions
=
yY
Let the function y

f(x) be defined on the set X and have a
there exists a single value of x such that
range V\ If for each
f(x)=y then this correspondence defines a certain function x g(y)
called inverse with respect to the given function y
f(x). The sufficient condition for the existence of an inverse function is a strict
monotony of the original function y f{x). If the function increases
(decreases), then the inverse function also increases (decreases).
The graph of the inverse function x g(y) coincides with that of
the function y
f(x) if the independent variable is marked off along
the (/-axis. If the independent variable is laid off along the x-axis,
i.e. if the inverse function is written in the form y = g(x) then
the graph of the inverse function will be symmetric to that of the
function y = / (x) with respect to the bisector of the first and third
quadrants.
y
3x
5.
1.4.1. Find the inverse to the function y
Sx
5 is defined and increases throughSolution. The function y
out the number scale. Hence, an inverse function exists and in5 with respect to x we obtain
3x
creases. Solving the equation y
+
= +
= (y-5)/3.
k/x (k=^=0) is inverse to itself.

1.4.2. Show that the function y
Solution. The function is defined and monotonic throughout the
0. Hence, an inverse function exists.
entire number scale except x
The range of the function is the entire number scale, except # 0.
k/y.
k/x with respect to x, we get x
Solving the equation y
1.4.3.
Find the inverse

y
Solution.
since ]fx
The
+ >
1
of the function
= \ga(x + V*+l) (fl>0,

function y = log a (x + }/~x + l)
9
\x\
and
is
odd
[see
Problem
a=
is
1).
defined
1.3.9 (a)].
for all x,
It
increases
29
Inverse Functions
1.4.
positive values of x, hence, it increases everywhere

inverse function. Solving the equation
for
y=\og a
with respect to
x,
a?
we
(x
and has an
+ Vlfi+l)
find
= x + Vx +
2
a-y=
l;
x+Vx +
2
1,
whence
x
Show
1.4.4.
= y (a^
(*/
lna).
that the functions
f(x)=x 2 x +
are
= sinh
x^
1,
and
1/2
cp
(*)
1/2
+ j/x 3/4
mutually inverse, and solve the equation

x*
x+
=
#=
1
1/2+ Vx 3/4.
The function
a;
x + 1 = (x 1/2) 2 + 3/4 increases
the interval 1/2â:<cx), and with x varying in the indicated
Solution.
in
we have 3/4^*/<oo.
interval
3/4<#<oo
is
the
inverse
Hence, defined
x = g(y),
function
in
x^
the
interval
which
1/2,
is
found from the equation
x*-x + {l-y) = 0.
Solving the equation with respect to
x=g
Let us
now
(y)
1/2
x,
we obtain
+ K^T? =
q) (*/).
solve the equation

x*
x+l = l/2 + Vx 3/4.
Since the graphs of the original and inverse functions can intersect
2
x, solving the equation x
x+l = x
only on the straight line y
we
find
1.4.5. Find the inverse of y

smx.
Solution. The domain of definition of the function y
s\nx is
the entire number scale, the range of the function is the interval
is
[
1]. But the condition of existence of an inverse function
1,
not fulfilled.
n/2. If n is
Divide the x-axis into intervals tin
even, then the function increases on the intervals tin
n/2; if n is odd, the function decreases on the intervals
n/2. Hence, on each of the indicated intervals
nn ji/2^
n/2^x^nn +
n/2^x^
^nn +
x^nn +
there exists an inverse
function
defined
on the interval [1,
1].
30
Ch.
I.
jt/2 ^
In particular, for an interyal

verse function jt
arcsinr/.
The inverse of the function y
^*^wt+jt/2
x=
(b)
(c)
(d)
arcsin# + wr
Find the inverse
1.4.6.
(a)
l)
there exists an in-
s\x\x on the interval mi

expressed through atcsin y in the following way:
is
ji/2
y = s\n(3x 1)
# = arcsin(*/3)
# = 5 e*;
xix '
y=2
of the
(ai
= 0, +1, 2,
...).
given functions:
at (jt/6+ l/3)<
at 3<x<
(jt/6+
1/3);
3;
lo
1}
Prove that
1.4.7.
the
function y
= (l x)/(l+x)
is
inverse
to
itself.
1.5.
Graphical Representation of Functions

Sketch the graph
1.5.1.
2x +
(a)
f( x )=x*
(*>)
f(*)=TT#>
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
of
3;
= s\n x 2sinx;
(x) = arc cos (cos x);
f (x) = Vsm x;
*x.
f( X = X
2
f(x)
/
'
Solution, (a) The

entire number scale.
domain of definition of the function/^) is the

The function f (x) is even, hence its graph is
symmetrical about the ordinate axis and it is
sufficient to investigate the function at
Let us
xÔ.
out a perfect square f(x)

2
2.
(x 2
Since
the
first
summand
1)
2
2
(x
1) ^0, the minimum value of the function, equal to 2, is attained at the points
(see Fig. 2).
x
The function f (x) decreases from 3 to 2 on
the closed interval
and increases
oo.
unboundedly on the open interval 1
x
single
= l
O^x^l
< <
The domain
funcfunction / (x) is odd, therefore its graph is symmetrical about the origin
of coordinates and it is sufficient to investigate the function at
(b)
Fig. 2
tion
x ^0.
Since /(0)
that
there
= 0,
are
f (x)
is
of
the entire
definition
number
of
scale.
the
The
the graph passes through the origin. It is obvious

no other points of intersection with the coordinate
1.5.
(1 U|) 2 >0or l+x 2 >2|*|,
Note that |/(jc)|<1. Indeed,

whence
axes.
Since
/ (x)
maximum
>
>
and f (1)
at x
value of the function f
being zero (see Fig.
31
= 1,
the
in
equals
(x)
1,
interval
the
[0,
oo) the
minimum
value
3).
3'
-1
"2
12
-3
-/
Fig. 3
Let us prove that the function increases on the closed interval

Then
Let
2 <1.
fl,)
0^
0^*,<*
<*<1.
2x 2
2x t
2a: 2
Ml, ~l+4
2x 2x^5 "
(l+*S)0 + *i)
-}-
2x 2 x\
^ 2 (x s
2
t )
(1 x^)
(l+*I)(l+*f)
and f(x 2 )
>f(x
).
Similarly, we can show that on the interval

decreases. Finally,
f
(x)
= 2x/( + x )<
2
2xi'x
(1,
oo) the function
= 2/x,
whence it is clear that f (x) tends to zero with an increase in x.

of definition of the function / (x) is the entire
(c) The domain
number scale. The function has a period 2n, that is why it is quite
sufficient to investigate it on the interval [0, 2jx], where it becomes zero at the points x = 0; x = n\ x = 2n.
Writing the given function in the form
f (*)
= (1 sin*)
we note
1,
that it increases with a decrease in the function sin* and

decreases as sin* increases. Hence, the function / (*) decreases on
the intervals [0, n/2] and [3ji/2, 2n]> and increases on the interval
[jx/2, 3jx/2]. Since f(n/2)
1, and /(3ji/2)=3, the range of the
function is
3 (Fig. 4).
-!</(*)<
Ch.
32
I.
The domain
(d)
definition of the function is the entire number

at any x hence, arc cos (cos*) has a
function f (x) is a periodic one with the period 2n
meaning. The
hence,
it
of
|cosx|^l
Indeed,
scale.
to sketch
sufficient
is
its
But
graph on the interval [0, 2jx].

on this interval the following
equality
true:
is
f(x)=
*.
2n
x,
0<x< n
n^x^
2jt.
Indeed, the first assertion follows

the definition of the function
arc cos x while the second one can be
proved in the following way. Let us
put x'
ji
jk
2ji;
then
from
= 2nx
O^x'în and
/(*)
Taking
(e)
that
= arc
all
cos [cos
(2n x')] =arc
< <
cos (cos x')
= x' = 2ji x.
con sider ation, we draw the graph (see Fig. 5).

]/ s'mx
is
a periodic one with period 2n\
confine ourselves to the interval [0, 2ji]. But
this into
The function y =
is
why we may
-2%
-%
Tt
2lt
Fig. 5
the function is not defined in

defined only in the interval [0,
radicand is negative. The graph
the
ji],
whole interval [0, 2ji], it is

as in the interval (jx, 2n) the
symmetrical about the straight
is
Fig. 6
line
have
a:
= ji/2,
an
as
well as the graph y

s'mx (see Fig. 6). Here we
of a periodic function which does not exist in
example
the infinite set of intervals.

(f) The domain of definition of the function
<x<
and
<
<
oo.
is
Reduce the formula
form
to the
f(x)
x xn *
= x Xo** 10 =
the graph of the given function

the right-hand half plane with the point x
1.5.2. Sketch the graphs of functions defi-
Hence,
in
33
1.5.
jo.
is
1
the half-line
removed
#=10
(see Fig. 7).
ned by different formulas in different intervals (and in those reducible to them):
(a)
sin x
at
at
*/=<
l/(x
(b)0=
1,
at
1/2
at
x=
at
a;
x>0,
(c)
y=x + V#;
(d)
y=2/(x+\f?).
0,
< 0;
Fig. 7
The domain of definition of the function is the

The graph of the function consists of a portion
Jt< x
the sinusoid y = s\x\x on the interval
0, straight line
Solution,
interval
of
1)
10
0< x<
< < 4;
at
2
x
jx<x<0,
(a)
it,
4].
<
9,
2
1/2
{
-1
12
i
.1
-1
4
-2
-i
Fig.
Fig. 9
=2
on the interval (0, 1] and a part of the branch of the hyperon the interval (1,4] (see Fig. 8).
(b) The graph of the function consists of a portion of a cubic
parabola, an isolated point and a half-line (see Fig. 9).
(c) The function may be given by two formulas:
i/
bola
y=\l{x\)
2*.
if
0,
if
y==
x>0,
x<0.
34
Ch.
I.
Thus, the graph of our function

(d)
From
interval (0,
of
(c)
a polygonal line (see Fig. 10).
defined only in the

Thus, the graph
the right-hand part of an equilateral hyperbola
+oo), y being equal
our function
(see Fig.
is
follows that the function
it
is
l/x (x
to
is
> 0).
11).
Fig.
1.5.3.
Sketch the graphs of the following functions:
(a)
^ = cosx+|cosx|;
(b)
y=\x + 2\x.
Solution, (a) cosa;
2cosjc at cos* ^5
cos*|
|
=<
q at COSA;
Doubling the non-negative ordinates

y = cosx (the broken line in Fig.
tion
X
x
-7C
'
Sic
2
JL
the points
cosx<0, we
where
solid line in the
same
The function
12)
graph for the funcat

and assuming y =
2%
~T~
Jax
~7T
12
can sketch the desired graph (the
figure).
+ 2|x may be
(x
2)x at
=/ +
|x
0,
<o.
of the
% s'3n
2
Fig.
(b)
11
(x+2)x
given by two formulas:
at
2,
2.
2
Plotting separately both parabolas: y = (x+2)x = (x+l) l
2
the
parts
corresponding
only
retain
to
l)
and y =
1],
[(*
the above indicated intervals. Drawn in a solid line in Fig. 13 is
the graph of the given function, the broken line showing the de-
leted parts of the constructed parabolas.

1.5.4.
Sketch the graph
of
the function
= 2\x2\ x+
\
l\
+ x.
^2
Solution. At x
y=
At
35
1.5.
2(x2) (x +
l)
+ x = 2x 5.
l<x<2
2(x 2) (x+ + x =
y==
\)
2x
+ 3.
19
\\V//
'2/
-1
'
>
-1
Fig.
Finally,
at
Fig.
13
x<.~
y==
-2(x-2) + (x+\) + x = 5.
Hence, the given function can be rewritten
2x +
Therefore
(see Fig.
1.5.5.
3,
the
graph
is
a polygonal line
14).
Sketch the graph of the function
y^2 x 2~ x
Solution.
2 x and
yt
Draw graphs
y2
= 2~ x
for the functions
(broken
lines
in
and add graphically their ordinates. In doing so bear in mind that y 2 < y <
y 19 and that y 2 tends to zero with an increase
tends to zero with a decrease in x (the solid line
Fig.
15),
<
1.5.6.
way:
x> 2.
2x5,
in the following
*<-l,
1 <x<2,
5,
y=)
14
Sketch the graph of the function

*/
= x sin x.
Fig.
in
15
whereas y
in Fig.
15).
36
Ch.
I.
*/ 2
Solution. Being the product of two odd functions y

x and
x
sin*, the function y is an even one, that is why we shall
analyse
We
Fig.
it
xÔ.
for
draw graphs
for
=x
yx
and
y2
=smx
(the broken
lines
in
16).
At the points
points where y 2
where
r/
= smx =
y = y 1 .y 2
= sin# = 0,
1,
y= yi = x.
The
and
latter
at
the
equality
Fig.
16
indicates the expedience of graphing the auxiliary function y 3

x.
Marking the indicated points and joining them into a smooth
curve, we obtain the required graph (the solid line in Fig. 16).
1.5.7. Sketch the graph of the function y

x(x 2
plying the ordinates of the graphs y t
and y 2 z=x 2
=x
(b) y = /arc cos x.

Since the function
odd,
for x ^ 0.
y = x/(x 2
Solution,
tigate
it
4),
(a)
Let us consider
is
it
as the quotient of the
=2
=x
is
it
sufficient to inves-
two functions:
and y = x 4.
y
the denominator y = 0, the
x
Since
by multi-
1.
Graph the following functions:
1.5.8.
(a)
1)
function is not de2

the point 2. In the interval [0, 2) the function y x increases
4
from
to 2, the function y 2 is negative and|r/ 2
x 2 decreases
from 4 to 0; hence, the quotient f(x)=yjy 2 is negative and increases in absolute value, i.e. f(x) decreases in the interval [0,2)
at
fined at
from
to
oo.
In the interval (2, oo) both functions are positive and increasing.
Their quotient decreases since from
it follows that
2
t
x2
xt
2^x <x
x x +
(*!
2 ) (a: 1
4)
1.5.
The indicated quotient tends
to zero as x
37
oo, since y
= _^X
1
The general outline
the
of
graph
is
presented in Fig.
~^ 0-
17 (three
solid lines).
Denote y = arc cos x. The domain of definition of this funcAt x=\ we have y l = 0, hence, y=\/y l * oo at
(b)
tion
x+
1,
i.
e.
x=
on the entire interval
of
definition
dingly,
in Fig.
I.
hence
Simple Transformations
The graph
graph
1),
1,
y=\/y
incre-
n is attained at *--= 1. Accorvalue y 1

value of the function is 1/jx. The solid line
18 represents the general outline of the graph.
maximum
the minimum
The
ases.
18
The function y decreases
a vertical asymptote.
is
Fig.
17
Fig.
the x-axis by
a (see Fig.
Graphs
a) is obtained from the

function y
f(x
by translating the latter graph along
scale units in the direction opposite to the sign
of
the
of the function
of
of
= f(x)
19).
b is obtained from the graph of the

II. The graph
f(x)
y
function y
f(x) by translating the latter graph along the y-ax\s
by \b\ scale units in the direction opposite to the sign of b (see
Fig. 20).
f(kx)(k>0) is obtained from

III. The graph of the function y
the latter graph
the graph of the function y
f (x) by "compressing"
1 and
against the *y-axis in the horizontal direction k times at k
by "stretching" it in the horizontal direction from the r/-axis \\k
(see Fig. 21).
1
times at k
>
<
Ch.
38
J.
>
IV. The graph of the function y

0) is obtained from
kf (x) (k
the graph of function y
f(x) by "stretching" it in the horizontal
1
and "compressing" it against the #-axis
direction k times at k
(see Fig. 21).
1
\/k times at k
(i. e. vertically)
=
>
<
vr
u>-0 /
,o yuf(x)
y=f(x)+l,l<0
Fig. 20
y=
V. The graph of the function

f(x) is symmetrical to that
the function y
f(x) about the x-axis, while the graph of the
function y
x) is symmetrical to that of the function y
f(
f (x)
about the y-axis.
of
Fig. 21
Fig.
22
VI. The graph of the function y = f(\x\) is obtained from the

graph of the function y = f(x) in the following way: for jc>0 the
graph of the function y
f(x) is retained, then this retained part
of the graph is reflected symmetrically about the #-axis, thus determining the graph of the function for jc<0 (see Fig. 22).
VII. The graph of the function y = \f(x)\ is constructed from
the graph y
f (x) in the following way: the portion of the graph
1.5.
39
y
f(x) lying above the x-axis remains unchanged,
other portion located below the x-axis being transformed symmetrically about the x-axis (see Fig. 23).
VIII. The graphs of the more complicated functions
of the function
its
y^'kf (kx+a)
are
+b
drawn from the graph
of
= f(x)
plying consecutively transformations
ap-
to V.
Graph the function
1.5.9.
= 3J/
-2(a;
+ 2.5) 0.8
by transforming the graph y = ]fx.

Solution. Sketch the graph of the function
y=z\fx (which
is the upper
branch of the
parabola y 2
x) (Fig. 24, a), and transform
it in the following sequence.
Sketch the graph
by enlarging
of the
function y
= 3]/2x
the points on the graph of the function

abscissas unchanged (see Fig. 24, b).
Then sketch the graph

be the
mirror
Fig. 24,
Fig. 23
2 times the ordinates of
image
of
y= \
3V 2x which will
graph about the (/-axis (see
the function y
of the preceding
x and leaving their
c).
Fig. 24
By
0.8
shifting the obtained graph 2.5 scale units leftward and then
downwar d draw the desired graph of the function
u nit
y=3V 2(jc + 2.5) 0.8

1.5.10.
(see Fig.
Graph the function #
the cosine curve.
24, d).
= 3cos# j/3sin;t
by transforming
40
Ch.
I.
Solution. Transform the given function
y = 3 cos
x V 3
si
n x
Q
= 2 j/3~(
'
j-cosx
y sin
jc
= 2 K3
Thus, we have to sketch the graph
#=
which
cos
of the function
2VTcos (x + ji/6),
the graph of the function */

2 K 3cosjc translated by ji/6
The function has a period of 2ji, hence it is sufficient to
is
leftward.
draw
its
graph
for
n ^Zx ^
ji
ZVT
\
//
/
\
1
/'
//
\\
/ fa/2
I
>
f\\7t/2
\\
>^
-2V3
Fig. 25
Fig. 26
The graph of any function of the form */ = acosx

a and b are constants, is sketched in a similar way.
+ frsin x,
1.5.11.
(a)

Graph the following
yî
f-JTZ^
(c)
x2
^
s
+ a:+
if
(x-l)/(x+l),
if
(g)
(h)
j/=3s in
(e)
(f)
(i)
if l<x<0,
1,
sin 2 x
= x+ \/x;
=
x x
y
=
sin
=
1/cos*;
y
(d)
functions:
ft
(2jc
4);
t/=2K 3(x+
1.5)
1.2;
< x < k,
<x^
5;
where
y=
(j)
2x
of
a Sequence
41
1|;
y=\\x\-l\;
(k)
j/
(1)
|x
Number Sequences. Limit
1.6.
= cos(sinjc);
y=\s'mx\ + s\nx on
(m)
the interval [0,3k];

f
y = x sign x
2
(n)
where
signx
at
x> 0,
at
x=
at
0,
< 0.
1.5.12. The function y

f(x) is given graphically
Sketch the graphs of the following functions:
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
= f(x+
(a)
(Fig.
26).
1);
y = f(x/2);
y=\f(x)\;
= (|/(*)|/(*))/2;
y = \f(x)\/f(x).
1.6.
Number Sequences. Limit of a Sequence
The number a is called the limit of a sequence x u x2y

xn
oo, a lim x n if for any e>0 there exists a number
as n
...
N(e)>0
-+ co
such that the
inequality
a\<&
|jt
holds
true for
all
n> Af(e).
A
A
sequence which has a finite limit is said to be convergent.

sequence {x n } is called infinitely small if lim.*^
0, and infi-
nitely large
1.6.1.
if
lim^ôo.
Given the general term
sequence {xn }:
of the
sin (nn/2)
Write the first five terms of this sequence.

Solution. Putting consecutively
2, 3, 4, 5 in
n=\
term xni we obtain

sin (jt/2)
3
sin (4it/2)
:
4
sin(5jt/2)
~~
~
"" U;
_
~~
1
*
the general
42
Ch.
Knowing
1.6.2.
I.
the
several terms of the sequence, write one
first
of the possible expressions for the general term:

(3 '
I'
(b) 1, -g-,
Afofe.
13
2,
18
-g-
'
23
3,
knowledge
-g-.
4,
terms of a sequence
of the first several
That
sufficient to define this sequence.
is
why
this
is
not
problem should
be understood as one of finding a certain simple inductive regulacompatible with the given terms.
Solution, (a) Note that the numerator of each of the given terms
of the sequence equals the square of the number of this term plus
unity, i.e. n 2 +\, while the denominators form the arithmetic progand the comression 3, 8, 13, 18, ... with the first term
rity
mon
thus
^=3
d = 5. Hence,
difference
= a + d(n = 3 H- 5
(az
1 )
= 5n
l)
2,
we have
_ n* +
2
l
*~~5/i
'
(b) Here the general term of the sequence can be written with
the aid of two formulas: one for the terms standing in odd places,
the other for those in even places:
xn
It
at
1/(6+1)
also possible to express
is
which
j k
=\
the
more complicated,
will be
at
= 2kl
=
2k.
n
n
general term by one formula,
for instance,
^=^[i-(-i)i+^- [i+(-i)"]2
is
Find the first several terms of the sequence

given by one of the following formulas:
jc
= sin (nn/3)\
1.6.3.
term
(a)
(b)
(c)
(b)
is
Using the definition
lim x n
limx n =
if
the inequality
3/5 < 0.01
is
for
1).
a sequence, prove that
Beginning with which
fulfilled?
Solution, (a) For any e
l|<e
of the limit of
x n = (2n l)/(2n+ 1),

2
l)/(5n 2
3/5 if x n = (3n
=l
Af(e) such that
\x n
the general
x n = 2~ n cos nn\
l/n)\
x n =(l
1.6.4.
(a)
if
any
fulfilled.
>
let
natural
us try to find a natural number

n>N(z) the inequality
number
For
Number
1.6.
purpose
this
43
Sequences. Limit of a Sequence
us find the absolute value of the difference
let
2/11
-1
2/i+
2/1+1
Thus, the inequality
jc
|
>
1/e V 2
Hence the
be taken as jV(e),
So, for each e
inequality n
>
Let
Let e
us
>
if
<8
^qrf
number
1/e
whence
V,
may
<
1
f^ =
the
l.
absolute value of the difference
3/z 2
+l
5/z 2
3/5|:
8
5(5/i 2
1)'
be given. Choose n so that the inequality

5(5/i 2
is
satisfied
we can find a number A/ such that from the

e, which means that
will follow that \x n
1
it
find
2
is
integral part of the
lim
(b)
W = (1/8 7,).
i.e.
>N
<e
2n+
-l)
fulfilled.
we
Solving this inequality,
find
.1 t/8 + 5b
Putting
N = (i/?5),
we conclude
n> N
that at
K-3/5|<e,
which completes the proof.
If
= 0.01,
then
*-*({and
ned
all
1.6.5.
beginning with the 6th, are contai0.01).

(3/50.01; 3/5
terras of the sequence,
in the interval
known
-5.
Given a sequence with the general term x n

that
lim
x=
side the open interval
1/3.
Find the number
of points
= 9n _^ 4
It
is
xn lying out-
44
Ch.
Solution.
I.
The distance from the point x n
to
the
point
1/3
is
equal to
19
3(9/z
+ 4)
19
3(9/z
+ 4)
Outside the interval L there will appear those terms

quence for which this distance exceeds 0.001, i.e.
of
the se-
19
3(9/z
+ 4) ^
000
whence
1
Hence, 703 points

val
<; n
(x lt
x2
<
18988
?n
x 103 ) are found outside the
inter-
L.
1.6.6. Prove that the number 1

2
ce with the general term xn
(n
Solution. Estimate from below
rence
n2
2n 2
not the limit of a sequen2
9).
the absolute value of the diffe-
1^-2
-0
is
2)/(2n
|2/2
3 the absolute value of the difference remains greater

At n
than the constant number 1 /2 hence, there exists such e > 0, say,
;
e=
/ 29
that the inequality

2ril
>
holds true for any n^3.

The obtained inequality proves that
given sequence.
1.6.7.
is
not the limit of the
Prove that the sequence
112
1,
with the general term

\/n,
n/(n
+ 2),
if
/2-2/e
if
1,
= 2k,
has no limit.
Solution. It is easy to show that the points x n with odd numbers concentrate about the point 0, and the points x n with even
numbers, about the point 1. Hence, any neighbourhood of the point 0,
as well as any neighbourhood of the point 1, contains an infinite
set of points x n Let a be an arbitrary real number. We can always
choose such a small e
that the e-neighbourhood of the point a will
.
>
Number Sequences. Limit
1.6.
Sequence
of a
45
not contain at least a certain neighbourhood of either point

or
point 1. Then an infinite set of numbers x n will be found outside
this neighbourhood, and that is why one cannot assert that all the
numbers x m beginning with a certain one, will enter the e-neighbourhood of the number a. This means, by definition, that the
number a is not the limit of the given sequence. But a is an arbitrary number, hence no number is the limit of this sequence.
Prove
1.6.9.
number
(2n
|
=l
Prove that lim* n
1.6.8.
+ 3)/(/2+
1)
= (3 n +
l)/3
n
.
limx = 2 if x n = (2n
3)/(n
Find the
1).
term
the
inequality
beginning with which
e,
where 8
2
0.1; 0.01; 0.001, is fulfilled.
that
the
of
xn
if
<
1.6.10.
J_
2
_L
i.
'
'
_L
4
'
'
with the general term
-^rm
*=f
if
is
if
is
odd
j77
n/2
even,
has no limit.
Prove that
1.6.11.
xn
any
at
arbitrarily
large
a>0
limA;
if
= a n /nl
number
Solution. Let a natural

an
> 2a.
f a
a \
k )
\k+l
n\~
Then
at
a
k
>k
a
^
n
+2
<a.(i)--W.(^"
Since lim(l/2)"
have:
V 2 J
and,
it!),
hence,
(2a) k
xn
then at a
a
/n\
sufficiently
< e,
which
Test the following sequences for limits:
x=1/(2jx);
i
(b)
(prove
= 0.
Y\m(a n /n\)
(a)
<
(4-)
1.6.12.
for
an even
(C)
Xn
= ~ C0S nn
~2"
(d)
ai
n,
<j
[!-(-!)].
large n
means
we
that
46
Ch.
I.
Prove that the sequence with the general term
1.6.13.
(k>0)
x n =l/n*
is
an
infinitely small sequence.
Solution.
pro\e that
To prove
-*
Take an
sequence xn
that the
= 0.
n
arbitrary e > 0.
infinitely small
is
is
to
lim x n
oo
Since \x n
l/n k
we have
to solve the
inequality
<
l/n*
whence
n>
j/T/e,
of
i.
N may
Hence
y^l/s.
e,
be expressed as the integral part
= E(^1/S).
e.
1.6.14. Prove that the sequences with the general terms
xn
(a)
are infinitely small

1.6.15.
xn
l)
as
Show that
2/(5f/n+l)
= sin
xn
(b)
[(2/i
1)
oo.
the
with
sequence
infinitely small
is
general
the
n>oo. Find
as
beginning with which the points x n belong to the

(-1/10, 1/10).
Solution. Take an arbitrary e>0 and estimate \x n
ber
term
num-
interval
\:
JC
That
is
why
l-
l""
3/
|xj<e
^
^
3/-
a; soon as n
>
3/1/e
3/-'
Hence limxn
the sequence
is
= 0,
i.e.
oo
infinitely small.
We take now 8=1/10. Since |^n |< l/\/n x n will necessarily

1000. Hence N may
be smaller than 1/10 if \lV~n< 1/10 or n
be taken equal to 1 000. But we can obtain a more accurate result
by solving the inequality
y
>
It holds true
taken equal to
1.6.16.
simal as
It
is
at
X n\
< TO
3/-
> (19/5) = 3. = 54.872.

3
Hence
N may
be
54^1000.
known
n^00,
then
= +
a n where a n is an infinitethat if x n
a
lim x n
Taking advantage of this rule,
a.
oo
find the limits:
3"+!
+ sin (wi/4)
2*
+ ( 1)"
Number
1.6.
c
Solution, (a) x n
<
=3
w+1 -f- sin (nn/4)

"s^
an infinitesimal as
Sequences. Limit of a Sequence
3+
n
1.6.17.
Prove that
is
= 3.
-+ oo
-+
<x>
Yn
Let us prove that the variable
Solution.
= sin (nn/A)
y^n=l.
lim
n
where a n
hence lim x n
oo,
47
can be represented
oo.
sum l+a, where a n is an infinitesimal as n
us put \/n= 1 + a n
Raising to the nth power we obtain
as the
Let
rc=
+aj n =
(1
+Aia +
^=â^+
wherefrom we arrive
at the conclusion that

lowing inequality holds true:
for
+a"ny
any n
>
the
fol-
n>l + njn^l) a%
(since all the terms on the right are non-negative). Transposing the
we obtain
1
unity to the left and reducing the inequality by n
whence
it
lim
n
V 2/n =
-* oo
Hence
it
an
lim
2/n
that
follows
> a n > 0.
or
also equals zero,
an
e.
i.
is
Since
an infinitesimal.
oo
follows that
yn=l.
lim
n
1.6.18.
>a
-*
oo
>oo.
infinitely large as
Solution. Let us take an arbitrary positive
the inequality
is
number
and solve
> AJ.
Taking the logarithm, we obtain
Vn> log, /W, n> (log

If
lity
we now take
|x n
|>A4
infinitely
1.6.19.
will
/V
= E (log
be
A4) 3
fulfilled,
then
M) 3
for
Prove that
lim
-* oo
y/a
all
n> N
the inequa-
which means that the sequence
large.
(a
>
0).
is
48
Ch.
Evaluation of Limits of Sequences
1.7.
the sequences {x n \ and {y n \ are convergent, then

Km (x n y n ) liin x n lim
lim xn lim
(2) lim
If
(1)
If
1.7.1.
Find
xvn~
lim x
3n 2 +5n
+n
if
+4
W
w
-4n
2/i3
3/i
4n
n.
qo
'
+ +
+ 4'
1+2
*n =
+r + "
(e)
^ lim y
then lim x n
*/
^
W
5b
+ 2-3/i + 7
4n 3 -2n+ll
'
l+2+ ...+
n_
5/i3
+ n+l
3+A+l
n
Solution, (a)
2_
S+
n*
lim
lim x
(3
5//z
+ 4//z
7-o
-3.
)
Recall that
(d)
l*
+2 +3
2
+...
+n
(2/i+l)
Hence
/i(/i+1)(2/i+1)_ 2n 3 + 3n 2 + Ai
6(5n3 + n+l)
/i+1)
6(5/i*
2
^ A-f-l
n^ n
_ +
30 _L
1
lim
1.7.2.
Find
lim x ny
ft
W
,
(c)
u3
n1
1/15.
if
=yn>;
Solution, (a)
^6
-+ 00
\3
/ 3n + n
^42 + 2n + 7j
xn = ybn;
{t)xn
# =
'
\
2n 3 + 2n +l
U" + 7 " + 3n + 4j
W
(d)
xn
pi*;
=^6n + 3.
(l)xn
(^^r)' =
Urn
_ m 3n + n \ 3n + n \ 3n + n __
i U + 2n+7j U + 2 + 7j U/t + + 7j
\
3_\
= lira 3+1/rt
4+2/rt
,.
/'
2/l
2//i 2
+ 7/rc
'
,4 J
_27
-64
17. Evaluation of Limits
49
of Sequences
In solving this example, and also the rest of the examples

Problem 1.7.2, take advantage of the following equalities (see
Problems 1.6.17 and 1.6.19):
(c)
of
i/n=l
lim
We
and
lim
\/a=\.
(1)
have
lim xn
n
from
but
lim xn
1.7.3.
-+
lim
n
<x>
\/n,
lim
n
-* co
-* co
limv^5=l and
that
follows
it
(1)
i/5n
lim
n
co
lim y^/i
hence
Find
2ft 3
'
Summing
Solution.
we obtain
the fractions,
xn
2ft
i
Oft 3
1 5ft 2 \
13ft 2
2ft 2
+3
+3
15ft
Whence
lim x n
n
Note.
If
_
-
2ft 3
r
iirn^
13ft 2
10n3+ 2 n 2 +
-+ oo
+3 _
+3-
i5 n
we put
2ft
2ft
_ 1
^ 5ft+
\im{y n + z n = 1/5,
5ft 2
+3
'
though each of the

their sum
)
an infinitely large quantity. Thus, from the convergence of a sum of sequences it does not, generally speaking, follow
that the summands converge too.
then the limit of
summands
1.7.4.
is
lim xn
Find
(a)
-*
if
co
= V2n+3 Vril'
xn = Vn + n+ ]/ n n+ 1;
xn = n (nVn + \y,
x
(b)
(c)
(d)
xn
=n n + n\
(ej
xn
]Tn*+\
4
+ Vn
12 + 3 4 + 5 6+
(h)
xn =
...
2ft
+ + +...+.
1-2
2-3
3-4
'
'
ft(ft+l)
50
Ch.
I.
= Vn(V2 +
Solution, (a) xn
3/nVl l/n)-+ -f oo as n
since the second multiplier has a positive limit.
(c)
Xn
_ n*(n-VlF+\ _
-n*
=n
xn
=
(n 2
oo
n+K/iHl
(d)
3 2/3
)
oo
n y n n* + n*
as
oo.
means, x n
It
>
1/3.
Factoring out the terms of the highest power in the numerator and denominator, we have:
(e)
1/4
\\mx n
Find
1.7.5.
>
+ oo
as
oo.
if
n-*<x>
(c)
xn
I
(e)
(f)
=Y n
xn
2n
+n;
C0S
1
= -^ cos
n( 1)"
l2n
n 2 +l
(d)
n+l
2
j-
n3
.
*
1+T+T+-+*
1.8.
Testing Sequences for Convergence
Bolzano-Weierstrass* theorem.
a
finite
Theorem on passing
and
liin
n -y cc
-{ 00 or
A monotonic bounded
sequence has
limit.
x^lim
00
zn
to the limit in inequalities.

too (c
then \imy n
c
= c,
-> cc
but not oo).
-* cc
If
is
xn
^y ^z n
number,
sequence with the

an increasing one.
have to prove that x n+1
Prove
1.8.1.
We
51
xn
term
general
the
that
= (2n l)/(3n+ 1)
Solution.
1.8.
is
>x n
any
for
n,
i.e.
to
prove that
2n
2/z-j-l
3/Z
The
inequality
latter
e>n
Hence, x n+l
> xn
+ 4 > 3rc+
'
1
equivalent
is
to
obvious
the
inequality
+ 5n+\ > 6m + 5n 4.
2
Given a sequence with the general term
1.8.2.
Xn
'
n\
Prove that this sequence decreases
at
n^lO.
Solution,
Xn+1 ~~
<
Since
at
ft
10"+
(n+
_ 10"
n\
1)!
^10,
then
10
'
/i+
x n+1
10
__
n+
<x n
'
beginning with
number, which means that the sequence decreases
10.
(b)
= ^j'>
n
# = (-l) ~sinft;
(c)
zn
a ) Xn
= n cos nn.
Solution, (a)
(b)
The sequence
The sequence {y n }
is
{x n \
is
(c)
The sequence
{z n \
1,
is
obvious that
|sin|<^T <2.
= \ncosnn\ = n.

Xn
>
it
not bounded, since
is
\z n
1.8.4.
bounded, since
bounded:
l^l = l(-D"|-^T
(a
Test the following sequences for boundedness:
1.8.3.
(
at
this
Xi
> 0)
Xn
Xo
converges.
Solution. Let us prove that

bounded. Firstly, x n
x n _ l as
<
this
sequence
is
monotonic
and
52
Ch.
I.
Hence, the given sequence is a decreasing one. Secondly, all its

terms are positive (by condition a
and x
0), which means
that the sequence is bounded below. Thus, the given sequence is
monotonic and bounded, hence it has a limit.
1.8.5. Prove that the sequence with the general term
>
11
5+1
x1
î.e.
b+{
52
+l ^5 3 +l
1,1
~ 5+1
+ 5 +1
x2
>
x2
'
5H-1
1,1,1
5+1+
5H-1 ^
5a
+l
'
converges.
4-1
xn
1/(5"
Solution. The sequence \x n ) increases, since x n+1
x n Besides, it is bounded above, since 1/(5"+
and, hence, # +1
>
<
5+1
1)
1)
<
any n and
1/5" at
1
"
+ _L_
+ _^
^3 +l +
5 +l
5
*22
I
1
/
^
I
1
iii
^ îli^
52
53
'
'
'
'
I1
'
'
+-J
^
Kn
5+l
_L_
I
1
1/5-1/5" + *
'
'
'
^ 5"
1/5
_ W,
1\
5" J
'
Hence, the sequence converges.
Taking advantage of
monotonic bounded
1.8.6.
limit of a
theorem on the existence
the
of a
the following
sequence, prove that
sequences are convergent:

(a)
= r* B = 2 + l + l+...+I.
xn
(b)
1.8.7.
Prove that the following sequences converge and
find their
limits:
(a)
xx
= V~%
*2
= ^2+l/"2;
n radicals
2n
(b)
*
(/i
(c)
(d)
the
1.41;
(e)
+ 2)!
sequence of
...
1.414;
xn
= n\/n n
Solution,
<* + <
it
decimal
number
obvious
sequence
bounded.
is
It
i.e.
successive
of the irrational
approximations
1;
1.4;
j/~2;
(a)
prove that
'
is
is
the
<
that
x2
xx
increasing.
<x <
3
It
< xn <
now remains
to
xt
1.8.
53
= V 2 + x n _ n = 2 3,
Sinc e x = V~2<2
<V2 + 2 = 2 x, = V~2+r x <V2 + 2 = 2, .... Let it
that x n _ <2. Then x n =
2 + x n _ < V2 + 2 = 2. Thus,
We have
= V2 + x
xn
l9
be proved
]/
1
1
with the aid of mathematical induction we have proved that x n
2,
i.e. the
sequence is bounded. Hence, it has a finite limit. Let us
<
find
it.
Denote
lim x n
n
Then, x a
= V~2 Jr x n-v
raising
we can
Passing to the limit,

lim x\
n
The roots
lim (2
n
-* oo
= y.
-> oo
power,
second
the
to
rewrite this equality as follows
+ ,^),
or y 2
= 2 + y.
-* cc
obtained quadratic equation
of the
ft
The negative root does not
= 2;
y2
suit here, since
are:
1-
x>0. Hence, lim xn =y

n
(c)
We
sequences
why
have ny
j#
< E (ny) ^ ny
1
and
-^-j
we obtain
yl^tL^^y.
or
{y} converge,
their
= 2.
-* oo
Bui the
being y, that
limit
is
lim x n =
This sequence is non-decreasing, since each following term

obtained from the preceding one x n by adding one more
significant digit to the decimal fraction. The sequence is bounded
above, say, by the number 1.5. Hence, the sequence converges, its
(d)
x n+1
is
limit being
(e)
2.
The sequence decreases monotonically. Indeed,

(fl-f-l)!
Xn+1
Since
(n+\)*
<
Then, since xn
X + 1
l
>
>
_
~~
0, the
_n\
n\
nn
~~nP
<X
'
nn
__
(n+l)
~~~
(n+\) n Xn
'
sequence
bounded below, hence
is
lim x n
n
exists.
Let us denote
it
/.
Obviously,
/=
lim xn
n
show that
= 0.
nn
^0. Now
-+ cd
Indeed,
n J
-+ cc
let
us
54
Ch.
Hence,
^n
I.
<
<-^x n
and xn+l
-y
Passing over to the limit,
we obtain
/^0,
which, together with
brings us to the conclusion:

/
1.8.8.
ral
Find the limits
= 0.
sequences with the following gene-
of the
terms:
n
zn
1
r
-
V n*+\
Solution.
]fn*+2
n
-
*-...+
lim#=l.
Let us prove that

n
l*-l|
Indeed,
-* oo
n Vn + n
2
=
}Tn?
+n
V n 2 + n(n+ V n 2 + n)
We
Vn* + n
2n'
can prove similarly that

lim z n
1.
Then,
= 2M
+
On
the other hand,

l
VrP + n
V~n*
+n
Vri*
+n
}^n 2
+n
=x
ri
Thus,
x n<y n
<
Urn *
z n,
-* cc
lim z
n
-* oo
and according to the theorem on passing to the limit

lim
1.8.9.
Using the theorem on passing to the limit
prove
lim
in inequalities
yn =\.
JX'a=l (a>0).
in inequalities
The Limit
1.9.
Prove the existence

and calculate it.
>
1)
55
sequence y n
of the limit of the
1.8.10.
(a
Function
of a
1.8.11. Taking advantage of the theorem

monotonic sequence, prove the existence of
= a 1/2n
on the limit
a
of
finite limit of the
sequence
Xn
22
Taking advantage
1.8.12.
in
"1"
inequalities,
32
/I
the theorem on passing to the limit
of
prove that
lim x n
n
=\
xn
if
= 2n{Vn +ln).
2
-* qo
1.8.13.
x1
= Va\
xa
=----j/
xs
= V<* + V a + Va;
xn
--=
+ V a\
]f a + Va+
+ Va
n radicals
(a>0)
has the limit b
1.8.14.
= {VAa+\ +
l)/2.
*n
~3+l
l_
+ 3 +2 +
2
'
'
'
^~?> n
+n
has a finite limit.

1.8.15. Prove that a sequence of lengths of perimeters of regular
2 w -gons inscribed in a circle tends to a limit (called the length of
circumference).
1.9.
The Limit of a Function
point a on the real axis is called the limit point of a set X

any neighbourhood of the point a contains points belonging to X
which are different from a (a may be either a proper or an improif
per point).
Let
the
point a
be the limit point of the domain of definition

The number A is called the limit of the
of the function f(x).

function f (x) as xa,
A=
lim
x
-*
/(.*:),
if
for
any neighbourhood V
the number A there exists a neighbourhood u of the number a

such that for all
lying in a, f(x)V (the definition of the
limit of a function after Cauchy). The number A may be either
finite or infinite. In particular, if the numbers A and a are finite
we obtain the following definition.
of
xX
Ch.
56
A number A
A=
lim
x
-+
f (x),
I.
any
for
if
the
limit of
>
there exists a
called
is
f(x) as
function
number
8(e)
x-+a
>
such
0<\x a|<8
and belonthat for all x satisfying the inequality

ging to the domain of definition of the function f (x) the inequality
holds true (the "e-8 definition").
\f(x)
the definition is as follows. A number A is called
If
lim f (x), if for any
the limit of a function f (x) as x
>, A
A\<s
a=+oo,
-*
00
>
>
there exists a number M(e)

such that for all x satisfying
M(e) and belonging to the domain of definition
the inequality
A\
holds true (the
of the function f (x) the inequality \f(x)
e
"e-M definition").
The notation lim
x
-+
/ (x)
= 00
means
that
<e
lim
x
-*
f (x)
= + 00.
The
considered similarly.
of a function after Heine. The notafor any sequence of values of x con-
rest of the cases are
The definition of the limit

tion limf(x) = A means that
x
-+
verging to the number a

-^2>
^l>
(belonging to the domain of definition of the function and differing

a) the corresponding sequence of values of y
from
0i
= /(*i);
has a limit, which

1.9.1.
Heine
Taking
(i.e.
is
0i
= /(*i);
advantage
of
the
definition
and
of the
the
of
limit
after
theorems on the limits
prove that
3*+l
,.
Solution. Let us consider any

the following two conditions: (1)
to the domain of definition of the
(i.e. x n =
4/5); (2) the sequence
2.
lim x n
i.e.
sequence x l9 x 2 ... satisfying

the numbers x lt x2y ... belong
function f (x) =(3x+ l)/(5*
4)
{x n } converges to the number 2,
,
-+ 00
To the sequence
of
number A.
the
in terms of sequences)
of sequences,
= /(*n).
0n
corresponds the
{x n } there
sequence
of
the function
3^+1
5*1
+4
3;c a
+l
5* 2
+4
'
'
proceeding from the theorem on the limits

l
im
fi x
T.'
)= Hm
3*+l_ lim
'
1.7),
0^l) a ji a l
ii.5^ + 4- lim (5* + 4)
10
+ 4-
values
The Limit
1.9.
Fund ion
of
57
Thus, independently of the choice of a sequence {xn \ which

converges to the number 2(x n ^=
4/5), the corresponding sequences
of values of the function f (x n ) converge to the number 1/2, which,
according to the definition of the limit of a function, means that
3x+l
5^+4=
The
Heine
conveniently
no limit.
For this it is sufficient to show that there exist two sequences {xn }
lim x'n = a, but the corresponding
and {xn } such that lim xn
Note.
applied
definition
the
of
when we have
limit
after
to prove that a function
is
(x) has
sequences {f(x'n )\ and
qo
-*
oo
do not have identical limits.
{f (x)\
Prove that the following limits do not
1.9.2.
^m
3
737;
Y
1 C )X
lim sin
(a)
-*
lim sin x.
(c)
K *
-+
exist:
CO
Solution, (a) Choose two sequences
xn
xn =
and
nn
j-t
+ (4n+l)ji
2
Ta
(n
v
2,
),
/
which
for
lim x n
n
-+
lim
n
<x>
The corresponding sequences
of
a:^
1.
-* oo
values of the function are:
Kx n = s\n + l/{ nn) _ =smnn =

l
and
f
) - sin + g/[(4w ^
{
n]
t)
_ = sin f+i = sin

ji
2/m +
f) =
Hence,
lim
1. e.
it
the
(x n )
and
sequences {/(*)} and
follows
lim sin
that
x
(c)
lim
f (x'n )
{/)} have
does not
different
exist.
Choose two sequences, x n

nn and x'n
which lim jc n = lim a^ = oo. Since
n
00
lim
= 2nn + n/2
-*
cc
sinx=
lim sin
jt/z
= 0,
and
lim
-*
whence
-*
2, ...), for
limits,
sin<=
cp
lim sin * does not exist.
lim sin (2jw

n
-* 00
+ ji/2) =
1,
(n
58
Ch.
Note. The above examples show that one cannot draw the conclusion about the existence of the limit of a function proceeding
from the sequence of values of x of a particular form (for example,
proceeding from x n
1 +2/((4n+ 1) n)
in the item (a) of this problem), but it is necessary to consider an arbitrary sequence x 19
x 2) ...,#, ...
limit.
Proceeding from the definition of the limit of a function

u
(i.e. in
the terms of e-5"; "e-M", etc.), prove that
1.9.3.
Cauchy
after
Km (3x 8)- 5;
(a)
(e)
having a given
lim arc tan x
sin* =1/2.
lim
(f)
-*
= ji/2;
Jt/6
Solution, (a)
that for any e
According to the "e-8" definition we are to prove

there exists 8 >
such that from the inequality
>
I* 1|<8
<
it follows that
5
e.
(
5)
f (x)
f (x)
In other words, it is necessary to solve the inequality
|
|3a:
8 + 5| = 3|a: <
1
e.
The
is
latter inequality
fulfilled
shows that the required inequality /(jt)-f5 |<e

< e/3 = 6. Hence, lim (3x 8) = 5.
1
as soon as \x
According to the "e-M" definition of

for any e >
is possible to
it
such that for all x >
the inequality
(b)
show that
the
Transforming
this inequality,
5* -j-l
+9
3x
Since x
> 0,
it
remains
we obtain
14
|3*
limit one
find a
will be fulfilled.
+ 9| <8.
to solve the inequality
number
has to
M>
1.9.
The Limit
of a
Function
59
whence
^ 149e
hence
M=
Thus,
14 7" 98
.
3e
values of x
>M
M = ^g
14
>
for
we have found
the inequality (*)
Let, for example, 8
= 0.01;
is fulfilled,
such that for
and
this
M=^ ^ ^- = 463
then
(c) We have to prove that

such that from the inequality
for
K>
any
means
all
that
-|-.
there exists 8
>
|x-l|<8
there always follows the inequality
1
(I-*) 2
(i-*) 2
Let us choose an arbitrary
number
>K.
K>
and solve the inequality
(l-*) 2
(**)
K,
whence
|l_x|<-L: (K>0).
Thus,
if
soon as \x
we put
<
1
6,
= -J=-,
VK
then the inequality (**) holds true as
which means that
lirn
__
+oo.
M>
K>
there exists
(d) We have to prove that for any
there always follows the inesuch that from the inequality x
and
Let us choose an arbitrary number
quality \og a
M, then at
consider the inequality \og a
K. If we put a K
the inequality \oga
holds true. Hence,
>M
x>K.
x>M
x>K
lim
X
1.9.4.
x>
Prove that
+ 0O
log a
*=
K>
+oo.
lim cosjc does not exist.

X
-+ 00
Using the sequences of the roots of the equations sin (\/x)=l

and sin (l/x)=
1, show that the function / (x) = sin (l/x) has no
limit as x
>0.
1.9.5.
Ch.
60
from Cauchy's definition
Proceeding
1.9.6.
the
of
limit
of
function prove that:

(a)
lim
(c)
(3a:
2) =
lim
(f)
2x
,.
00
lim
V X
=2;
1
1;
1);
0.
Calculation of Limits of Functions
1.10.
I.
cosx=
lim
(d)
.'^.s+s'tJ
lim a x = +oo (a >
*-*
(g)
= 0;
sin.x:
x -* o
(e)
lim
X -
(b)
1;
and limy
\\mu{x)
the limits
If
(a;)
exist,
then the following
x-+a
theorems hold true:

(1)
lim [u (x)
x
(2)
(3)
II.
main
-+
v (x)} = lim u (x) lim v
lim [u (x)-v(x)]
x^ a
^
For
of
lim U
-*
= lim u (x)
x
-*
x -+
lim v
x
-*
(x)\
(x)
= W^)
(Hm(x)^0).
main elementary functions
all
(x);
definition the equality lim / (x)

x
-+
at
any point
= / (lim x) = f (a)
of their do-
holds true.
x-+a
III. If for all values of a; in a certain neighbourhood of a point a

a) the functions f(x) and q) (x) are equal
(except for, perhaps, x
and one of them has a limit as x approaches a, then the other one
has the same limit.
IV. The following limits are frequently used:
(1)
hm
x-+0
(2)
lim(l
x
-*
lo
lim
...
,.
(4)
x^Q
hm
xÔ
(5)
lim
+ l/jc)* =alim(l +a) '* = e = 2. 71828.

^ il+x) = log a e (a>0;a^l);
l
-*
<x>
(3)
=1;
/+ =
x
In (1
a:)
'
1;
^=^ = lna
(a
> 0).
.;
1.10. Calculation
1.10.1.
ixb
(C)
(e)
i;
9x
'
J/"
2*
>
x a:+
2
*3_ x _ 6
,^_J
P and q
integers);
(f)lim^^;
2o 3/0=
r/ 3x 5
5
j/Ff6-2j/3^5
+ 3x* 9x2
m
il
>
(d)
3/-Xft
*-+22 r/
x+6
xs
r1
/u\
(b
^+^|/*Fp7
(g)
^VeZU^'
Hm
61
Find the limits:
+
W Im 3*.+-f*r+T
i
Limits of Functions
of
(h)
f\
*-3 L
*-*3|_
'
l0g
r r
v
VHT+6-3J'
K8a:+
Solution, (a) Since there exist limits of the numerator and denominator and the limit of the denominator is different from zero,
we can use the theorem on the limit of a quotient:
lim V(4* 5
+ 9* + 7 ^ î
^-13^ + ^+1
lim
lim 4*
(b)
(3jc
t 9x+7)
+
t
+x +
;
The above theorem cannot be
limit of the denominator equals

the numerator also equals zero
indeterminate form
A;3
-jj-
For
directly
zero
+9+7
used here, since the

Here the limit of
Hence, we have the
x-2.
as
as
^^2
3+1+1
1)
2.
we have
+ 3x2_9 ._2 _ (x2) (x + 5x + = + 5a:+

~~ (x2) (x + 2x + 3) --jc + 2*+3"
x x 6
2
1)
jc
Thus, in any domain which does not contain the point x
=2
the
functions
r,
+ 3x 9x 2
2
equal; hence, their limits are

function y(x) is found directly:
are
/vi- * + 5x+ = 15
^2- + 2*+: n
cp(^)^ im
x -.2
hence,
/
X-+2
x2
x3
X-+2
+ 3x 9x 2
2
+ 5x+l
equal.
also
hm
15
11
The
limit
of the
Ch.
62
Just
(c)
as
I.
in
we remove
(b),
indeterminate
the
form
by
transforming
lim
<->-!
-*
0/2x 2 3 5x);
x(Vx +l
2
V2x^f3
S^** 3
lim
(g)
x)\
QO
,.
/f ,
00
lim
(e)
+ 3x);
V 3* 2+ 3/2x
(d) lim
X2
2^+3^/7+5^/7
v^ + oo
* -*
00
lim
(c)
3a:
(j/9je 2
lim
-*
i>
4 3x + 2
X3
(a) lim
(1 *)
Find the limits
1.10.2.
(b)
(*+0(^^3-3,) =
lim
]/~2x 2
+3
*.
-* OO
So/on.
(^-^)
(a) lim
Here we have the indeterminate form oo
oo;
us subtract the
let
fractions
lim
jcôo
f^_^)=lim
+
\3* 2
3x
\2x 8
= lim 9
2x3+4x2
3
^ 9x
2 y
6a: 2
^.Too
Note.
ratio
We
the
of
(}^9x
,.
lim
+
(c)
In
of the
2
+i 3x) =
'
handling such
2
8/a:
'
is equal to the
the superior power of x (provided the
at
same
-J-
12/a: 2
such examples the limit
in
coefficients
polynomials are
/ux
(b)
that
see
2 + 4/x
+ 6/a:
degree).
,.
-+
n
= 0.
lim
x
cc
J^-j- 1+3*
examples
bear
in
mind
that the function
where p n (x) is a polynomial ofjdegree n, tending

n
This allows us
to infinity in the same way as the function "j/
to single out the superior power of x and divide both the numerator and denominator by this power of x. In the given example
f{x)= \/p n
(x),
the divisor
is
[/ x\ then
we
j/T
2J/T+3
obtain:
j/3x 2 + l/2x3
63
1. 10.
x^ + oo
|/"3
+ 3/*/T+5/ff^
2/x+ /4/x 12/x + 9/x

2
Since the
(d)
sum
two positive
of
(1/2j?^3 5*)=
Urn
At
(f)
lim
- cc
X ->
>
a;
we have |/#2
we have \^x2
,
im
is
From
/Vote.
= x
this
+ 2/x)
*V~2 + 37F
*(4
_
+ 2/*) ~
'
and, hence,
= Hm
follows,
it
3 + (5*)] -
therefore
ao
y* a (2 + 3/**)
*(4
.x;,
"","
<
^*(2 + 3/*)
a:
[V2x*
X-*-oo
At
large quantities
infinitely
an infinitely large quantity, then
also
^2 + 3/^ _
*(4
]/"2~
+ 2/*)
incidentally, that lim
*x
3
\
~t
does
not exist.
(g)
lim5 2 ^* +3
*
-*
1.10.3.
(a)
(c)
2x/(* + 3)
lim
)
= 5*-
= 5 = 25.
2
fl0
oo
Find the limits:
Hm^T&l
hm ,^5 X -
(b)
_*I
H ra
(k positive in-
(d) lim-*x-+0
<
teger);
,
,.
sin
(x ji/6)
^3 2cosx'
,
x
x 3sinx+l
2 sin 2 x-f sin
2
*i/6 2sin
'
(method of substitution), (a) Let

* 1; hence
Then x=^z* 26 and 2^3 as
2
3/ ^Z_
= lim
'
Solution
lim
sin*) 2
*-jt/2
us
put
26
+x= z
3
.
- lim ^-3)(^+3*+9) _
= lim2(z + 3z + 9) = 54.
2^3
2
Ch.
64
l+x=z k
Let us put
(d)
Hence,
^T^~
lim
I.
-i; m _z
X-y
2 -*
Let
(e)
us
On
"K"
2 cos
2-0
a:
x=
/"3
o 2
hm
(a)
xÔ
a:-
cos x
-5
/L
tan x
(b) lim
as
()
-f ji/6)
(z
+ 2 sin (z/2) cos (z/2)
(z/2)
CQS(2/2)
yA 3
sin (2/2)
+ cos (z/2)
=1.
sin
a:
X3
x-0
cos^2)
lim
(c)
and
Find the limits:
1.10.4.
,.
1.10.1 (d)).
+ n/S
2 cos
/" 3 sin 2
0.
sin2
= lim
,
x +
as
2 sin (z/2) cos (2/2)
= lim
2+ sin 2
3 cos
Problem
ee
yÛ
lim
sin z
J^~3
(S
t-jT/6 l/"3
>-o
2^1
and
ji/6--=2;
then
put x
substituting we obtain
lim
lim
x=z k
then
/vi-
Solution, (a) lim

a:
2 sin 2 (x/2)
a:
x5
*-o
tan
/ux ,.
(b) lim
cos
- sinA; = lim
lim
sin
a:
(1
l Hm
x r^'-
*-o
cos
a:)
'
sin(^/2)
x/2
==1
y
2
J
'
C0S x x *
'
*-*
sin*
= limcos x
1
Let
Hence,
us
(c)
put
x=
z.
x=l z
Then
Jl
TC
COS -y X
lim
cos
a;
x2
and
as
1.
\
sin
- = lim
1 X
2-0
-7- z
= lim
3T
2-
Note. For a simpler method of solving similar problems see 1.12.

1.10.5.
(a)
Find the limits:
+ l/*)
lim(l
(b) lim(l
*;
+x)
^\
x-
(c
^ .fe)*
ra
In
(e)
lim
x-+ o
(d)
lim(l+/A:) m *;
(f)
lim
e4
(\+x)
t
3*
*-*
In (a+x) In a
(g)
x
->
...
In
(0 llm
-r=r
(h) lim
tan
a:
H y
Solution, (a) lim
= Hni
\*
lim
u"
-*
In
= lim
lim
(e)
+x)
(1
-v
= J = lim
z*0
ln(x/ e)
,,-ilin,
_
e
1)
1.10.6.
x*e. On
as
substi-
1^1+^1
e
Find
(1+^
im
x
(l+l) =lim
Solution, lim
1.10.7.
= e'\
ln3'
Put jt/e l=z; then x--=e(z+l);

tuting we obtain
lni
3*
(i)
Hm
65
1.10.
|^1
+1^*]
1.
Find the limits:
(a)
lim/l-MV
(b)
lim
-^
x 2Jr 2 X
2x 2
Solution,
V
1
-^.
\(2* +
>/(
at 1)
3a:
Denote:
(a)
fW = (l+x)/(2 + x);
Hm^(x)
lim
(p
(x)
= Hml^ = -|;
= lim
x-*\
But
at
finite
x->\
limits lim
^*
/ (x)
^~ x
^~
l
= A > 0,
= ir
1
lim
q) (.*:)
=5
the following
relation holds true:

lim
lim
[/
{x)
= ex
(p
(x) In
(x)
=e B\nA
~+ a
== j[B
Hence,
lim
/Vo/e.
out that
3 31
43
If
in
- r ""'"-"-(!)" !
=/!
handling examples of the form lim
Vunf(x)=l
and
lim
cp (jc)
= oo,
[/
(x)]v
{x)
it
turns
x-+a
then
the
following
66
Ch.
transformation
I.
may
be recommended:
lim [f(x)]*<*>
lim
x^-a
= lim
[ 1
+ (/ (x)
1.10.8. Find the

(a)
lim(
(c)
lim
^r
+sin
}}*
{x)
ln(p(x)L/U)-l]
1
<*>
)]
+3
;
cot
:rix)
/U
(d) lim
(*)
[/
<*>
>}*
<*>
= e**a
limits:
(1
{1
x -a
(b)
li.n(4^)
,/,m
*;
Q)
(a=kn> with & an
(f|^~y
integer).
Solution, (a) Let us denote:
Use the formula
q) (jc)
<P(*)
= lim^=l;
lim/(x)
lim
= 8* + 3;
a
^^StT'
=
lim
(8a:
-f 3)
= oo.
(*):
8a: 2
lim
,im
+3
(*>
(*>-!]
(ttt)
/W I=|S4
[/(*)-!] = - lim
1
lira q> (x)
gf +
3)
= - 8.
Therefore
1;
1.10.9.
The function
/2xH-3\8x + 3
/(#)
is
given with the aid of the limit
/?
-> cc
Investigate this function and graph it.

Solution. Consider three cases:
2n --=
00, then
(1) \x\> 1. Since in this case lim x
(2)
|jc|<1. In
this case
lim
a,,
Jt
= 0;
therefore /(*)
= !.
(*)
1.10. Calculation
=\ at any n and therefore /

consideration can be written
In this case x 2n
jt-=l.
(3)
if
f(x)=\-l
if
M>
\x\<l
if
briefly,
or,
The
/ (x)
graph
by
increases
2%
By how many times
in
= 0.
the
= 1
x
1) (see Problem 1.5.11 (n)).
function is shown in Fig. 27.
(|
this
The population
1.10.10.
ntry
= sign
of
(jc)
under
Thus, the function

following way:
67
Limits of Functions
of
does
of a
per
it
couyear.
increase
century?
in a
Solution.
we denote
If
number
the
ini-
inhabitants of a
given country as A, then after a
year the total population will amount to
tial
of
Fig. 27
After two
100
years the population
years
will
it
reach
the
will
total
amount
of
to
A[
1
+ p-q)
After
100
I+j-q)
i-
it
will
\ 50
have increased
lim
times.
Taking
into
account
that
=e> we can approximately consider that
e.
Hence, after 100 years the population of the country

7.39 times.
this estimation is very approximate, but
increased e'1
Of course,
idea as to the order of the

/
tity
^1
(a)
i-
lim-
(b)
(c)
=7.245
Find the
1
x 2x*
z /__ x
_2
lirnÊ^;
2x-
(d) lim
5a-
5x + 4
2x 3
to within three
limits:
cos x-\~A tan x

2
it
have
gives an
^the
increase in the population;
\ioo
50/
1.10.11.
will
decimal places).
quan-
Ch.
68
(e)
Find the limits:
lim
~~
tan 3 x
..
a
a "' n ,
'".,
gc-ji
(e)
0;
QO
1.10.12.
(c)
lini(j/>+
X->
x);
*-*ji/4
3 tan x
*
cos (x+n/6)
lim tan 2x tan (n/4
(d)
1.10.13. Find the limits:

(a) lim (1
(c)
+ 4/x)* +3
*"* -1
(b) lim
lim^=^;
(d) lim (1
x->0
x-y
lim (tan
;c)
tan 2
hm
x
cd
lg-r\)
zx
\
-r
x) cot2
*;
lim (sin x) ian x
(h)
*;
X-yJt/2
X-+JI/2
(k)
lim
(f)
x-yn/4
(g)
+ 3 tan
*->0
22
lim (sin2*)t- *;
(e)
+0

.
,-
nn
(a)
(c)
lim
o
arc cos
(1^)
(b)
In (1 + a sin
sin x
hm
In tan
a:
;
a:).
I. II. Infinitesimal and Infinite Functions.

Their Definition and Comparison
if
The function a(x) is called

lim a (x) =
or lima (*) = 0.
x-*a
X-y
The function
lim/(A;)
= oo
infinitesimal
or as .v-^ oo
as
CD
f (x)
or lim /
is
(a;)
called
= oo.
infinite
as
^->a
or
as
x-oo
if
1.11. Infinitesimal and Infinite Functions
69
A quantity inverse to an infinite quantity is called an infinitesimal.

Infinitesimal functions possess the following properties:
(1) The sum and the product of any definite number of infinitesimal functions as x
a are also infinitesimals as x -> a.
The product of an infinitesimal function by a bounded function
an infinitesimal.
Comparison of Infinitesimals. Let the functions a(x) and P (x) be
infinitesimal as x
a. If
a (x)
(2)
is
, .
lim q-K*-*a P to
where c
c=l,
If
the
then
a(x)
function
the
to
is
P(jc)
called
called an infinitesimal
is
of a
is
(x).
If
equivalent;
o (P (x)),
written thus: a (x)
of a /oayer order with respect
to P (*), which
an infinitesimal
/ug/ier order relative
and
from zero, then the

same order.
different
are called infinitesimals of the

functions a(x) and P (x) are called
(x)
a(x)~$(x).
= 0,
number
finite
and P
(x)
then
notation:
If
a certain
is
functions
lim R
0<|c|< + oo,
where
/f
then
the function
(x)
nth order as compared with the

is called an infinitesimal of the
function P(x). The concept of infinite functions of various orders
is introduced similarly.
1.11.1.
(
4
X
as
= 2Trrr
5
f(x) = (x l) sin
a ) f( x )
(b)
Solution, (a)
It
is
2
3
as
indeed, lim
X
>
(a:
/ (x)
the function cp(x)
l)
0.
are infinitesimals.
= lim
->
2x
~\ = 0.
r o
= (x l)
is
infinitesimal as x
1;
Secondly, the function
- sin
\J)(a:)
is
a:
to find the limit
sufficient
lim
(b) Firstly,
>
1,
bounded:
I
Hence,
the
given
bounded function
f(x)
is
sin 3
function
<
f (x)
represents
1.
by the infinitesimal
an infinitesimal function as x -+ 1.
\p(x)
the
(p(x),
product
of
the
which means that
70
Ch.
1.11.2.
(a)
1.
/(*)=
(b) f (x)
x -+ 4
as
^-yi
as
>
oo
are infinitesimal.
Find
1.11.3.
lim x sin (l/x).

x
Solution.
sin (l/x) is
means that
-*
Compare
(c)
following infinitesimal functions
the
with the infinitesimal

(a)
(p(x)
= tan x (b)
U*) = K9 + x-3.
/,
(x)
Solution,
l
im
Since x is an infinitesimal as x
and the function
bounded, the product xs\n(\/x) is an infinitesimal, which
lim x sin (l/x) = 0.
*
1.11.4.
We
(a)
Hence, tanx 3
(b) We have
*
li
x
is
tan
())
a:
x,1 =
2
lim
/ 2 (x)
l
J
3
tan*
^
,.
li
lim
liin
a:
= 0.
an infinitesimal of a higher order relative to
Hence, jj/sin 2 *
with A'.
(c) We have
(asx
A;:
have
ifE^ =
x ->
-*
X2
J/
x.
3/^
an infinitesimal of a lower order as compared
is
x-> o
li
in
x-+o
Hence, the infinitesimals V~9-{-x
= ir.
6
and x are
of
same
the
order.
1.11.5. Determine the order of smallness of the quantity p with

respect to the infinitesimal a.
(a)
p=rcosa
Solution, (a)
cos2a;
= tana sina.
p^=cosa cos 2a = 2 sin -| a sin
(b)
Whence
|in]
o
a
J^2 =lim
a -
2sin(3a/2)sin a/2)
(
Hence, P is an infinitesimal
second one with respect to a.
of
the
same order
3_
2
as
a2
i.
e. of
the
1.12. Equivalent Infinitesimals
1.11.6. Assuming *
quantities:
(a)
(b)
(c)
compare the following
oo,
= 3* + 2* + 5
f(x) = 2x + 3x
/ (x) = Y x + a
2
/ (*)
and
= 2*
+ 2x
cp
(x)
and
cp
(*) = (* + 2)
an d
<p(x)=l/x.
2* 3
oo
+ 2x
The infinite function 3* 2 + 2* + 5

compared with the infinite function 2* 3 + 2*
*->
large
infinitely
Solution, (a)
as
71
is
+ 2/x 1/x
2
of a
1,
lower order
since
Prove that the infinitesimalsa=* and P=*cos(l/*)(as*^0)

their ratio has no limit.
i. e.
1.11.7.
are not comparable,
Indeed,
Solution.
lim
x
it!),
X cos
1 x\
-L-L=
(
y
->
which means that
these
lim cos (l/x) does not exist (prove

x
->
infinitesimal
functions are not com-
parable.
1.11.8.
If
0,
higher
same order as *?
(are)
(a)
of
100*;
*2
(b)
then which of the following infinitesimals is

order than x\ of a lower order than x; of the
(c)
6 sin*;
sin 3 *;
(d)
(e)
j/tan 3
*.
1.11.9. Let x
O. Determine the orders of the following
tesimal functions with respect to x:
(a)
2 sin 4
(c)
Vl
(e)
a;* 5
+x
1;
2cos(x+);
(g)
TZTf;
(i)
cos*
(b)
[/sin 2 *
(d)
sin 2*
(f)
l/cosx;
4
;
2 sin*;
2 |/sin*;
h ) tan*
(j)
+*
infini-
+*
2
;
cos*.
1.11.10. Assuming the side of a cube to be an infinitesimal, dethe order of smallness of the diagonal of the cube (d), of
termine
the area of
surface (S); of
its
its
volume
(V).
1.12. Equivalent Infinitesimals.

Application to Finding Limits
If
a (x)
the functions
~y
x )> P
lim -77t4-=
Hm
(*)
(*)
and P (*) are infinitesimal

then
~ 6 (*),
as
and
-^y- (replacing an infinitesimal by an equivalent
if
one).
Ch.
72
I.
If
lim f(x)
x
=k
<
<
|*|
oo,
-*
then
/ (x)
~ ka (x).
(x)
If
a.(x)~y(x)
P(*)~Y(*),
then
~ P (x).
(x)
For two infinitesimal functions to be equivalent it

and sufficient that their difference be an infinitesimal
order as compared with each of the two.
Listed below are infinitesimal functions:
(a(x)
~ a (x);
(1)
sin
(3)
1 cosa(x) ~
(4)
arc sin
tan
(2)
(6)
>
(8)
l
>
(c)
~ a (x);
as
~YTTi~'*
(7)
a{x}
(x)
~ a (x);
~ a (x) \na
1
~a
1
arc tan
(5)
- Pa(x),
Prove that
(x);
in particular, (V
l+aW-l- a^.
x-^0
(b)
x;
1_
TT7~*
sin
Solution, (a)
By formula
(8) at
1
X
(c)
(x)
By formula
(1)
P=l/2 we
y
whence
1.12.2.
+ Vx =X
3
y xV x ~y
sin
X.
we have
'
have
o/T+^-Dî.
sin]/ xV~x '~y x)/"x
Replace each
'*V
'
+X
=x
1/2
<\
~X
'\
x*+yx*of
the following infinitesimals with an equi-
valent one:
(a)
necessary
a higher
[a(Jc)] 2 /2;
particular, e* U)
[l+a(x)] p
1.12.1.
a
in
0),
of
x+0)
an infinitesimal as
a (x) ~ a (x)\
ln[l+a(x)] ~a(x);
(a
<
(x)
is
is
3sina
5a
3
;
(b) (1
cosa) +
2
16a 8
+ 5a
-f
6a 5
73
1.12. Equivalent Infinitesimals
Solution,
Note
(a)
sum
the
that
of
two infinitesimals a and
|3
equivalent to the summand of the lower order,

since the replacement of an infinitesimal with one equivalent to it
is tantamount to the rejection of an infinitesimal of a higher order.
In our example the quantity 3 sin a has the order of smallness 1,
( 5a 3 ) the order of smallness 3, hence
of different orders
is
3 sin
(b)
(1 cosa)
a+
With the
1.12.3.
a)
llm
r
hm
,.
hm
(e)
.pv
/i\
cos
In
4
|
a:
-f- a:
~~ cos 2 x )*-r xb
* In
(1
+3*)
,
|/*
(*
/ *
cos *+2sin x sin x * + 3*

tan * 6 sin- x
* 5*
3
'
16a 3
X
sin j/
^(arctan
'
+
+
+
sm x ~ tan ^ ~^
j.
7 tan 7 x-\- sin 6 x-j-2 sin 5 x
lim
(h)
* arc tan 2 *
+ 5a + 6a
16a 3
a;
V^" 1 -f-
hm
1;
(d)
*
*
3 sin*
|.
]" n tan* 2sin 2 * 5* 4
Hm
cos
,_ cos
,,v
a:
(g)
i-
'
2*4- arc sin 2

3-
sin
+ 5a + 6a ~
16a 3
l"n
(b)
1" 0+4*)'
.0 mna-.,^
(c)
-|
aid of the principle of substitution of equivathe limits:
sin 5*
I-
the lower order, therefore
(1 cosa) 2 +
lent quantities find
of
is
+ 5a + 6a = 4siii
16a 3
The summand 16a 3
5a ~ 3 sin a ~ 3a.
3
Solution,
(a)
We
-}-
4x) 4x (see the

have sin5A:^5x; In (^1
page 72). Therefore
list
infinitesimals on
of equivalent
5*
sin 5*
5
=
JlF(T+W , i o-4F = T*2JL- = lim ln " +
S*-' =
,.
Il ,1
(c)
)1
lim
= 4 hm
a:
(d)
From
V
the
list
of
7i
= 4 hm
I
->
+x + x 1
(x
-\-
)/2
~ x/2,
,.
x =
x -> o
equivalent infinitesimals
cos*
we
sin \x
find:
\x.
/2
2.
Ch.
74
I.
introduction to Mathematical
Analysis
Therefore

vT+7+x
r-j
5
lllTl
the list
(e) Using
page 72 we obtain
sin 2x
of
r
lUTl
x/2
=
I
equivalent infinitesimal functions given on
+ arc sin
arc tan x ~ sin 2x ~ 2x.

2
Hence,
sin 2x-\- arc sin 2 x
,.
hm
<h)sin>/7~ Y~x\
+ 3x) -
In (1
'
(arc tan
Find
the
Ilrn
35
^* 5
1
sin^ln(l+3,_)
lim
2x
= t2
3x;
5
K7;
arc tan
1.12.4.
arc tan
Yx
J^jc;
^.3,_3
V~xY
approximate
values
of
the
roots
(/
1.02 and
1^0.994. Estimate the absolute error.

Solution. Use the approximate formula
~l+x/2
]/"l+x
(for
(*)
x sufficiently close to zero). In our case
+ 0.02- 1+^= 1.01;

= 0.997.
V 10.006 ~
J/1
To estimate the
we note
error
that
|_(Kr+7- 1) =! (*- 2 ^1+^+ 2) =

= j(*+i- 2 K^+i) = l(^^
Hence, the absolute error
mated by
Using
the
this
quantity
estimate
1.01
j/0994 ^ 0.997
1^1762
(a)
approximate formula
(*)
is
esti-
y.
we
is
1.12.5. Prove
of the
X2
amounts
= 0.00005, and the absolute

to -^^ 0.000005.
o
that, as x
f/T+xl~jx;
that the absolute error of the root
find
0,
error
of

(b)
arc tan
(c)
cos
~ sin
.x;~
x.
determine the order of smallness, relative

$(x)
x, of the following infinitesimals:
infinitesimal
Vs\n 2 x + x*;
(a)
x '^
x+2
For
^ 2*
determine the order of smallness, relative to

of the following infinitesimals:
$(x)=x 2,
the infinitesimal
2) + 2(jk
2
3(x
(a)
Making
1.12.8.
(b)
1
1.12.7.
75
x-^0
For
1.12.6.
to the
One-Sided Limits
~ mx\
mx
3
13.
J.
use
the
of
j/sin~^.
(b)
4);
method
replacing an infinitesimal
of
with an equivalent one, find the following limits:
<
sin3x
,.
>
/vi-
(1
+ tan 2x)
In (2
cos 2x)
In
"i
1.13.
In
d>
7jc)
'
approximate
4a:)
aTclI^r
V\-\-
+ sin
arc tan 3x
/fx
(1
"J"
sin
3x
0+ tan 2.)
/T+^-l
'
in
1-cosx
value of the root
3,
j/ 1042.
One-Sided Limits
A number A
>x
as x
<
'
(1+2.-3^ + 4*3)
Find an
1.12.9.
In (1
,.
e 'i"3*_l
In
ln*(8in3x+l)
/U
()
called the limit to the right of the function f (x)

lim / (#)
if
for any
there exists
0))
/ (x
is
(A=
x
-*
8>0
* +
such that for all x satisfying the inequality

6 (e) >
< x x Q < 6 (e)
and belonging to the domain of definition of the function f (x) the
4
inequality \f(x)
function / (*
0) as
then we write simply
and
<e
>
The limit to the left of the

defined in a similar way. If *
0,
-
or
and, respectively, /(
0)
holds
x* +
true.
=
+
is
f( 0).
1.13.1.
Find the one-sided limits of the functions:

|
(a)
/(*)={
{
b)
/ (*)
2x + 3
q
3x 5
= 77=777
if
as
1,
.
if
>
asx->l;
Ch.
76
(c)
f(x)=
(d) f(*)
r{
-r
= 3+
(f)
s2x
0;
as x
as
'
(e)
I.
+ 7l /(] _
f (x)
=cos(n/x)
f(x)
=5/(x-2)* asx-+2.
Solution,
(a)
as
1;
0;
Letx<l. Then / (x) =
lim f(x)
*- -0
+ 3.
2x
\
If
#>1,
then
=2
lim f(x)
x - 1+0
to the right (see Fig.
/(*)
= 3x 5;
f (x)
f(l+0)=
(c)
f(l0)
Hence,
the limit to the
is
1^1-cos
is
left.
hence,
the
limit
28).
Y'l sin 2 #
2*
V2
sin x|
but
sin x
0)= Hm /(*)=
Hm
+ 0)=
AT-
(d)
less
than
lim 7'/<i-*>
*
-> 1
as
Further,
x
lim 7i/< 1 -*>=0,
+0
x
-*
/ (*)
if
sin
a:,
if
< < n/2

-ji/2 < x < 0.
a:
|/2
Urn
+0
The expression
remaining
a:,
Hence,
Fig. 28
f(
sin
(1/2-
lim
*-> +
1/(1 a:) tends
+oo, when
to
x tends to
1,
therefore
1,
=+
lim
oo,
X
^1+0
we
y)
= 0,
(1-0)^3.
'
have
a:)
1/(1
oo.
Therefore
" ,+0 =
(e)
! t1.(
3+
H^')" 3+, =
Let us choose two sequences, {xn \ and
{a:;},
respectively.
and X
"-2^TT
(n=l,
with the general
terms
Tn
2, ...)
J. 14.
Then lim x n
Continuity
lim x'n
and
(#)
lim cos
limf
(*;)
limcos(2n+ l)f = 0.
lim
77
a Function. Points of Discontinuity
of
2nn
1;
Hence, the function /(*) has no limit to the right at the point 0;
taking into account that f (x) is an even function, we conclude that
it has no limit to the left either (see Fig. 29).
^^^^
ii
-/I
Fig. 29
^1,
Prove that, as x
1.13.2.
'
W"
j
has a limit to the
Find
1.13.3.
the
+2
at
<x<3
equal to 2 and a limit to the right equal to
one-sided
limits
5.
of the following functions as
0:
(b)
i
left
3x
the function
(c)
= ei>*;
sin x
-L.
^(^) = i- r
f{x)
Continuity of a Function.
Points of Discontinuity and Their Classification
Let the function y

f(x) be defined on the set X and let the
be the limit point of this set. The function f (x) is said
point x
to be continuous at the point x if lim f (x)
f (x ). The latter con-
dition
is
Ax -
-/(*.)]
&y(x
equivalent to the condition lim
<>.
)=^ lim [/(x

a*
-*
+ Ax)
Ch.
78
The function
f (x)
continuous
is
point x
the
at
if
()
and only
if
0) = f(x o ).
f{x o
f(x o -0)
The function f (x) is continuous on the set X if it is continuous
at every point of this set.
Points of Discontinuity of the First Kind. Let the point x be the
(]
point of the domain of definition X of the function f(x).

The point x is called a discontinuity of the first kind of the function f (x) if there exist the limits to the right and to the left and
limit
they are finite. If f (x u

then x u is called
0) = / (x -\-0)
f (x ),
a removable discontinuity. Further, if f (x
0), then x u
0)
f (#
is a non-removable discontinuity of the first kind, and the d-ifference
0)
0) is called a jump discontinuity of the function
f(x
/(*
{)
at the point
f (x)
{)
x, r
Points of Discontinuity of the Second Kind. If at least one of

the limits of f (x
0) and f(x
0) is non-existent and infinite,
then point x is called a discontinuity of the second kind of the function f(x).
Using only the definition prove discontinuity

+ 5r + 2jc 2 + 3jc + 4 at any x.
be an arbitrary point on the number
1.14.1.
ction f(x) - 3jc 4

Solution. Let x
find lim f (x):
Urn
f (x)
Urn (3x 4
the fun-
scale. First
+ 5x + 2x + 3x + 4) = 3jcJ + 5* + 24 +
2
Then compute the value

=/ (*)
Comparing the
of
3a
of
4
the function at the point
a'
3.v
+ 4.
+ 5x + 2x1 + 3x + 4.
{)
results thus obtained,
lin f(x )^=f(x

()
we
see that
).
{
Hence, the function f (x) is continuous at the point x by definition.

Since ,v is an arbitrary point on the number scale, we have proved
continuity of the function for all values of x.
1.14.2.
Given the functions:

for
(a)
f(x)
(b) fix)
(c) / (*)
2x 3
oo < x ^
<
for
for
for
x<3,
for
<
3,
^ x < oo;
>
3;
1,
1.14.
Continuity of a Function. Points of Discontinuity
79
Find the points of discontinuity (if any). Determine the jump

discontinuities of the functions at the points of discontinuity of the
first kind.
Solution, (a) The domain of definition of the function is the entire
number scale ( oo, oo). In the open intervals ( 00, 1), (1, 3),
(3, 00) the function is continuous. Therefore discontinuities are possible only at the points x=l, x
3, at which analytic representa-
tion of the function is changed.

Let us find the one-sided limits of the function at the point
lim l(2* a
-0 b
/(1_0)=
x-+
+ 3)--=
lim (6
+0
5*)=1.
x=
The value
of the function at the point

analytic representation, i. e. /(l)
(2
/<l-0)
is
determined by the
1. Since
x=l.
is continuous at the point

Consider the point x
3\
0)=
(6 5x) =
lim
3-0
x->
/(3
+ 3)/5 =
= /(l+0)=/(l),
the function
/(3
1;
/(l+0)=
first
1:
+ 0)==
lim
(x
3)
9;
= 0.
*-* 3 +
We
see that the right-hand
and the left-hand
though
limits,
finite,
each other, therefore the function has a discontinuity of the first kind at the point x = 3.
The |ump of the function at the point of discontinuity is
are not equal
f(3
to
+ 0)-f(3-0)=0-(-9) = 9.
The function is
number scale., except
(c)
>
3/2 and
defined
at the
2x- 3 <
for
and continuous throughout the entire

point
<
#=3/2. Since 2x
3>0
for
3/2,
>
at
at
*<3/2.
3/2,
Hence,
/
+ 0) = / (3/2-0) = -1.
point x = 3/2 the function has
(3/2
Therefore, at the
tinuity of the first kind.
/
(3/2
+ 0) / (3/2 0)
1.14.3. Test
(
(a)
l(x)=\
[
The jump
equal
is
to
=
(
the following functions for

sin x
a
1
furx=-0;
function
the
of
1)
finite
at
2.
continuity:
this
disconpoint
80
Ch.
J.
= sin(l/x);
x sin (\/x)
/(*) =
(b)
/(*)
(C)
4-3*
for
0;
(e)
<
for
=
2a + x
for
/(x) = arctan(l/*); (f)
(d)
=^= 0,
for
0,
(x)
0;
= (** +
/ (x)
Solution, (a) The function

we have
the point x
l)/(*
continuous
is
at
1).
points ,v=^Q.
all
At
/(0)=1;
Hence,
means
at
that
this point
it
is
liin
the function
continuous
for
sin x
liin
1.
is
continuous
values of
all
as
well,
which
x.
Fig. 30
x^0. There
is defined and continuous for all
(cf.
Problem 1.13.1
limits at the point x
the function suffers a disconti(e)). Therefore, at the point x
nuity of the second kind (see Fig. 30).
2a; the equality / (0)
(d) / (0)
0)
4, and / (+0)
/ (0)
f (
will be fulfilled, i. e. the function f (x) will be continuous at the
(b)
3re
The function
no one-sided
point x
(f)
if
we put 2a =
4,
(_i_0) = /( 1+0)=
= 2.
x->
sided limits are finite and
(x 2
lirn
*+l) = 3,
+ both
i.e.
coincide.
But
at
the
point
one1
the
1.14.
Continuity
of
a Function. Points of Discontinuity
81
function is not defined and, therefore, is not continuous. The graph

1
x
with the point
function is the parabola y
x2
( 1, 3)
1)=^3, then it
removed. If we redefine the function putting / (
1
the function has a remowill become continuous. Thus, at x==
vable discontinuity.
of the
the following functions for
continuity:
should be borne in mind that the function
E(x) is defined as the maximum integer n contained in the number x, i. e. as a number satisfying the inequality n^x.
1.14.4. Test
/ (x)
(a)
= E (x).
It
(b)
|
X(x)
is
if
a;
is
if
is
rational,
irrational.
called the Dirichlet function. For instance, X (0)
X (|/""2)
= 0;
*(jx)
h( 1/2) =
1;
1;
etc.
Solution, (a) The function E (x) is defined throughout the entire

scale and takes on only integral values. This function is
discontinuous at every integral value n of the independent va-
number
riable,
n
(
E (n 0) = n
since
+ 0) = n
1;
(see Fig. 31).
9>
Let us choose an arbitrary

point x on the x-axis; two cases
are possible: (1) the number x
is rational;
(2) the number x is
(b)
3
2
i
-3
irrational.
case X(x )=l. In

any vicinity of a rational point
there are irrational points, where
0. Hence, in any vicinity
X(x)
of x there are points x for which
In the
r**>
first
-2
-1
!
i
i
12
'
H- -1
fJ
-z
i-*J
-3
|A*/|HM*o)-M*)Hi-
Fig. 31
0.
X (x )
the second case
In any vicinity of an irrational point there are rational points
at which X(x)=l. Hence, it is possible to find the values of x for
In
which
\Ay\
= \X(x
)-X(x)\
1.
both cases the difference A*/ does not tend to zero as

Therefore, x is a discontinuity. Since x is an arbitraryX(x) is discontinuous at each point.
point, the Dirichlet function
The graph of this function consists of a set of points with irrational abscissas on the x-axis and of a set of points with rational
that is why it is imposline y
1,
abscissas on the straight
Thus,
in
Ax>0.
sible to sketch
it.
Ch.
82
I.
1.14.5. Using the

6", test
the
of "e
(a)
f(x)
(b)
following
= ax + b
(*)
function in terms
continuity:
definition of continuity of a
functions
for
(a^=0);
x2
if
is
x2
jj
rational,
rra tional
8"
Solution, (a) Choose an arbitrary point x
According to the "e
definition it is necessary to show that for any preassigned, arbitrait
is possible to find a number
rily small number
such
x
6 the inequality / (x)
e holds true.
that at a:
f (x )
Consider the absolute value of the difference
.
f(x)
Let
us
fulfilled
e>0
(x
for
\a
that \f(x)
/(* )|< e This
x satisfying the inequality
\x
x <
\
e or
a:
x < e/|a|
(b)
|<8
a:
is
Choose an arbitrary point x
irrational
the inequality
proved
thus
to x
then
numbers tending
lim
{x n \
If
f(x n )
is
= xl.
sequence
If
to x 0y then lim f(x'n )
{a:^}
any
of rational
= x%.
At x =Q
that x 2
<e
value
of
= \tf-0\=.x*.
\f(x)-f{0)\
obvious
discon-
is
is
for
a sequence
is
the indicated limits are different and hence the function

tinuous at all points x=?^0.
On the other hand, let now x 0. Find the absolute
the difference \f(x)
f(0)\:
It
be
will
numbers tending
of
(a^=0).
=x
requirement
Hence, if we take 8ê/|a|, then at \x

/(*o)l< e is fulfilled. Continuity
\f( x )
point x
<
+ b) (ax + b)\ = \ax + b ax b\ = \a\\ xx
(ax
all
require
S>0
<
<j/"e.
|x|
at
If
e>0
is
given, then,
2
putting 6<j/e and \x
0| = |x]< 6, we obtain A/(0) = x < e.
the function is continuous. And so, the
Hence, ?t the point x
is the only point at which the function is continuous. Note
point x =
that the function under consideration can be expressed through the
x 2 [2k (x) 1]
Dirichlet function (see Problem 1.14.4 (b)): / (x)
|
1.14.6.
Determine
which
functions have at the point x

.
(a
(x)
x+2
<
for
x<2
for
x>2;
o
discontinuity
of
the
following
= arc tan ^-5 x = 5;

/(A') = tanx; x = n/2'
(b) / (x)
(d)
kind
x
= 2;
(c)
f (x)
= j^H*
= 0;
Continuity of a Function. Points of Discontinuity
1.14.
83
= Vx E{V
x)\ x -----n\ where n is a natural number.

f(x)
Solution, (a) Find the one-sided limits at the point x Q -=2\
(e)
f(2
0)=
lim (*
X-+ 2
+ 0) = X*lim+
f(2
(x 2
+ 2) = 4;
1) = 3.
Here the limits to the right and to the left exist, are finite but
do not coincide, therefore the function has a discontinuity of the
first kind at the point x = 2.
E {V
The function
(e)
every
point
1.14.4
=n
has discontinuities of the first kind at

is
a natural number (see Problem
x)
where n
whereas the function |/ x is__continuous
(a)),
Therefore the function f(x)

the first kind at the points
= V x E (V x)
1,
4,
9,
n2
has
,
Test the following functions for continuity
(a)
ex
of
'-
X
/ ex
(b) /(*)
xÔ.
...
1.14.7.
f(x)
at all
discontinuities
<
I
for
= 0;
K/MorÔ,
(d)
(f)
/(*)--
for
= 0;
(smxr;
lim
(e)
f(*)
= ii|l
= E(x) + E(-x).
f(x)
1.14.8. For each of
the
following
functions find the points of

of the function at these
and determine the jumps
discontinuity
points:
(a)
/W = F=^T/W = * + r^!|;
(b)
(d)
f(x)=\
_
2
for
.
for
1,
X>L
Redefine the following functions at the point x
1.14.9.
make them continuous:
to
/
(a)
/(*)
tan x
= _;
so as
84
Ch.
(b) f(x)
(c)
f(x)
I.
= 5x2 2x 3 *
= v~n~x
X
sin'2 x
id) f(x)
= cos x
'
Arithmetical Operations on Continuous

Functions. Continuity of a Composite Function
1.15.
If the functions
then the functions
(1)
(x)
and g(x) are continuous
f{x)g(x);
(2)
f(x).g(x)\
at the point x
=x
0f
l^l(g(x )^0)
(3)
are also continuous at this point.

If the function u
(p(x) is continuous at the point x
x and
the function y
tp(x ) then
f(u) is continuous at the point u Q
the composite function y
x
f [<p(x)] is continuous at the point x
1.15.1.
Test the following functions for continuity:

2x b
(a)
f(x)-.
'
x4
+ 4x
3 sin 3
(b) f(x)-
(c)
f(x)
8x
#+
4 cos
=x
+8a; 2
+ll
+ +4
8a:
cos 2 x-\a:
1
#
cos x^r x 2 sin *
cos
/sin x)
Solution, (a) A function representing a ratio of two continuous

functions (polynomials in this case) is discontinuous only at points
for which the denominator becomes zero. But in our case
+ 4x + 8x + 8x + 4 = (x + 2x + 2)
+ 2x + 2 = (x + + >0 at any x, the
3
x*
2
1
and since x 2
1)
never becomes zero. Hence, the function
f (x)
is
denominator
continuous through-
out the entire number scale.

(b) The function f(x) suffers discontinuities only at points for
which the denominator equals zero, i.e. at points which are the
roots of the equation
4cos#
2 =
or
cosa:=1/2,
whence
x
= x n = n/3 + 2nn
Thus, the function

point x n
f (x)
is
(n
= 0,
continuous
+2,
).
everywhere, except at the
Operations on Continuous Functions
1.15.
85
(c) Just as in the preceding example, the numerator is continuous throughout the entire number scale. As far as the denominator
is concerned, according to the theorem on continuity of a composite
function, it is continuous at points where the function u=l/s\nx
since the function cos u is continuous everywhere.
is continuous,
Hence, the denominator is continuous everywhere, except at the
points x
kn (k an integer). Besides, we must exclude the points
which cos(l/sinx)
i.e.
the points at which l/sinx
at
0,
(2p+\)n/2 (pan integer), or sin x 2/[(2p
Thus, the
1) n].
function f (x) is continuous everywhere except at the points x = kn
and x
1.15.2.
arc sin
1)"
^n
+ nn
(& P
= 0
2,
...
).
Test the following composite functions for continuity:
= cosx n
(a)
(b)
y=^ cos log
(c)
=V
1/2
where n
number;
a natural
is
x\
cos
x.
have a composite function y = cosu, where

= cosu is continuous at any point u, and
the function u = x n is continuous at any value of x. Therefore, the
function y = cosx n is continuous throughout the entire number scale.
2
Here y =
(c)
where u = cosx. The function Vl/2 u 2
1/2
Solution,
= xn
We
(a)
The function y
and continuous on the interval

J/ 2/2, ]/~2/2|, the
function u = cosx is continuous throughout the entire number scale.
is
defined
Therefore, the function y

of x for which
= Vl/2 cos
n/4
|cos*|<l/
i.e.
2/2,
5n/4
is
continuous
= -TTT-
(b)
= u\
where
where u
y= j-j-^-^
l
(c)
Solution,
(a)
= 7
x for
{
where w
0,
x+l
fof
X<Q
= tan*.
The function
,
all
values
+ 2nn<^x<^3ji/4 + 2nn,
+ 2 nn^x<^7n/4 + 2nn.
1.15.3. For each of the following functions find

discontinuity and determine their character:
(a)
at
the points of
Ch.
86
I.
x=\. The
suffers a
discontinuity at the point
suffers a
discontinuity at points where u 2
and w 2 =l. Using these values

of x by solving the equations:
whence x =1/2 and x =
of
w,
function
+ u 2 = 0,
i.e.
ul
=2
find the corresponding values
2.
Hence, the composite function is discontinuous at three points:

Xj--=l/2, x 2 =l, x 3 = 2. Let us find out the character of discontinuities at these points.
Jim y
X
therefore x 2
=l
lim y
x
-*
= 0,
lim y
U
-*
cc
removable discontinuity.
is
-y
lim
u
\/2
hence, the points

kind.
-+
= oo;
lim
x
1/2,
#,
=2
are
->
*/
lim y
u
-*
discontinuities
l/(lx). Find
1.15.4. Given the function f(x)
discontinuity of the composite function
y
The point
Solution.
If
of
the second
the
points of
= f{f[f(x)]\.
is
discontinuity of the function
x^=\, then
"
Hence,
^ oo\
the
=f
point
[/(*)]
=
is
-i/'d-v,
a
"T
discontinuity
of
the
function
= /[/(*)]
If
jc=^0,
1,
then
*
= /</[/<*>]Htz^^ = *
continuous everywhere.
Thus, the points of discontinuity of this composite function are
x=l, both of them being removable.
x
is
1.16. Fund. Cont. on Closed Interval: Properties
87
1.16. The Properties of a Function Continuous on a

Closed Interval. Continuity of an Inverse Function
The function
I.
f (x)
on the interval
continuous
[a,
6],
possess-
es the following properties:
bounded on
(1)
f (x)
is
(2)
f (x)
has the
m=
(3) If
b]\
[a,
minimum and maximum values on [a, b]\

max f(x), then for any A satisfymin f (x),
M=
A^.M
ing the inequalities

A.
)
there exists a point x [a, b]
for
which f(x
<
then we can find a point

if
0,
f(a)-f (b)
such that f(c)
0.
II. Continuity of an Inverse Function. If the function y = f(x) is
defined, continuous and strictly monotonic on the interval X, then
there exists a single-valued inverse function x = y(y) defined, continuous and also strictly monotonic in the range of the function
particular,
In
c (a
<c<fr)
y=f(x).
Does the equation
1.16.1.
Solution.
sin* x+
=0
have
a root?
The function
/ (x)
sin x * +
entire number scale. Besides, this function

is continuous over the
changes sign, since /(0)=1, and / (3ji/2) =
3n/2. Hence, by property (3) within the interval [0, 3jt/2] there is at least one root
of the given equation.
Has the equation x b
1.16.2.
interval
1.16.3.
real
18*-}- 2 =
roots
belonging to the
1]?
1,
Prove that any algebraic equation
an odd power with
of
coefficients
a * 2w +
+ a,* +
2
"
+ a 2n x + a 2n =
(*)
, 1
has at Least one real root.

Solution. Consider the function
=a
/ (*)
which
is
x*"
* 1
+ a lX +...+ a
*n
2n x
-f a 2n+v
continuous throughout the number scale.
Let, for determinacy sake, a

11
f(x)=-\-
rn
oo,
>
Then
0.
and Urn f(x)

x
oo
-*
oo.
crj
Hence, we can find numbers a, b a0. By property (3), between a and b there exists a number
y
c such
least
that
one
real
Q,
f(c)
root.
which
proves
that
the
equation
(*)
has at
88
Ch.
I.
1.16.4. Let the function f (x) be continuous on [a, b\ and let

have a finite number of roots on the interthe equation f(x)
val [a, b\. Arrange them in the ascending order:
<
Prove that
<
<
x2
<
x,
<
<
xn
b.
each of the intervals
in
x 2 ), (x 2
xj,
(a,
...
a:,),
(* M
b)
retains the same sign.

the function
Solution. If the function changed its sign on a certain interval,
then we could find one more root of the function, which contradicts
the condition. To determine the sign of the function on any of the
indicated intervals it is sufficient to compute the value of the function at an arbitrary point of the appropriate interval.
Given
1.16.5.
on the interval
a function
/
f(x)
x2
=\
if
(x + 2)
2
if
2,
2 < x <
0<x<C
+2]:
0,
2.
0?
Is there a point on this closed interval at which f(x)
Solution. At the end-points of the interval [
2, +2] the given
function has different signs:
f(_2)
But
the
at
any
f(+2)
= -6.
easy to notice that it does not become zero at any point

2
2
(x
and
2) <0
[2, +2]. Indeed, jk
this is due to the fact that f (x) has a discontinuity at
is
it
of
= +6;
x;
the point x
1.16.6.
+ 2>0
interval
= 0.
Does the function

(x)
take on the
value
2y
= x /4 sin nx + 3
3
within the interval [2, 2]?
is
sin:ru;
continuous
3
The function f(x) = x 3 /4
Solution.
within the interval [2, 2]. Furthermore, at the end-points of this
interval it attains the values
/(-2)=1.; /(2)=5.
Since
[2,
<
2]
1.16.7.
2-^-
<
5,
by
then,
property
(3),
withi-n
the
there exists at least one point x such that f(x)
Show
that the function

(
f(x)=
2x
2
+\ for-l<x<0,
2*
= 0,
for
for
0<*<
1,
interval
= 2-y.
89
1.16. Funct. Cont. on Closed Interval: Properties
defined and bounded on the interval

1, 1], has neither maximum,
nor minimum values.
Solution. In the interval [1, 0) the function increases from 3/2
to 1, it does not attain either
to 2 and in (0, 1] it increases from
the value 2 or 0. Therefore the function is bounded but never reaches
its upper and lower bounds. This is because there is a discontinuity
0.
at the point x
[
Show
1.16.8.
on any interval
that
=x E (x)
unity the function f (x)

never reaches its maximum.
Solution.
any
In
interval
length greater than

value but
of
b]
[a,
attains
minimum
its
where n
\n,
given function f (x) increases from

for any
mum. Hence, 0^f(x)<
interval [a, b] we
x. Since on the
can find at least one internal inthen f(n)
and
tegral point n
but f{x)=\ for any
lim /(*)
!,
to
an integer, the
is
never attaining the maxi-
1,
means
x. It
*i
/ / // /
12
-2-10
that the function reaches
minimum value but never

its
reaches its maximum. This is because there is a discontinuity at the point
32
=n
(see Fig.
32),
2n +
Prove that the function y =

\/ x (n a natural number)
is continuous throughout the number scale, considering it as a function
2n+1
inverse to y = x
Solution. The function y = x 2n+i is continuous and increases from
oo to oo over the entire number scale. Hence, the inverse function
1.16.9.
jt
2/ '
j/ y
is
y continuous and increasing. Denoting

again as x we find that the function
defined for
variable
all
the independent
= 2n+ y/ x
y
possesses the required properties.
Prove that
1.16.10.
-a
2 " +1
any function
for
+ a^
"" 1
+a
x*~ 3
form
of the
+ a x + a n+
n
(*)
an
are positive numbers, there exists
where a a iy a 2
an inverse function increasing and continuous throughout the num,
ber scale.
Solution.
As
is
known, the functions
x,
1
,
b
,
.,
x 2n+l increase
throughout the entire number scale. Then, since the coefficients

2n+1
a (i = 0, 1,
.., A2+1) are positive, the function f (x) =a u x
+
2n ~
-\-a x
+
+ a n x-\- a n+l also increases. Furthermore, it is continuous. Therefore, for a function of the form (*) there exists an
inverse function increasing and continuous over the entire number
.
scale.
Ch.
90
I.
Note. This example establishes only the existence of an inverse

function x
g(y), but gives no analytic expression for it. It is not
always possible to express it in radicals. The problems of the existence of an inverse function and of expressing it analytically should
not be confused.
1.16.11.
= x(y)
Prove
one continuous
exists only
there
that
oo < y <
function
which satisfies the Kepler equation:

e$'mx = y (0<e<l).
x
Solution. Let us show that y(x) is an increasing function. Let
x < x 2 be arbitrary points on the number scale. Then
oo)
y (* 2 )
sin x 2
(*,
sin x
<2
Since
xj e (sin x sin x
difference
slnx^ sin x
-x
sin
Since y
(x)
is
<2
\x 2
).
x |:
x x ).
(x 2
sin x < (x x
x e(s\nx smx )=y(x y(x >
l
1,
(x 2
the
of
cos
sin
<e<
whence
value
absolute
the
e sin x x )
= (x
Estimate
|
= (*, e sin
(*i)
sin
x2
1)
2)
l)
0.
continuous function in the interval ( oo, oo), the

inverse function x is a single-valued and
continuous function of y.
1.16.12.
Show
the equation
that
has one root on the interval [1, 2]. Calculate this root approximately to within
two decimal
at
places.
1.16.13. The function f (x) is defined

on the interval [a, b\ and has values of
the same sign on its end-points. Can one
assert that there is no point on [a, b]
which the function becomes zero?
1.16.14. Prove that the function
f{x)
x+
_x
at
at
<x<0,
0<x<
1
and still has the

is discontinuous at the point x
the minimum value on [ 1, 1] (see Fig. 33).
maximum and
1.17. Additional Problems
91
Prove the inequalities:
1.17.1.
< {^Y^y for a natural n >

2n ~

< y2n~TT
2n
4
6
2
(a)
(U\
(D)
1;
'
'
'
'
'
'
(a)

20 2 303 > 303 202
(b)
200!
1.17.2.
<
100 200
1.17.3. Solve the inequalities:
||*|-2|<1;
(a)
(b)
||
3^| J_|_>
1.17.4. Can
numbers be a
1.17.5.
(a)
Do
sin x\
2;
>x + 2.
(* 2)K* +1
(c)
sum,
difference, product
or
quotient of irrational
number?
rational
the equations
=sin x + 3,
tanx| -=tanx-\-3
(b)
|
have any roots?
Prove
1.17.7.
Prove the Bernoulli inequality
(\
the
identity
...
>
+Xl )(\+x 2
x lt x 2
where
(/
f^4^T + -^4^V = *
1.17.6.
... (\
xn
are
+ x )^\+x
n
numbers
of
2
-
+x, + ...+x nt
like sign, and
l+x,->0
}
1, 2,
1.17.8.
Find the domains
(a)
f(x)=]/"^=7*;
(b)
f(x)=}/ s'mVx;
(c) / (x) =-
(d)
V sin
(e)
(a:)
= arc sin
(| a:
g(x)=-=L=.\
V
x \x\
3);
/(A')=arcco SinL.
1.17.9.
(a) /
^b)
following
nx\
/(x)=- 7 =J== and

1/
(f)
Are the following functions identical?
= and cp(x)=
= log x and (a) = 2 log a;
1;
/ (jc)
<p
functions:
92
Ch.
(c)
f(x)=x and q) (x) = (|/ x) 2

f(x)^l and cp (a:) == sin 2 x-\ 2)
f (*) = lqg(* l) + log(x
;
(d)
(e)
1.17.10. In
what
and
cp(*)
= log (* 1) (* 2).
interval are the following functions identical?

10 lQ g*;
(a)
f(x)=x and
(b)
f(x)=VxVx
cp
cos 2 x\
(x)
1
and
<p(*)
= K* (* 1).
1.17.11. An isosceles triangle of a given perimeter 2/? ^=12 revolves about its base. Write the function V (x), where V is the volume
of the solid of revolution thus obtained and x is the length of the
lateral side of the triangle.
1.17.12. Investigating the

solve the inequality
domain
of
definition of functions,
(a)
K* + 2 + Vx5 > l/"5^;

(b) prove that the inequality
log 2
-,(*-3)>-5
has no solutions.
1.17.13. The function y
that
= s\gnx
was defined
in
Problem
1.5.11 (n).
Show
^^signx;
(a)
(b)
(c)
sign (sign x)
x sign
x\
= sign x.
1.17.14. Prove that
for a
if
linear function
= ax + b
x = x n (n =
/ (x)
the values of the argument

) form an arithmetic
2,
1
progression, then the corresponding values of the function
yn
= f(x)
(/i
l,2, ...)
also form an arithmetic progression.
1.17.15. Prove that the product of two even or two odd functions
an even function, whereas the product of an even and an odd
function is an odd function.
is
Prove that if the domain of definition of the function

symmetrical with respect to x=0 then f(x)
f(x) is an
even function and f (x)
x) is an odd one.
/(
1.17.16.
f(x)
is
1.17.17. Prove
interval
/,
/)
that any function f (x) defined in a symmetrical

can be presented as a sum of an even and an odd
93
function. Rewrite the following functions

an even and an odd function:
/(*)=-l;
(a)
in the
form
of
sum
of
y=a*.
(b)
Extend the function f(x)=^x 2

x defined on the interthe interval [
onto
3,3] in an even and an odd way,
[0,3]
1.17.18.
val
1.17.19.
number
x.
The function
{x\
Prove that
is
it
= x E (x)
is
a fractional part of
periodic function with period 1.
the graph of a periodic function with

defined on the half-open interval (0, 1] by the formula
1.17.20. Sketch
T=
period
y-x 2
1.17.21. Let us have two periodic functions f (x) and y(x) defined
on a common set. Prove that if the periods of these functions are
commensurate, then their sum and product are also periodic functions.
1.17.22. Prove
1.14.4(b))
is
that the Dirichlet function X(x)

periodic one but has no period.
1.17.23. Prove that
if
periodic, then a
is
-=s\nx-{-coscix
a rational
number.
1.17.24. Test the following functions for

(a)
f{x)
= \x\;
(b)
Problem
the function
f (x)
is
(see
monotony:
f(x)=\x\-x.
1.17.25. Prove that the sum of two functions increasing on a

certain open interval is a function monotonically increasing on this
interval. Will the difference of increasing functions be a monotonic
function?
1.17.26.
Give an example
of
non-monotonic function that has
an inverse.
1.17.27. Determine
finition
the
inverse function and
(x
if
2
1.17.28.
real
domain
its
of
de-
if
Show
that
x'
if
2X
if
oo < x <
1,
<x<4,
< x < oo.
the equation x 2
+ 2jc+
roots.
1.17.29. Construct the graph of the function
= f(x-i) + f(x+0,
==
+ Yx
1
has no
Ch.
94
where
fW =
k(\\x\ll)
at
at
\x\
>
/.
1.17.30. Knowing the graph of the function y

graphs of the following functions:
(z)y
= F(x);
(b)
= VW)\
(c)
= f(x),
= f[f{x)].
that the graphs of the functions y

can be derived from each other by changing
1.17.31. Prove
= \og a nx
in the ratio
sketch the
= log
x and
fl
ordinates
all
l/n.
1.17.32. Prove that if the graph of the function y-=f(x) defined

throughout the number scale, is symmetrical about two vertical
axes x = a and x = b (a<fr), then this function is a periodic one.
y
1.17.33. Let the sequence x n converge and the sequence y n diverge.

be said about convergence of the sequences
What can
(a)
xn
+ yn
(b)
xny n ?
1.17.34. Let the sequences x n and y n diverge.

the sequences x n
y tn x n y n diverge too?
Can one
assert that
Let
1.17.35.
4,
...).
that
Write
\ima n
an
an interior angle of a regular n-gon (ai=3,

several terms of the sequence a n Prove
be
the
first
= n.
\imx n
1.17.36. Prove that from
Is
=a
it
follows that
lim
-> oo
|a:
=|a|.
|
-* oo
the converse true?
sequence has an infinite limit, does it mean that this

a sequence is unbounded, does it
if
mean that it has an infinite limit? Prove that x n = n - l)H is an
unbounded but not an infinite function.
1.17.37.
sequence
If
is
unbounded? And
of
1.17.38. Prove that the sequence {a}, where a n

an arbitrarily chosen irrational number, cannot
1.17.39. Prove that

then the sequence
if
the sequence {ajb n } (b n

fli
+ fl2+---+a
the nth digit

be monotonic.
is
>0)
is
monotonic,
will also be monotonic.
1.17.40. Prove the existence of limits of the following sequences
and
(a)
find
V2
them.
j/ 2 [ 2
|/T
95
(b)
xn
= c"lYn\
(c)
xn
= ajn,
Prove
1.17.41.
jû)j>
(c>0, k>0);
where a n
that
the nth digit of the
is
an
at
chosen
arbitrarily
number
x
jt.
the
sequence
bounded.
is
1.17.42.
(*)
+ (2*)
...+E
1-
(nx)
has the limit x/2.

1.17.43. Prove that
lima*=l
h
(a>0).
->
Given the function
1.17.44.
+#
for
for
0,
= 0.
Prove that
/(*)
li:n
x
1.
Let
1.17.45.
Prove that
if
if
0,
if
oo,
lim P(x)
lim
X
->
a /6
> m,
=m
< m.
()/
> x + ax b) =
Q.
oo
1.17.47. Sketch the graphs of the following
f(x)=
(a)
lim
/Z
/(*)=
(b)
Find the constants a and & from the condition:
1.17.46.
(b)
,V
functions:
0);
-v 00
lim
n
sin 2 "*.
-* go
1.17.48. Prove that
lim
-> GO
[(1
+ x) (1 + x) (1
( 1
-!-
a 2 ")]
(|
<
1).
96
Ch.
I.
Can one replace

computing
1.17.49.
infinitesimals in
infinitesimal
a
Determine the order
1.17.50.
summands by
of
smallness
of
the
chord
infinitely small circular arc relative to the sagitta of the
Determine the order

an inscribed and
1.17.51.
equivalent
limit?
perimeters of
of
same
an
arc.
smallness of the difference of the

circumscribed regular n-gons rela-
of
tive to an infinitely small side of the
inscribed n-gon.
1.17.52. The volumetric expansion coefficient of a body is considered to be approximately equal to the triple coefficient of linear
expansion. On equivalence of what infinitesimals is it based?
Does
1.17.53.
relation
the
log(l+A;)~A
hold
true
as
x-^0?
g(x) be necessarily
1.17.54. Will the sum of two functions f(x)
discontinuous at a given point x if:
(a) the function f (x) is continuous and the function g(x) is disx
continuous at x
(b) both functions are discontinuous at x = x ? Give some examples.
1.17.55. Is the product of two functions f(x)g(x) necessarily

discontinuous at a given point x if:
(a) the function f (x) is continuous and the function g(x) is discontinuous at this point;
(b) both functions f (x) and g(x) are discontinuous at x = x ?
Give some examples.
()
1.17.56. Can one assert that the square of a discontinuous funcexample of a funcis also a discontinuous function? Give an
tion discontinuous everywhere whose square is a continuous function.
tion
1.17.57. Determine the points of discontinuity of the following

functions and investigate the character of these points if:
(b)
/ {x)
(c)
y(x)
= 2^
l/ii
' x)
\
= x[l 2X(x)]
Problem 1.14.4
(b)).
1.17.58. Test
the
where X(x)
following
their graphs:
(b)
= x E{x)\
y = x* + E(x>);
(C)
y={-\)^).
(d)
y=
(a)
1
fl
! L
+ (2sin^
is
functions
the Dirichlet function (see
for
continuity and sketch
1.17.59.
nuity
if
Additional Problems
1.17.
Investigate the functions f[g(x)] and g[f(x)] for contisign x and g(x)
x(l
x 2 ).
/ (x)
1.17.60. Prove that the
function
2x
f(x)
+ V,
0<x<l
at
mum
1.17.61.
1<*<0,
at
discontinuous at the point x

and minimum values on [
is
97
and nonetheless has both maxi1].
1,
Given the function
Ascertain that on the interval [

2, 2] the function takes on
intermediate values from /( 2) to f (2) although it is discontinuous (at what point?).
all
1.17.62. Prove that if the function f (x): (1) is defined and monotonic on the interval [a b]\ (2) traverses all intermediate values
between f (a) and f(b), then it is continuous on the interval [a, b],
y
f(x) be continuous on the interval

y
range being the same interval a^yîb. Prove that on
this closed interval
there exists at least one point x such that
f(x)=x. Explain this geometrically.
1.17.63. Let the function
[a,
b],
its
1.17.64. Prove
that if the function f (x) is continuous on the

and x19 x 2
x n are any values from this open
then we can find among them a number such that
interval (a, b)
interval,
f(l)
= j[ U(x + f(x )+...+f(xn

1)
1.17.65. Prove that the equation

tive root
which
is
less
2*=1
has
)].
at least
one posi-
than unity.
1.17.66. Prove that
if a polynomial of an even degree attains at

one value the sign of which is opposite to that of the coefficient at the superior power of x of the polynomial, then the latter
least
has at least two real roots.

1.17.67. Prove
= (l-\-x
4-3148
2
)
sign x
that
is
the
inverse
of
the
continuous function.
discontinuous
function
Chapter
DIFFERENTIATION
OF FUNCTIONS
Definition of the Derivative
2.1.
The
is
function y
derivative f (x) of the

defined by the equality
r/
i-
A* -
&y
A*
t-
Ax -
f(x)
at a given
(x+Ax) f
ax
point x
(x)
then the function f (x) is called differentiable at the point x\ and it is infallibly continuous at this point.
Geometrically, the value of the derivative /' (x) represents the
slope of the line tangent to the graph of the function y = f(x) at
the point x.
If
this limit
is
finite,
The number
r
is
\_
Hm
f(x+Ax)f(x)
called the right -side derivative at the point x
The number
is
called the left-side derivative at the point x.
The necessary and
sufficient condition for the existence of the

derivative /' (x) is the existence of the finite right- and left-side
derivatives, and also of the equality fi (x)
f+ (x).
oo, the function f(x) is said to have an infinite deriIf f(x)
vative at the point x. In this case the line tangent to the graph
of the function y
f(x) at the point x is perpendicular to the
x-axis.
2.1.1.
Find the increment Ay and the ratio
functions:
(a)
(b)
= ]/"x
=x
at
x=
+ x _Q
at
and A* = 0.0001;
x=l
and A*
= 0.2.
for the following
2.1. Definition
Ay =
Solution, (a)
of the Derivative
V x + Ax |/"x
99
=--V0. 0001 -=0.01;
^L =10o
^
= 0.0001
Ax
2.1.2.
of
the derivative, find the derivatives
(a)
= cos ax\
(b)
Ay
Solution, (a)
y = 5x
cosa (x
2x.
+ Ax) cosax =
= 2sin âx + Y Ax^ sin y
-2sin(
Ax j
ax-\--^-
Ax
sin
~ Ax
Ax
Hm
^
^VaxÔ
CL
Ax
sin
Aa:
2 lim
lx
'
A*
In particular,
-*
sm( ax + .
2
a^=l, then
if
*/
y= ]/ x at
y=\/x
y = 3\x\+l
3
(b)
(c)
Solution,
=;
i.e.
there
(c)
tion
At
Ay
hence,
is
no
Ax>0
at* =
the point
at
the point x
- j/(x+
A#=j/573
v
= sinx.
= 0.
j/x
3
.
'Ax
Ax
,'(0)^^ =
00,
finite derivative.
Fig. 34
the increment of the funcwill be: Ay

3 (0+ Ax)
lim
Ax<0
y'
a sin ax.
functions have no finite derivati-
Ax) 3
Ax - +
At
and
A*
Ax -
x=0;
x=l\
at
Ay
(a)
At x--=0we have
the point
= cosx
2.1.3. Show that the following

ves at the indicated points:
(a)
x\
=
g
ax
=3Ax.
Therefore
3.
the increment of the function
Ay
will
be
Ay = 3(0 + Ax) + 1= 3Ax,

1
hence,
A*
Ay
lim
-> -0
aa:
= 3.
Since the one-sided limits are different,

the point x
(see Fig. 34).
4*
there
is
no derivative
at
Ch. II. Differentiation of Functions
100
2.1.4. Investigate the

1.
the point x
1
Solution. At x
function y
=
Ay = \\n(l + Ax)\
l.
= \\nx\
In
differentiability
for
at
+ Ax)|,
ln(l
|
e.
+ A*) at
ln | + Ax)
Ajk>0,
ln(l
(
Ar/=|ln(l+A^)H|^
at
Ax<0.
Therefore
I
+ Ax)
(1
at
Ax
Ax
ln(1
A*
>
at
Ax<0,
Ajc)
0,
whence
lim
^=+1
and
Since the one-sided limits are

\\nx\
the function y
Hence,
^=
lim
1.
there is no derivative.
differentiate at the point
different,
not
is
x=
(see Fig.
motion
= (f 5^ + 2) m
= 5 sec to = 15 sec.
2
from
tt
35).
Find the average velocity of

by the formula
specified
2.1.5.
2.1.6.
the
of
derivative, find the derivatives

the following functions:
Fig- 35
(a)
2.1.7. Investigate
n/2
the points x
2.2.
I.
(n
an
=x
3
\
= \cosx\
(b)
y-^\/x\
for
differentiability at
integer).
Differentiation of Explicit Functions

Basic Rules of Differentiation
(2)
c'=0;
(uv)'
(3)
(cu)'=cu'\
(4)
(uv)'
(1)
the function y
+ nn
of
= u' v'\
= u'u + uv', the product rule;

(5)
^y = ii!E=ffHl(t,^0) the quotient rule.
Here c = const, and u and v are functions of
f
x which have
deri-
vatives at a corresponding point.

y(x) is differentiate at the point x 0t and
(6) If the function u
the function y
f(u) is differentiate at the point a
<p(*o)> ên
2.2. Differentiation
the composite function y

y' (x
x
and
= y'u (u
u'x (x
Functions
of Explicit
101
= f(y(x))
is differentiate at the point *

the function of a function, or chain, rule.
),
Differentiation of Basic Elementary Functions
II.
= nu n ~ u'\ (2) (sin u)' = cos u-u';

(cosu)' = s\nu-u';
(tanw)'=-^-;
(5) (cot u)' = -Xsin u
cos w
(u
(I)
(3)
(4)/
n )'
(6)
(lna)'
(7)
(fl
= -^;
=a
)'
lna-'; 8) (<?")'=<?"';
= cosh w';
= sinh h-w';
"
= (arccos^)';
(arcsin a)' =
(9) (sinh */)'

(10) (cosh a)'
(II)
(12) (arc
2.2.1.
tan^)'=
Find y\
= 5*
a
y=
2/3
(a)
*/
(b)
y
Solution,
,/--
lo
15
-Î = (arc cot w)'.
if:
3*
+2*" 3
5/2
b constants).
(a,
xl
(a)
y'
X *'*= 5.1
3
3 x*'*- 2.3*"
1
"1
=
3
a:
'
2.2.2.
Find
*/',
if:
n cos x
o
o
/u\
(a) v = 3cos* + 2sin x\ (b) v = smx cos x
(c) y = (x + 1) arc tan*; (d) */=:* arcsin*.
= 3 (cos*)' + 2 (sin *)' = 3 sin * + 2 cos*;
Solution, (a)
cos x) (sin x cos x)' (sin x-\- cos
(sin x-\- cos x)' (sin
(b) y'
(sin cos x)
(sin x cos x) (cos x-{- sin
(cos a: sin
(sin #+cos x)
(sin x cos
/
'
si
at
/y
*/
'
a:
a:)
a:
jc)
a:)
a:)
(sin
(d)
y'
2.2.3.
= (*
)'
arc sin
*+ (arc sin *)' * = 3x
Find the derivative
pute the particular value of

of the argument:
(a)
/(*)
1/7 + 16/*
2
a: cos a:) 2
3
a:
arcsin *
+ -^-==
of the given function and then comthe derivative at the indicated value
at
= 8;
102
= (\Vr x) /x at x = 0.01;
at f=n/6.
(c) f(t) = (cos 0/(1 sin
Solution, (a) f (*) = {r" J - 16;r =
Putting * = 8, we obtain
2
(b) f(x)
^7=^.
x
sin
(1
(c) /'(/)
/'(ji/6)
/)
t)
(1
Whence
sin + cos
sin
_
~~
3 1/ x
sin
= 2.
2.2.4. Taking advantage of the differentiation

derivatives of the following functions:
(a)
= 2x + 3x 5;
3
2x 2
+ +
a;
-cos
(g)
(b)
formulas, find the
= V~7+ -^= + 0Ax

x-{-
10
;
V*
(p
ex
= ex (cosx+smx)\
(h)
-j-
sin x
2.2.5. Taking advantage of the rule for differentiation of a composite function find the derivatives of the following functions:
(a)
(d)
(f)
= sin #;
# = lnsin (x +
= In (tan 3*);
3
(b)
(e)
1);
= lntanx;
= arcsin [/l
y = sin |/T/(T=7)
(c)
= 5 C0SX
a;
*/
(g)
*/
Solution, (a) Here the role of the external function is played by

the power function: sin x is raised to the third power. Differentiating
this power function with respect to the intermediate argument
(sin x), we obtain
(sin 3
a:) sin
= 3sin
x\
but the intermediate argument sin a: is a function of an independent

variable x\ therefore we have to multiply the obtained result by
the derivative of sin a: with respect to the independent variable x.
Thus, we obtain
yx =
(sin 3
A:) S in
x (sin x)'x
J^^
x cos
x\
= |2I
= (lntanx) tan ,(tanx); =
x
y' = (5
* In 5 ( sin x) = 5 C0S * sin
(cos x)'x = 5
x
(b) y;
(c)
= 3 sin
C0S
C0S
)cos x
if
.;
a;
In 5;
2.2. Difjerentiadon of Explicit Functions
(d)
= [In sin (x +
3
yx
l)]'sin
= sin
= (arc sin Kl-x
(e)
(JC ,
(J*
(c)
(d)
(e)
1)
[sin (x 3
x2 )
'
( 1
x2
(-2*)=-
);
(xÔ).
iîi^T^j?
of
y = (3 sin x)
)*;
3
;
jc;
+ 2*+l + ln *;
=
sin
3x
#
+ cos(x/5) + tan \f*>\
=
sin(x
5x + 1) + tan (a/x);
#
5
j/2e*
(g)
(h)
*/
= arc cos
= arctan(lnx) + ln(arctan.x:);
;
In 2 arc tan (x/3);
(i)
y=
(j)
+ -\fx + V*(a) y' = 4

+ 3x + 5x
Solution,
( 1
+ 3x+ 5x =
= 4(l+3x + 5x
2
(1
2.2.7.
Find the derivative
)'
2
)
(3+10x:);
1
of the function
2x
= arc sin
1
+ X*
have
+ s 4x _
2
2n(1
l
1
0'
i
k
-i-
2(1
(i+*
2x~y
v
i.
(f)
We
/e
'
2V~T^x*
(b)
y = (\ + 3x + 5x
y= j/sin x + 1/cos
2
Find the derivatives
2.2.6.
(a)
+ 1)], + x *+ l)'x =
C0S
^ + 3x2 = 3 *' C0t + ^
+
([/"TT7) _
-x =
+
1 >
V\ (\
103
2 2
a:
2
)
y-(\-x*)*(\+x
2(1 x 2
|i-* 2 l(i+* 2 r
)
2
)
x-
e.
frb
at
l-TT?
At
|x;|
2.2.8.
(a)
r/
the derivative
is
= sinh5xcosh(x/3);
M<i.
"t|*|>i.
non-existent.
of
104
(b)
(c)
(d)
= coth (tanx) tanh (cot x)\

=
arc cos (tanh x) + sinh (sin 6x);
y
= sinh # + cosh x
*/
(e)
*/
s\nh ax
~ sinh 6a; cosh
6a;
Solution.
= (sinh 5x)' cosh ~ + sinh 5x( cosh
(a)
= 5 cosh 5x cosh y + y sinh 5x sinh y

y'
(c)
= -J= hx)
V tanh
1
+cosh(sin6x)(sin6x)
2
x
1/cosh 2 x
sinh x) /cosh x
+ 6 cos 6x cosh (sin 6x) = c J h + 6 cos 6x cosh (sin 6*).
|^(cosh
2.2.9. Find the derivatives of the following functions:

(a)
4/=-;
lx
x
K~~
(d)
y^(VT^c)
(b)
sin 3
x+
* cos 2
U)
x\
Solution, (a) Apply the method of

Consider, instead of y, the function
z
(u(*)>0);
logarithmic
differentiation.
= ln|y| = Inj/" 10^1 = ln\x\ +\n(x*+ l)-^\n\5-x\.
Taking
into account that (In

Z
But
z'
1.2*.
3(a: 2
+1)
= (In y\Y = y'ly>
u\
)'
15(5
= u'ju we have
24a; +125x
y
\bx(x 2
a:)
-\-
{b
+ 75
x)
14a:
whence
(a:
1)
24x + 125x
Y^=~x
Suppose the functions u
z=\ny = vlnu
also has a derivative in this domain,
z'
14a:
+ 75
15x(x 2 +1)(5-a;)
(x) and v(x) have

given domain of definition. Then the function
(b)
\)
and
= (v In u)' = v' In u + v
derivatives in the
2.2.
Differentiation of Explicit Functions
105
Hence, the function
y = e ln v==e z
domain, and
also has a derivative in the indicated

y'
= ez z' = yz'
Thus,
y'
= u v {v'
Show
2.2.10.
Inu +
the
that
v^^vu"- ^ +u v \nu-v'.
1
function y
= xe~ x ^
xy'=(l x 2
Solution.
y>
the equation
satisfies
y.
= e -x>/2 X e -x*,2 = e -x>/2

2
_X
2).
Xy'= xe -x*/2(l_ x 2),

Hence,
= y(lx
xy'
Show
2.2.11.
xy'=-(\
2.2.12.
(a)
that
the
function
Investigate
the
following
x)y.
= arc sin
(cosx);
/
,
o
Solution, (a) y
,
<
(b)
= ]/~
V 1 cos
).
= xe~ x
Vl x
equation
differentiability:
for
2
.
sin x
V sin
the
satisfies
functions
x)'
= (cos
v
sin*
'
sin x
Hence, y' = at points where sin^>0; y'=\ at points where

sinx<0. At points where sinxÔ, i.e. at the points x^=kn
(k =
1, 2, ...) the function, though continuous, is not difI
ferent iable.
(b)
The domain
definition
of
of
function
this
is
the
interval
1.
{
y'
As
,r
7=êe
X+10
or
l/
(-2x)
1+0
we have
out whether the derivative y' exists

ther
lim
Since
1 Ax
at
x=^0 and *=^
y>+oo.
Let us
= 0,
the point x
1.
i.e.
exists.
x
Ax
Ax->0
at
yAx
1
2
,
then
X=-
as
Ax> + 0,
find
whe-
106
which means that the function under consithough it is contino derivative at the point x =
Thus, yL
(0) =/= y'+ (0),
deration
has
nuous
at this point.
Note. There are cases of failure of existence of /' (x) and even of
and fL (x) at a given point, i.e. when the graph of the function has neither a right-, nor a left-side tangent at the given point.
For instance, the function
f'+{x)
nx >-\
is
xs\n(\/x) at
continuous at the point x =
derivatives, since -ltl-
Ax
x^=0
x
at
0>
but does not have even one-sided
= sin-r
Ax
2.2.13. Find the derivatives of the following functions:
(b)
= s\nh(x/2) + cosh{x/2);
/(*) = ln[cosh*]; (c) f (x) = 2 j/"cosh x
(d)
f(x)=
(a)
(e)
(f)
f(x)
1;
arc sin [tanh x]\
= Kl+sinh 4.r,
ax {zoshbx+smhbx).
=
e
f(x)
2
f (*)
2.2.14.
Applying logarithmic differentiation
find
the derivatives

(a)
^(cos^'-^Jb) y=
(c)
f/(x+2)*
Vx^hx
<
V(x+ 3)"
2.2.15.
COS 2 X
4-
sin 2
'
a:
show that
f(ji/4)-3/'(*/4)
2.2.16.
Show
that the function
*
satisfies
2.2.17.
(b)
+ 2y = e-**.
Find the derivatives of the following functions:

2C
(x > 0);
IncosKarcsin 3~
=
y = ârc tan
2* 2
the differential equation

xy'
(a)
= 3.
j/ cos In 3
x.
2.3.
Formula
Successive Differentiation. Leibniz
107
2.3. Successive Differentiation of Explicit Functions.

Leibniz Formula
If the derivative of the (n

l)th order of a function y
f(x) is
already found, then the derivative of the nth order is determined
by the equality
{n)
(x)
= [y
{n
(x)]
In particular, y" (x)

[y' (*)]', y"' (x)= \y" (x)]\ and so on.
If
u and v are functions differentiate n times, then for their
linear combination c x u-{-c 2 v (c ly c 2 constants) we have the following
formula:
+ c v) (m = c
(c x u
and
+c v
u (n)
(n
product uv the Leibniz formula (or rule)

n(n
X)
u {n '*>xf
nu '- l >v'
u (n) v
for their
(uvy a
>
+ ... +uv = %C
nu
=
n(n ~ " {n ~ k +
= - )!
C =
o
-2-3.
k
(n)
(n
k)
v {k \
=uu,
where
wneie u {0)
v
u {0)
=vu
and
diiu
1)
'
are
fc!(/t
.As
binomial coefficients. Here are the basic formulas:

~
m
(x (n) =m(m\). ..(m
\)x m n
(1)
n+
n
x
(a*Y = a \n a(a>0). In
(In^r =(-1)"-^=^.
= sin(jt + njt/2).
(sinx)
= cos(* + wr/2).
(cos*)
n)
(2)
(3)
particular,
(e
{n)
)
= ex
(n)
(4)
(n>
(5)
Find
the
(a)
y=\nx\
(b)
(e)
(a)
^ = i = x-i; /=(-l)x-;
2.3.1.
the
nth order
derivatives
of
y=
y = s'mx\
3x cos 2 a:;
of
the following
functions:
(4)
= sin xcosx;
--= 1-2-3a:" 4
(c)
y'
=cos a;=
e kx
(c)
sin
(f)
sin (#
if
(a:
we assume that
y
{k)
=sm
given
jt
+ 2ji/2).
for a
= sin 5a: cos 2x;

= In (x + x 2).
*/
+ n/2);
= cos (* + n/2) = sin

In general,
iT'=l-2^- 3
=( l)"" (n 1)
(/2)
*/
(d)
(g)
n=k
(-!)*-! (/I-
1)1
108
then
will turn out that
it
0<* + i>=COS
Whence, by virtue
any natural n
of
y=- sin 5x cos 2x
(d)
U + k^
(k+l)-
:S1I1
mathematical induction we conclude that
=y
[Vin 7x
+ sin
for
3.x:
Therefore
+ n^+ 3" sin ^3x + n^) ]
'
x2
To simplify
function:
2x+
y
\jn sin (7x
2x+l
+a: 2
y'<
(g)
m = J.
'
x2
computations
the
(jc+2)
+ x 2
+ (jc-1)
transform
us
let
:(^_1)-i
(x l)(* + 2)
-1
+2
the
obtained
+ (x + 2)-
1
.
Whence
/=-l(*-l)- -l(* + 2)i/" = l.2(x 1)~ + 1-2(a: + 2)2
^)
= (_i)-i(n 1)!
= l)"" 1)
1
2.3.2.
#
v
= cx
^4^;
(AZ
(*_l)-
+ (* + 2)-] =
{x-\)
(x
+ 2)
find
-f
Solution. Transform
ax
the
be
-\-b
ex-\-
Whence
expression in the following way:
ad
be
ad
[CX
c(cx-\-d)
ad
y'
= (-i) be
y"
= (-l)(-2) b-^C*(CX + d)-\
y'"
c (cx
+ d)~K
+ d)~
= (- 1) (-2) (-3)
<)= =
/
given
(_l)n!*E_^ C "(
C3
(CJC
w + d)-+i) =
4>
2.3. Successive Differentiation. Leibniz Formula
y = x/(x 2
2.3.3.
find
1);
109
(n)
.
Solution. Transform the given expression
Problem
therefore (see
r_j
i_i
U+l" "^ lj
1
2.3.2):
= (\)
{n)
x
x2
n n\
+1
(x-
2.3.4. Using the Leibniz formula, find the derivatives

indicated orders for the following functions:
y=x
(a)
smx\
find # (25)
=
l); find
x
=
e s'm$x\ find y
y
2
e x (x
(b)
(c)
+ ^^(sin #)
(23)
(24)
;
(n)
.
= (sin x-x
(jk )",
the
*/
Solution, (a) y (2b)
of
2b)
2B)
x2
+ 25 (sin
jk)
subsequent summands
the
since
= (sin *)<
(24)
2
(a: )'
equal zero.
Therefore
(25)
*/
=x
+ 25 y) + 50a: sin
(x
sin
(x
+ 24 ~ ) + 600 sin
=
2.3.5.
Compute
2
at
'
.,
the
value of the
the point x
nih
(a:
+ 23 y ) =
600) cos # + 50* sin x.
derivative of the function
= 0.
2* + 5) = 3x +
Solution. By hypothesis we have y(x)(x 2

us differentiate this identity n times using
then
(x) (x
^ we obtain
2x + 5) + ny< ~
(for
2
2.
Let
the Leibniz formula;
2)
= 0,
Putting #
l)
(x)
(2x2)
+ n(n
{)
y<-
(*). 2
= 0.
we have
n)
(0)
2ny
{n
1)
(n
(0y+ n(nl) y
~ 2)
(0)
- 0.
Whence
y<>
We
(0)=ny<-
(0)-^^^~
2
>
(0 ).
have obtained a recurrence relation for determining the nth

at the point x = 0(n^ 2). The values y (0) and y'(0)
are found immediately:
(0) = 2/5;
derivative
Ch.
110
Differential ion
II.
-4x-f
W= -3x
(*-2*+5)'
2
>i
19
successively putting n
derivatives of higher orders
19
n
(0)==
25'
,
;
= 2,
Then,
the
Fuw turns
of
find the values of
4,
3,
with
the
aid
of
the
recurrence
relation.
For example,
y
y
Find
2.3.6.
"'(C)\
"
'
25
56
32
125
5
19
"
25
125
234
625'
derivatives of the second order of the following
the
functions:
(a)
y = xVT+7*;
(b)
= ^M^;
(c)
y=e~*.
Given the function
2.3.7.
Show
that
= cfi 2x + c xe2x + ex
2
this function satisfies the equation

y"
\y' + \y=ex
2.3.8. Using the Leibniz formula give the derivatives of the

dicated orders for the following functions:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
y=x*s'mx;
x
y = e~ smx;
(n)
;
(2n)
.
a linear combination of simpler

the derivatives of the 100th order of the functions:
find
Show
l+#
/u\
that the function
y
c2
Using the expansion into
find
a:;
2.3.10.
(c l9
find y
2.3.9.
*/
find y"'\
functions
(20)
find
= ex (3x 4);
y= (1 x cos
y
in-
= x n [c
n constants)
cos (In x)
satisfies
x 2 y"
+c
sin (In
the equation
+ - 2n) xy' + +
2.3.11. Prove that

[/
( 1
if
/(a:)
(ax
a-)]
ai
= 0.
has a derivative of the nth order, then
+ b)]
(ni
= a'f n
>
(ax
+ b).
and Parametrically Represented Functions
Implicit
Inverse,
2.4.
2.4. Differentiation of Inverse, Implicit

cally Represented Functions
1.
The Derivative
function y
function x
111
and Parametri-
an
Inverse Function. If a differentiable

has a single- valued continuous inverse
and y'x =0 then there exists also
= f(x)
= g(y)
of
<x<b
Xy
yx
For the derivative of the second order we have

yxx
Y"
2.
The Derivative
function
to
= y(x)
differentiate
with
it
find y"xx
To
respect to
3.
an
Function.
equation F (x, y)
Implicit
respect
If
a differentiable
= 0>
x, considering
to
and solve the obtained equation j^F(x
of x,
to y'x
of
satisfies the
y)
then we have
y as a function
with respect
the equation should be twice differentiated with
and so on.
The Derivative
Function Represented
of a
Parametrically.
If
the system of equations
* = <P(0.
where
and
<p(t)
= *(O. <*<'<P,
if (t)
continuous
single-valued
y
and
exists a derivative
as
defines
The derivatives
q't (t)
of higher orders are
computed successively:
= -^, y = ^>
{
y'
xx
functions and q/(/)=^=0,

then there
function of
differentiable
are
and so on.
Xf
xt
In particular, for the second derivative the following

true:
-
x't
yttx'tt
y't
(xt)*
2.4.1.
(a)
(b)
(c)
For the function
y = 2x' + 3x + x;
b
y = 3x (cos#)/2;
y= x + e x
Solution,
(a)
We
have
find x'y
find x"yy
find
xyy
x = Sx +
2
y'
yx
15x 4
hence,
1,
6x 2
+15x 4 +l
formula
is
112
+ e*.
#i=l
(c)
= ex
y"xx
hence,
ex
Using the rule for differentiation of an inverse function,

yx for the following functions:
2
(a) y=i/x\ (b) # = arc sin/*; (c) y = In Vl + x
s
Solution, (a) The inverse function x = y
has the derivative
xy = 3y 2 Hence,
2.4.2.
find the derivative
At x
(c)
xy =
f
>
For each
2.4.3.
(c)
(d)
has the derivative
Ve~iy~i
=^
of the following functions represented
rically find the derivative of the
(b)
a:=[/^
the inverse function
y/Ve yl. Hence,
yx =
(a)
paramet-
order of y with respect to
first
x:
y = a(l cos/);
y = kcost+coskt;
= tan/ + cot
=
e~
y
sin/),
x = a(t
sin&/,
x = ks'mt
Jt = 21ncot/,
x = ec\
*/
/;
ct
Solution, (a) Find the derivatives of x and y with respect to the
parameter
/:
x't
= a (I cos
y\
/);
= a sin
/.
Whence
a sin
dy
~
=
cos 7r = cot 172
a
dx
/
(1
2 cosec
4
~ cot!
sin~27
dy
cosec =
-f = sec
2
9
2
(a)
9
2
d#
4 cos 2/ sin 2/
dx
4 sin 2 2t
(c)
Find
for
cos 2t
.
/,
20
sin 2 2/
,
kn
2
are defined parametrically:
= acos
y = bsm*t\
x = a (cos + sin
y = a(s\n /cos/);
t
4-
The functions
(x
ctf
2.4.4.
2fcri).
(/
=7^
7
v
7
/),
(b)
jx=
fx=/ + 3/+l,
t* 3t + U
\y = t*-3t
=
cos/,
e*
fx
=
^sin
I
/
l;
(d)
/.
t/
them the second derivative
of
y with respect
to x.
Implicit and Parametrically Represented Functions
Inverse,
2.4.
Solution,
First find y'x
(a)
= 3b sin
3b sin
^= 2
y'
cos
cos
3acos^sin/
Then we
x\
t\
113
3a cos
= -a
b
ta "^
shall find y"^ using the
sin
/rt
t;
=*<2*+
('
ji
1)
T ).
formula
=^
xt
where
= ~acos
t'
Whence
b
(d)
f
=
=e
^*
cos
sin
cos
cos
sin
2.4.5.
Find
cos
<
3a 2 cos 4
/)
t);
/);
sin
/
#
cos
\cs
e*
x\
3a cos sin
e (cos sin
= e' (cos + sin
1 (
e 1 sin
+ sin
/
a cos 2
(cos
+ sin
sin
/
A'
///
sin
2
e t (cos
/)
'
s in /) 3
y'
xxx :
(a)
(b)
= sec/;
#=tan/.
Solution, (a) First find
=
whence
yx
Then
find the
y't
second derivative
6
3g2 ' [2(/ 2
x*
2
6g3f (/2
+ 3/ +
Find the derivative yx of the following implicit functions:

e-""=c;
y* = 0;
(b) ln*
tfy
2.4.6.
jk
+ 2Q + 2/ + 2] =
e~
xt
(d)
derivative
find the third
(c)
finally,
(a)
= Wle- = 3eH\
xt
And
= 3t
+
+ +
+ # 4x 10*/ + 4-0;
+ tf
2
'
Solution,
(a)
a function of x;
Differentiate
we
with
respect
to
get:
3x 2
+ 2xy + x*y' +2yy = 0.

f
considering y as
114
Solving this equation with respect to

3x
2.4.7.
Find yxx
y
tan y
arc
(c)
x+y = e*~y.
y'
(b) e
0;
=y x\
ey
respect to x
Solution, (a) Differentiate with

function of x and determine y'\
_X__^ + =0
find
+ 2xy
if:
+x =
(a)
whence
considering y as a
= - = y-> +
X
y'
1.
Differentiate once again with respect to x:
we
Substituting the value of y' thus found,
2(l+y2
yXX
a;
the point
2x + + */ 5-0
2
x=l
Solution. Differentiating with respect to x
3*
Putting x
we
Axy Ax yy' + 5 + y' =

2
and
3
if
and y\ x=x
5.x:
*/
yb
of y" at
Find the value
2.4.8.
finally get
1.
find
that
0.
obtain the value of
_4_4^ + 5 + ^_0;
at
x=\:
= 4/3.
^'
Differentiate once again with respect to x:
6x
4y 8xyy' 8xyy' \x
2
x=l; y^=l and
Putting
a
6
Find
2.4.9.
(c)
e*sin#
(d) ey
= 4/3,
64
4 y64 T
y'
0.
3^/
n
=0,
1:
Q 22
- 827.
for the following implicit functions:
+ xyê;
\x yy" + y" =
find the value y" at #=-.
+ V xy + y = a;
(a)
t/'
2 y' 2
cos *
find
(b) arc
tan (y/x)
= In V + y
2
2
\
= 0;
at the point (0,
1).
2.4.10. Find y xx of the following implicit functions:

arc tan*/;
(a) y
=x +
(b)
x2
+ 5xy + y
2x + y 6 =
0;
find
at the point (1,
1).
115
2.5.
2.4.11. For each of the following functions

the indicated derivatives:
represented
parame-
trically find
(i
(a)
sin
'
(d)
= ln(l + f),
X = + 2,
X = e-*\
(e)
(b)
(0 X
(g)
= 4tan
(//2),
2{xy'-y).
2.5.
1);
t;
yxx
find y'x \
find y'x ;
find y'x
find y"xx
that the function y

f(x), defined by the parametric
y e cost, satisfies the relation y"(x
yf
s'mt
The equation
tangent
of a line
= y(x)
function y
yy
=y'
the
to
M(x 0i
at a point
form
find
Show
/3-t;
= arc sin t,
=e
find y'x
t;
y = a sin t + b cos
y = arc cos 2t;
= arc sin (t* 1),
2.4.12.
y=- arc tan (2/+
equations x
find y'x ;
arc tan
t
t
-f b cos
y=
/*
(c)
COS
=
y=
+6 cos
),
W (*
curve of a differentiate
where y
=y(x
)>
has the
*<>)
straight line passing through
larly to the tangent
equation
point
of
the
line
is
normal
at
the point of contact perpendicucalled the normal to the curve. The

the
will be
1
yyo = 77
y' (*o)
y' (x
(x
),
)>o.
segments AT, AN are

subtangent and the
subnormal, respectively; and the
and
are the
lengths
so-called segment of the tangent
and the segment of the normal,
The
the
called
MN
MT
X
o
Fig. 36
respectively (see Fig. 36). The lengths of the four indicated

by the following formulas:
segments
are expressed
AT =
_y_
y'
MT =
AN:
MN = \y\V\ + {y')
2.5.1.
(a)
Write the equations

3a;
curve y=^x s
to the
of
+2
the
at
2
.
tangent line and the normal:

the point (2,
4);
116
x + 5
y=x* + 3x 16
(b) to the parabola
curve
with the parabola y
(c)
the
to
= 2x
= 3x
= 0.5;
at
the
at
points of intersection
2
.
Solution, (a) Find the derivative at the point x

y'
The equation
of the
= 3x -3
2
tangent line has the following form:
04= 9{x2)
The equation
of
the normal
9x y 14 = 0.
or
of the form:
is
y 4 = y {x 2)
(c)
= 9.
*/'(2)
= 2:
or
+ 9y 38-0.
Solving the system of equations
= x* + 3jk
y = 3x
y
16,
we
shall
intersection of the curves
find the points of
xt
Now we
find
y'
the
= 2,
x2
= 2,
derivatives
= 4a: + 6x,
3
y'
at
(2)
yx
=y =
12.
=2
y' (2) = 44.
the points x
= 44,
and x
= 2:
Therefore, the equations of the tangent lines have the form
y 12= 44(* + 2), y\2

The equations
of the
tangent
2).
normals have the form
y-\2 = (x + 2),
2.5.2.
-44(^
y -\2
= -(x-2).
Find the points on the curve y

line:
= x'
3x + 5
at
which the
to the straight line y

2x;
perpendicular to the straight line y
#/9;
(c) forms an angle of 45 with the positive direction of the x-axis.
Solution. To find the required points we take into consideration
that at the point of tangency the slope of the tangent is equal to
3x 2
3 computed at this point,
the derivative y'
(a) By the condition of parallelism
(a)
is
(b)
is
parallel
3x 2
whence x t
= l/j/3,
3 =
2,
x 2 =l/\/~3. The required points
^(-1/^3,5 + 8^3/9),
M,
(1/1/3,
are:
5-8^3/9).
(b)
By
the condition of perpendicularity

3a:
whence
2.5.3.
117
2.5.
^ = 2,
x2
= 2.
3-9,
The required
points:
M 2,
x
Find the angles at which the following
lines
(2, 7).
intersect:
= 4x
= cosx.
= 4x
and the parabola y

the straight line y
s\nx and the cosine curve y
(b) the sinusoid y
(a)
3),
/2\
Solution, (a) Recall that the angle between two curves at the point
is defined as the angle formed by the lines tangent to these curves and drawn at this point. Find the points of
intersection of the curves by solving the system of equations
of their intersection
y=4 x,
y = 4x /2.
2
Whence
AMO,
Determine then the slopes
and
2
l
the points
Af 2
4);
(2,
2).
of the lines tangent to the parabola at
0'(O)=O
y'{2)=-2.
The slope of a straight line is constant

case it equals
1. Finally, determine
the angle between the two straight
for all
its
points;
in
our
lines:
tanq^
^ = 45;
tan
+ 2 ~~
= 1+2
1;
1
q) 2
<P 2
arc tan
1
,
18.5.
that
the segment of
the hyperbola y
c/x
which is contained between the coordinate axes is bisected at the
point of tangency.
have y'
c/x 2 hence, the value of the subtangent
Solution.
for the tangent at the point
(x
y ) will be
2.5.4.
Prove
the tangent
to
We
y_
y'
Ox = x T (Fig. 37), which completes the proof.

Whence follows a simple method of constructing a tangent to the
Then MT will
hyperbola y = c/x: lay off the ^-intercept OT = 2x
i.e.
be the desired tangent.
118
2.5.5. Prove that the ordinate of the catenary y

acosh (x/a) is
the geometric mean of the length of the normal and the quantity a.
Solution. Compute the length of the normal. Since
y'
= sinh (x/a),
the length of the normal will be
MN = \y\ V l+(y') = y V 1+sinh

whence y =a-MN, and y Y a- MN
%
2.5.6.
(x/a)
/a
',
Find the slope
= y cosh (x/a) == y
tangent to the curve
of the
= + 3t 8,
y = 2t 2t 5
2
the point
(2, 1).
Solution. First determine the value of t corresponding to the given values of x and y. This value must simultaneously satisfy the
at
two equations
t*
2t
+ 3t8 = 2
2t 5-
1.
5 the roots of the

The roots of the first equation are t 1 2; t 2
1.
Hence, to the given point there
second equation t t = 2; t 2
2.
Now determine the value of the dericorresponds the value t
vative at the point M:
And
so,
'
'*
=2
==
==
(27
(il)/=2
the slope of the tangent at
+ 3)^2
the
= T'
point
(2,
1)
is
equal
to 6/7.
2.5.7. Prove that the tangent to the lemniscate p

aKcos26at
ji/6 is parallel to the x-axis.
the point corresponding to the value O
Solution. Write in the parametric form the equation of the lem-
niscate:
= p cos = a j/"cos 26 cos 0,

y = p sin = a Yôs 20 sin 0.
x
Whence
xq
{)
,r
a cos 6 sin 20
r
ay
^cos26
a sin 6 sin 26
Xu(n/6)
cos 26
7^
n
cos 20 sin 0,
.
^ cos 0,n
+ a V cos 20
= -aY2,
-./
0e(jx/6)-O.
2.5.
k-=Q
Thus, the slope
(Ji/b)
= 0.
119
Consequently, the line tangent to
*e (n/6)
lemniscate
the
= a/V
is
with
point
the
at
= ji/6
and p
4a;
(b)
parallel to the x-axis.
and
2.5.8. Find the equations of the tangent

following curves:
(a)
= aV cos 20 =
the normal to the
3xy + Sx 5xy 8y + 9x+ 14=0 at

+ y 2xy = at the point
the point (2,
3);
1).
(1,
Solution, (a) Differentiate the implicit function:

1
5y 5xy 6yy' + 9 =
the point M
the coordinates
48 27 + 36#' 24 5 + 0y'
+9=
2x 2
Substitute
3y 6xyy' +
2
2x
'
of
3):
48*/'
2,
0.
0;
whence
'
Thus the equation
of
= -9/2.
the tangent
line
is
-3=-y(* + 2)
and the equation
of
the normal
y-3-=-(x + 2).
2.5.9.
curve #
Through the point

draw tangents
= Jt\
(2,
which does not belong
0),
to the
to the
latter.
Solution. Let (x Qy x* ) be the point of tangency; then the equation

tangent will be of the form:
of the
y4=y' (x {xx
)
yxi = 4x (xx
By
(2,
).
the desired tangent line passes through the point

hence, the coordinates of this point satisfy the equation of
hypothesis
0),
the tangent line:
%t 4xq (2
= 0;
)\
3x1
= 0,
x
8/3. Thus, there are two points of tangency:
7W 2 (8/3, 4096/81).
Accordingly, the equations of the tangent lines will be
whence x
AM0,
0),
4096
2048
8 \
120
2.5.10. f (x)
3x b
I5x 3
5x7. Find out at which of the points x
the rate of change of the function is minimal.
Solution. The rate of change of a function at a certain point is
equal to the derivative of the function at this point
/'(*)=
15a:
45a: + 5 = 15 [(x 1/2) + 1/12].

2
The minimum value of f (x)

minimum rate of change of
x
l/j/*2. Hence the

is attained at x
the function f (x) is at the point
/y 2 and equals 5/4.
point is in motion along a cubic parabola I2y=x 3

coordinates changes faster?
Solution. Differentiating both members of the given equation with
respect to t we get the relation between the rates of change of the
coordinates:
2.5.11.
Which
of
its
\2y't
= 3x
-x't
or
yt
_x
2 < x < 2 the ratio y\\x\ is less than unity, i.e. the rate
change of the ordinate is less than that of the abscissa;
(2) at x = 2 the ratio y\\x\ is equal to unity, i.e. at these
points the rates of change of the coordinates are equal;
(3) at jc<-t-2 or x > 2 the ratio y\\x\ is greater than unity, i.e.
the rate of change of the ordinate exceeds that of the abscissa.
(1) at
of
2.5.12. A body of mass 6g is in rectilinear motion according to

3
1
l)
ln(/+ l) (t
(s is in centimetres and /, in
the law s
seconds). Find the kinetic energy (mv 2 /2) of the body one second
after it begins to move.
Solution. The velocity of motion is equal to the time derivative
of the distance:
= +
+ +
(0
= s;= r pr + 3 ('+
a
)
Therefore
*<l)
= 12l
and
^ = |(l2i-)
-=4684(erg).
2.5.13. The velocity of rectilinear motion of a body is proportional to the square root of the distance covered (s), (as, for example,
in free fall of a body). Prove that the body moves under the action
of a constant force.
Solution. By hypothesis we have
= s'i=ay s
(a
= const);
2.5.
Applications
the Derivative
of
121
whence
s"ti
=v'
=a jy=- s = a
12.
But according to Newton's law the force
F = ks
tt
(k
= const).
/2
= const.
Hence,
F^ka
A
pulled to the bank by means of a rope which

at a rate of 3 m/min. Determine the speed
of the raft at the moment when it is 25
distant from the bank
if the drum is situated on the bank 4
above water level.
Solution. Let s denote the length of the rope between the drum
and the raft and x the distance from the raft to the bank. By
hypothesis
2
2
42
s
2.5.14.
is
raft
wound on
is
drum,
=x +
with respect to
Differentiating this relation

ship between their speeds:
find the relation-
/,
= 2xX{,
2ss/
whence
x
t-T
St '
Taking into consideration that

s;
= 3;
x = 25;
^;==
^25
= /25 + 4 25.3,
2
we obtain
2.5.15. (a) Find
y=x*
at the point
the
+4a
25
.3 3.03
(m/min).
slope of the tangent
to the cubic
parabola
= ]/~3/3.
y=
of the tangents to the curve

x2 )
1/(1
intersection with the hyperbola y=l/(x+l).
(c) Write the equation of the normal to the parabola y
#2 -f-4x-f 1
perpendicular to the line joining the origin of coordinates with the
vertex of the parabola.
(b)
Write the equations
at the points of its
(d)
At what angle does the curve y
2.5.16.
The velocity
of a
body
ned by the formula v = 3t-\-t 2

have 4 seconds after the start?
= ex
intersect
in rectilinear
What
the y-ax\s?
motion
acceleration
will
is
determithe body
2.5.17. The law of rectilinear motion of a body with a mass of

2/ 2
100 kg is s
3/+ 1. Determine the kinetic energy (mv 2 [2) of
the body 5 seconds after the start.
122
2.5.18.
then
its
Show
that
acceleration
the law of motion of a body is s

ae
be
numerically equal to the distance covered.
if
is
2.5.19. A body is thrown vertically with an initial velocity of

a m/sec. What altitude will it reach in t seconds? Find the velocity
of the body. In how many seconds and at what distance from the
ground will the body reach the highest point?
2.5.20.
orbits.
Artificial
move round
the Earth in elliptical

from the centre of the Earth
can be approximately expressed by the fo-
satellites
The distance
r of a satellite
as a function of time
llowing equation:
r
where
=a
M = ^-(t
e cos M y (cos 2M
1)
n)
= time parameter
a = semi-major axis of the orbit
e = eccentricity of the orbit
P = period of orbiting
/ = time of passing the perigee
t
ty the satellite.
Here a, 8, P and / are constants.

Find the rate of change in the distance r from the satellite to the
centre of the Earth (i.e. find the so-called radial velocity of the
satellite).
2.6. The Differential of a Function.

Application to Approximate Computations
If
the increment
Ay
=f
Ay
the function y
of
(x + Ax)
f (x)
= f(x)
can be expressed
= A(x) Ax + a (x,
as:
Ax) Ax,
where
lim
Ax
->
(x,
Ax)
= 0,
such a function is called differentiable at the point x. The

principal linear part of this increment A(x)Ax is called the diffeAx.
rential and is denoted df (x) or dy. By definition, dx
For the differential of the function y
f(x) to exist it is neceA(x).
ssary and sufficient that there exist a finite derivative y'
The differential of a function can be written in the following way:
then
dy
1
llite
The perigee
= y' dx = f
of the satellite
to the centre of the Earth.
orbit
is
{x)dx.
the shortest
distance
from the sate-
Differential of a Function
2.6.
For a composite function

retained in the form
dy
= f(u)
= y(x)
123
the
differential
is
= f (u) da
the form of the differential).

to infinitesimals of a higher order than Ax
takes place. Only for a linear
formula
(the invariance of
With an accuracy up
the
approximate
Ay^dy
= ax b do we have Ay=dy.
function y
orders of the function y

sively determined in the following way:
Differentials of higher
d 2 y=d(dy); d 3 y=d(d 2 y)
If
= f(x)
d
But
and x
is
y = y" {dx)
2
\
an independent variable, then

d3y
where u
if
are succes-
= d(d"~^y).
dny
= f(x)
= y" (dx)\
(x),
cp
.
.
then d 2 y
dny
= y< {dx)\
= f" (u) du
2
-\-f (u) d u, and
so on.
2.6.1.
Find the differential

y = In
Calculate dy at x-=
+e
( 1
i+,io*
and
the function
+ arc tan e bx
10x
)
d^^0.2.
(i-fgiox)^
Substituting *
0;
of
e *xy
_ 5g 5x (2g5-y
1+gio*
-I
l+gio*J
d.x:
= 0.2,
we
1)
get
dtf|x=0; djc=0.2
2.6.2.
= y0.2=0.5.
Find the increment and the differential
at the point
x=
at
of the function
y = 3x* + x\
Ax = 0.1.
Find the absolute and relative errors allowed when replacing the
increment of the function with its differential.
Solution.
Ay =
[3 (x
+ Ax) + (x + Ax)
3
1 ]
(3a:
+ x =
Ax + 9x Ax + 3 Ax + Ax,
1 )
= 9x
dy = (9x +
2
I)
Ax.
Whence
Aydy = 9* A* + 3Ax
2
At
a:
and Ax
= 0.1
we
3
.
get
Aydy = 0.09 + 0.003 - 0.093,

dy=l; Ay
= 1.093.
124
The absolute
error
|
093
Ay
dy = 0.093, the relative error
&y
0.085 or 8.5%.
1.093'
2.6.3. Calculate
approximately the increment
y
x changes from 5
as
kydy
=x
of
the function
7x + 8
2
to 5.01.
2.6.4. Using the concept of the differential, find the approximate

value of the function
= y(x+Ax) y(x)
y(x + Ax) = y(x) + Ay,
Ay
Solution. Notice that from
putting
or,
Ay
dy,
we
get
y(x+Ax)^y(x) + dy.
In our problem
us put x
let
y'(0)=
i,
d^
=
\2
and A# = 0.15. Then
x)
(2
+ x)
'
= -g-.0.15 = 0.03.
Hence,
The
(0. 15)
y (0) + dy = 0.03 - 0.97.

1
true value of y (0.15)
2.6.5.
= 0.9702
(accurate to
Find the approximate value
10" 4 ).
of:
cos31;
(b) log 10.21;
(c) j/33;
(d) cot4510'.
Solution, (a) In solving this problem we shall use the formula (*)
jt/6,
rc/180, we compute:
of the preceding problem. Putting x
(a)
/x
^(^)
y
cos 3 1
(c)
Put
a;
x)
= cos
= 32; A#=l.
V3
= cos-g-n = -g-;
= _ S in-g=
1 iL = 0.85
+ ^)
By formula
^33^3l + (t/ x); =3 2-l=2 +
(*)
we
get
^= = 2H-l =
2.0125.
Differential of a Function
2.6.
2.6.6. All faces of a copper
125
cube with 5-cm sides were uniformly
the weight of the cube was reduced by

0.96 g. Knowing the specific weight of copper (8) find the reduction
in the cube size, i.e. the amount by which its side was reduced.
Solution. The volume of the cube u==x 3 where x is the length
of the side. The volume is equal to the weight divided by the den0.12 (cm 3 ).
0.96/8
sity: v
p/d\ the change in cube's volume Av
Since Av approximately equals dv and taking into consideration that
down. As
ground
a result
tiv
= 3x
dx we shall have 0.12
Ax
= 3x5
= ^L=
x Ax, whence
0.0016 cm.
Thus, the side of the cube was reduced by 0.0016 cm.

2.6.7.
Find the expressions for determining the absolute errors in

functions through the absolute errors in their argu-
the following
ments:
(a)
(c)
(e)
(f)
= lnx;
= s'mx (0 < < ji/2);
= log(sin#) (0 < x < ji/2);
= log(tanx) (0<x<ji/2).
(b)
= logx;
= tan*
(d)
jk
(0
<x<
ji/2);
Solution. If the function f (x) is differentiate at a point x and

the absolute error of the argument A* is sufficiently small, then
the absolute error in the function y can be expressed by the number
=
(a)
Ay
= \(\nx)'
logarithm
(b)
(e)
is
AX =
i.e.
A*.
I
absolute
the
error
of
a natural
= {\ogx)' A X = A X where M = log e = 0.43429;

A y = [log (sin x)]' A X = M \cotx\ A x
Ay
A^lllogaan^ÂîÂ,.
From
is
y'x
equal to the relative error in its argument.
(f)
(e)
and
(f)
it
follows that the absolute error in log tan x

(for the same x and A x ).
always more than that in log sin x

2.6.8.
Find the differentials dy and d 2 y
of the function
7a:
3,
y = 4x
assuming that:
(1) a: is an independent variable;
(2) x is a function of another independent variable.
Solution. By virtue of the invariance of its form the differential
of the first order dy is written identically in both cases:
b
dy
= y' dx = (20x
4x) dx.
Ch.
126
Differentiation of Functions
II.
But in the first case dx is understood as the increment of the

independent variable Ax (dx = Ax), and in the second, as the differential of x as of a function (dx may not be equal to Ax).
Since differentials of higher orders do not possess the property
2
of invariance, to find d y we have to consider the following two
cases.
Let x be an independent variable;
(1)
d y
y"
dx
= (8(k
then
14) dx
2
.
Let x be a function of some other variable. In this case
(2)
d*y
Find
2.6.9.
= (8(k
14) dx + (2(k 14*) d

2
differentials
x.
higher orders (x an independent va-
of
riable):
= 4"* find d y\
find
y = V~\n x 4;
=
sm
find
x\
d
y.
y
2
(a)
*/
(b)
(c)
2.6.10. y
(b)
2.6.11.
4
yjir
d 2 y\
3
.
= \nj^
function
x
tant.
is
d2 y
find
of
if:
another
(a)
is
an independent variable,
variable.
Consider
the particular
when
case
The
Find
volume
the
of
increment
and
sphere
of
differential
radius
of
the
is
equal
to
volume and
explain their geometrical meaning.
gt 2 /2.
2.6.12. The law of the free fall of a material point is s
of
a
moment
the distance at
t
Find the increment and differential
and elucidate their mechanical meaning.
2.7.
Additional Problems
Given the functions: (a) f(x)

\x\ and (b)
derivatives of these functions exist at the point ^
2.7.1.
Do
cp (a;)
x3
[.
= 0?
that the curve y = e\*\ cannot have a tangent line

x = 0. What is the angle between the one-sided tangents to this curve at the indicated point?
2.7.2.
at the
2.7.3.
Show
point
Show
that the function

f(x)
where q(x)
is
tive at the
point
/; (a).
= \xa\y(x),
a continuous function and (p(a)=^=0, has no derivax

a. Find the one-sided derivatives /1(a) and
Additional Problems
2.7.
Given the function
2.7.4.
x2 s\n(l/x)
at
x^=0,
at
Use
127
to show that the derivative

not always a continuous function.
example
this
function
= 0.
is
of
continuous
is
continuous
Let
2.7.5.
-^
\ ax
>
+b
if
a:
^x
if
a:
>
a*
Find the coefficients a and b at which the function

and has a derivative at the point x
.
By
2.7.6.
differentiating the formula cos
deduce the formula sin
From
2.7.7.
(b)
3a:
x sin x
sin
sum
of the
= cos
3 cos x sin
3
a:.
geometric progression
the following sums:
for
+nx n ~
+ 2x + 3x +
+n xn -\
+ 2 x+3 x +
2
\
\
the formula for the
deduce the formulas

(a)
= 3 cos
3a:
2.7.8.
Prove the identity
cosx + cos3*+
and deduce from
sin
2.7.9.
'
Find
+cos(2tt 1)a:=
y'
#-/(sin 2
(c)
{x)
*)
the formula for the
x + 3 sin 3x +
(a)
= logcp
it
(2n
(b)
s'
n2nx
2 sin x
x^-kn
^
sum
1)
sin (2n
l)x.
if:
+ /(cos
(x)
(x)
(cp
x);
> 0;
= f(e*)e';
(x) > 0).
=
2.7.10. Is it reasonable to assert that the product F (x)

f (x) g(x)
has no derivative at the point a:
a:
if:
(a) the function f (x) has a derivative at the point x 0l and the
function <p(x) has no derivative at this point?
(b) neither function has a derivative at the point x ?
Consider the examples: (1) f(x)=x, g(x)
\x\;
(2) /(x)
= |*|.
Is it reasonable to assert that the

derivative at the point x
x if:
g(x)=
sum F
(x)
\x\.
= f (x) + g (x)
has no
128
has a derivative at the point x

(c) the function f (x)
function g(x) has no derivative at this point?
(d) neither function has a derivative at the point x ?
and the
2.7.11. Prove that the derivative of a differentiate even function

an odd function, and the derivative of an odd function is an
even function. Give a geometric explanation to these facts.
is
2.7.12.
period
2
J A3.
Prove that
is
function with
the derivative of a periodic

periodic function with period T.
Find F'
(x)
if
F(x)
xd
X*
2x 3x2
6x
2.7.14. Find the derivative of the function y

graphs of the given function and its derivative.
= x\x\.
=
Sketch the
2.7.15. Suppose we have a composite function y

f(u) where
u^=(p(x). Among what points should we look for points at which
the composite function may have no derivative?
Does the composite function always have no derivative at these
u2 u
\x\.
points? Consider the function y
2.7.16. Find y" for the following functions:

(a)
= \x*\\
(b)
x 2 sin (l/x), x
at
Is
=7^ 0,
= 0.
there #"(0)?
2.7.17. (a)
f(x)=x n show
;
/'(l)
that
(2)
d)
= 2n
n\
(b) f
(x)=x
n~1
l/x
show that
(n=l,
2.7.18.
y=x e~ x/a
2
...).
show that
n
(\) n(n-
an
i)
~2
atcs\nx satisfies the relation

that the function y
Find y in) (0) (n
2) by applying the Leibniz forto both members of this identity.
2.7.19.
Show
(\x 2 )y" = xy
mula
2,
>
Chebyshev polynomials
Additional Problems
2.7.
129
the equation
satisfy
(1
-x
r; (x)-xT'n
+n
T n (x) = 0.
2
The derivative
2.7.21.
(x)
of the
the form
(e-x
nth order of
the function e'*
has
y>= e - x2 H n (*),
where H n (x) is a polynomial of degree

Hermite polynomial.
Prove that the recurrence relation
the Chebyshev-
called
H n+l (x)-2xH n (x) + 2nH n _ (x)^0
2,
...)
valid.
is
that there exists a single-valued function y=y(x)

x and find its derivative y'x
3y
Show
2.7.22.
defined by the equation y*
Single
2.7.23.
inverse function x
out the single-valued continuous branches of the

4
2x 2
x(y) and find their derivatives if y
^-\
= ^r\n^
r
2
\v
2.7.24. u
check the relation
=
^^
dvdu
1.
2.7.25. Inverse trigonometric functions are continuous at all

points of the domain of definition. Do they have a finite derivative at all points of the domain? Indicate the points at which the
following functions have no finite derivative:
(a)
= arccos^y?-;
(b)
*/
= arc sin
=
Show
that the function y

y(x), defined parametrically:
2
is
differentiate at f
but its derivat
tive cannot be found by the usual formula.
2.7.26.
= 2t \t
= + t\t\
2.7.27. Determine the parameters a, b, c in the equation of the

bx
ax2
c so that it becomes tangent to the straight
1
and passes through the point (
x at the point
line y
1, 0).
parabola y
Prove that the

f(x)sinax, where f (x)
gent to each other at the
Show
>
curves y 1
0) and
f(x) (/ (x)
y2
differentiate function, are tana
2.7.28.
is
common
points.
(x 09 y ) of the equilateral
any point
the segment of the normal from the point
to the point of intersection with the abscissa is equal to the
radius vector of the point M.
2.7.29.
hyperbola
x2
2.7.30.
tangent
Show
line
= a(l cost)
[at,
that
y = a
for
any position of the generating circle the

sin/),
normal to the cycloid x=a(t
pass through the highest (at, 2a) and the lowest
that
and
for
0) points of the circle,
53148
the
respectively.
130
2.7.31.
(I
Show
coscp)
2.7.32. Let
equality
that
two
cardioids
intersect at
= f(u),
= a (1 -f-coscp)
and
right angles.
where u
= y(x).
Prove the validity
= \"' (u) du + 3/" (u) du d*u + f (u) d*u.

y = f(x), where x = <p(t); the functions
of
the
d*y
2.7.33. Let
cp(0 are twice differentiable and dx=^=0. Prove that
_
~
f (x)
and
d 2 ydxdyd 2 x
dx*
differentials forming the right member of the relation

are differentials with respect to the variable t.
where the
2.7.34.
How
will
the expression
<-*>
be transformed
we introduce a
(where y
is
S- 4?+ y
twice differentiable function of x)
variable
putting x
cost?
2.7.35. In determining an electric current by means

galvanometer use is made of the formula
/
where
=k tan
if
new independent
of a tangent
(p,
= current
k = factor of proportionality (depending
= angle of pointer deflection.
/
on the instrument)
cp
Determine the relative error of the result which depends on the

inaccuracy in reading the angle cp. At what position of the pointer
can one obtain the most reliable results?
Chapter
3
APPLICATION OF DIFFERENTIAL
CALCULUS TO INVESTIGATION
OF FUNCTIONS
3.1.
Basic Theorems on Differ entiable Functions
Fermat's Theorem. Let a function y

f(x) be defined on a certain interval and have a maximum or a minimum value at an interior point x Q of the interval.
If there exists a derivative f (x ) at the point x 0y then f'(x )
0.
Rolled Theorem. If a function f (x) is continuous in the interval
[a, 6], has a finite derivative at all interior points of this interval,
b)
and f(a)
f(b), then inside [a, b] there exists a point
0.
such that f'{l)
Lagrange's Theorem. If a function f(x) is continuous in the interval [a, b] and has a finite derivative at all interior points of
the interval, then there exists a point g(a, b) such that
f(b)-f(a)
= (b-a)f.
Test for the Constancy of a Function. If at all points of a certain interval /'(x)
0, then the function f (x) preserves a constant
value within this interval.
Cauchy's Theorem. Let (p (x) and ip(x) be two functions continuous in the interval [a, b] and have finite derivatives at all interior points of the interval. If these derivatives do not vanish sithen there exists (a, b) such that
multaneously and (p (a)
<p (b)
9
t|)(fr)-t|)(a)
^tK (E)
<p(&)' <p(a)
<p'(g)
'
3x2
Does the function f(x)
satisfy the condition of
1
the Fermat theorem in the interval [1, 2]?
Solution. The given function does not satisfy the condition of the
Fermat theorem, since it increases monotonically on the interval
[1, 2], and, consequently, takes on the minimum value at x = 1 and
the maximum one at x = 2, i. e. not at interior points of the interval. Therefore, the Fermat theorem is not applicable; in other
words, we cannot assert that /'(l) = /'(2) = 0. Indeed, ^ (1)
6,
/'(2)=12.
3.1.1.
5*
Ch. III. Differential Calculus: Investigation of Fund's
132
3.1.2. Do the following

Rolle theorem?
(a)
f(x)
(b) f(x)
(c)
functions
the
satisfy
conditions
of
the
= \-Vtf in [-1, 1];

= In sin x'm [ji/6, 5ji/6];
/(*)= 1-|*|
[-1,
in
1].
they do not, explain why.

Solution, (a) The function is continuous in the interval [
furthermore, / (
0. Thus, two conditions of the
1)
/(1)
If
theorem are
satisfied.
The derivative
f'(x)
# = 0.
= 2/(3 y/ x)
1,
1];
Rolle
exists
at
points except
Since this point is an interior one, the third
condition of the theorem is not satisfied. Therefore, the Rolle theorem is not applicable to the given function. Indeed, /'(jk)^0 in
all
[-1.
!]
Prove that the equation
3.1.3.
3x 6
+ 15* 8-0
has only one real root.

Solution. The existence of at least one real root follows from the
3* 5
15*
that the polynomial f (x)
8 is of an odd power.
Let us prove the uniqueness of such a root by reductio ad absurdum. Suppose there exist two roots x 1
x 2 Then in the interval
3x b
I5x
8 satisfies all conditions of
[*!, x 2 ] the function f (x)
the Rolle theorem: it is continuous, vanishes at the end-points and
has a derivative at all points. Consequently, at some point \,x x
x2
\
But
(x*+
This
contradiction
0.
/'(*)=
0.
15
that
proves
1)
f'(t)
the equation in question has only one real root.
fact
<
< <
>
Does the function f(x) = 3x2

5 satisfy the conditions of
the Lagrange theorem in the interval [
If
it
does, then
2, 0]?
find the point g which figures in the Lagrange formula f (b)
f(a) =
= f(E) (b-a).
Solution. The function satisfies the conditions of the Lagrange
theorem, since it is continuous in the interval [ 2, 0] and has a
finite derivative at all interior points of the interval. The point
is found from the Lagrange formula:
3.1.4.
f> /tx
/
whence
3.1.5.
\)
_
At _ /(Q)-/(-2)
0 ( 2)
ufc
-5-7 _ __ R
~"
'
1.
Apply the Lagrange formula to the function f(x)=\nx

[1, e] and find the corresponding value of .
in
the interval
3.1.6. Ascertain that the functions f(x)

3
7x 2
20x
5 satisfy the conditions
=x
in the interval
[1,
4]
and
find
=x
of
2* + 3
the
and g(x) =
Cauchy theorem
the corresponding value of
3.1. Basic Theorems on Different iable Functions
133
Solution. The given functions f (x) and g(x) are continuous everywhere, and hence, in the interval [1, 4] as well; their derivatives
2
\4x
20 are finite everywhere; in
f (x) 2x 2 and g' (x) 3x
addition, g' (x) does not vanish at any real value of x.
Consequently, the Cauchy formula is applicable to the given
functions:
/(4)-/(l)
= nE)
g'iQ*
S(4)-s(l)
i.
e.
27
14g + 20
3g 2
Solving the latter equation,

i 2 =4.
Do
On
3.1.8.
line
is
= ex
the functions f(x)
ditions of the
is
Cauchy theorem
two values
find
^=2
Of these two values only

3.1.7.
we
^6^
an interior point
and g
in the
(x)
= p-X
interval
of the interval.
satisfy the con-
A(
tangent
the
1,
1) and
1, 2], whose end-points are the abs[

B, the function y
x 3 is continuous and
derivative; therefore the Lagrange theorem is applicable.
In the interval
cissas of the points
has a finite
and
x* find the point at which

the curve y
to the chord through the points
fl(2, 8).
=2
[3, 3]?
parallel
Solution.
:E 1
of
A and
According to this theorem there will be, on the arc AB, at

one point M, at which the tangent is parallel to the chord
Let us write the Lagrange formula for the given function:
= /'(g)[2-(-l)]
/(2)-/(-l)
least
AB.
or
+ = 36
1
3;
whence
1.
Ex
The obtained values
we
I,=
l.
the abscissas of the
of are
desired
points
and S- 2 in
there exist two such points). Substituting
the equation of the curve, we find the corresponding ordinates:
(as
see,
yi
l'i
l;
y2
=U=
l.
Thus, the required points are:

1) and Af 2 ( 1, 1), of which
y (\,
only the former is an interior point on the arc AB.
Note. This problem can be solved without using the Lagrange theorem; write the equation of the chord as a straight line passing
through two given points, and then find the point on the curve at
which the tangent is parallel to the chord.
Ch. III. Differential Calculus: Investigation
134
Fund's
of
Taking advantage of the test for the constancy of a funcdeduce the following formulas known from elementary math-
3.1.9.
tion,
ematics:
(a)
arc
sinx+arc cosx =
2
(b) sin x
(c)
ji/2;
= (l cos2x)/2;
arc cos
-r-,
2 arc tan
a;
O^Zx <oo;
at
defined in the interval f 1, 1]. The derivative

function inside this interval equals zero:
According to the
test
e.
constancy of
for the
C
arccosA:
arcsin A:
To determine the constant
we have jx/2 C, whence
i.
the
of
a function
( 1<#<1).
C let us put,
indicated
/ (x)
for instance,
= const,
x=0;
then
arc sin
The validity
a:
+ arc cos = jt/2

a:
this
of
equality
<x<
the
at
points
1).
a:=1
is
verified
directly.
(b)
Let us take the function

/ (x)
number
defined throughout the

of this function
is
= 2 sin
(a;)
test
for the
sin 2
To determine C
+ y cos
2a;
oo < <
scale:
a;
oo.
The derivative
everywhere equal to zero:
f
According to the
= sin
a:
cos
sin =
2a;
a;
constancy of a function
+ y cos
put, for instance, x
2a:
= C.
= 0;
then
W herefrom
sin 2
0.
x+y cos2x = y
we
get
1/2
= C.
3.1.
Basic Theorems on Differ entiable Functions
or
.
s\n 2 x
2x
= cos
^
1
Let us introduce the function
(c)
== arc cos
/ (x)
2 arc tan
l~*
The derivative
x
4a;
( 1
test
To determine C
2x (
constancy
of a
<
At x
its
for the
us put, say, x
let
1,
proved formula
of the
the function arc cos
derivative
2
x~)
=^
function
>
0.
which gives
C = arccos0
which enables us
formula can
*
I
is
no
has
r-j
r
2
1 -\-x
verified
directly.
derivative.
At
\'
to derive the formula
arccos -j-p^2
latter
at
is
l
that arc cos
0:
at
arc cos
The
~|-
1.
=0.
The validity
Note,
>
all
4x
2 arc tan x = C
arc cos t
2 arc tan
<
According to the
~Y
+7
* a)a
^2
zero for
is
since
scale,
of the function f (x)
~ ~~~j/7
x,
determined along the entire number
135
is
be
arc tan
(x
< 0).
on the strength
obtained
an even function, and 2 arc tan x
is
of
the fact
an odd one.
3.1.10. As is known, (e*)'=e* for all x. Are there anymore

functions that coincide with their derivatives everywhere?
Solution. Let the function f (x) be such that f'(x)^f(x) everywhere.
Let us introduce the function
V(x)
The derivative
of this function equals zero

cp'
By
f(x)
= 1g- = f(x)e-*-
(x)
=f
x
(x) e-
e- x
the test for the constancy of a
= Ce
x.
f {x)
everywhere:
function
0.
f{x)/e
= C,
whence
Ch. 111. Differential Calculus: Investigation of FuncVs
136
And
so,
we have proved
f'(x)^f(x)
group of functions
the
that
f(x)^Ce x
covered by the formula
is
which
for
3.1.11. Prove the inequality
tanx 2
arc
where x 2
>
arc tan x
xr
Solution. To the function

apply the Lagrange formula:
where x x
<<x
<
x2
= arc ianx
/ (x)
arc tan x
arc tan x 2
on the interval
lt
[x l9
x2
i)>
Since
<T^F < and ^2 î>0,

arc tan x arc tan x < x x
1
then
putting
In particular,
^=
and x 2
arc tan
<
= x,
(x
we
get
> 0).
3.1.12. Show that the square roots of two successive natural

numbers greater than N 2 differ by less than 1/(2 A/).
Solution. To the function f(x) = Vx on the interval [n, n+1]
apply the Lagrange formula:
/(n+l)-/(n)
where n
If
<| < n+
n>/V
2
,
= /^-|/"n=^,
then
1>N\
<
hence 1/(2
y n+ \y n<
1/(2jV),
whence
\/(2N).
3.1.13. Using the Rolle theorem prove that
the
derivative
(x)
of the function
c
f(*)
x sin
at
at
a:
i
(
>
=
0,
vanishes on an infinite set of points of the interval (0,

Solution. The function f (x) vanishes at points where
n/x^kn,
sin (n/x) ^=0,
k=
Since
the
function
of the interval
[0,
f (x)
1],
the
1,
2,
3,
l).
xl/k,
...
has a derivative
Rolle theorem
at
is
any interior point

applicable to anyone
3.1. Basic Theorems on Differ entiable Functions
of
the
intervals
[1/2,
[1/3,
1],
Consequently, inside each
[l/(k+\)
1/2],
137
...
l/k],
the intervals of the sequence, there is

a point l k
1 /(+')< l k
1/6. at which the derivative f'(l k )=0.
And so we have shown that the derivative vanishes on an infinite
set
points (see Fig. 38).
of
3.1.14. The Legendre polynomial is
a polynomial defined by the following
formula (Rodrigues' formula):
of
<
2nn
(X
dx
(Al
= 0,
...).
2,
1,
1)"
theorem, prove
tneorem,
Using the
Rolle
Koiie
that the Legendre polynomial P n (x)
has n different real roots, all of them
between
found
f(x)
= (x
Consider
Solution.
2
\)
and
-f
1.
the function
= (x
l)
(*+l)".
This function and its n

1
successiFig. 38
ve derivatives vanish at the points
x
(use the Leibniz formula for
higher derivatives of the product of two functions).
It follows from f(l)
that inside the interval
f(l)
1, 1]
a point ^ can be found at which f (l l )
i.e. x
l 1 will be the
root of the first derivative. Now apply the Rolle theorem once again
to the function f'(x) on the intervals [
find
1]. We
1, gj, [| x
that besides +1 and
the function f" (x) has two more roots
on the interval [
1]. Reasoning as before, we will show that,
1,
apart from +1 and
1, fhe (n~l)th derivative has (n 1) more
(n ~ v
roots on the interval [
(x) has all in
1,
1], i.e. the function f
all n+l roots on the interval [
1], which divide this interval
1,
into n parts. Applying the Rolle theorem once again, we ascertain
= \
[.
that the function
in)
(x),
and hence, the function
has n different roots on the interval

3.1.15.
1,
P n (x)= ^jj
in)
(*),
1].
Check whether the Lagrange. formula
is
applicable to the
(a)
(b)
(c)
x2
on [3, 4];
on [1, 3];
5x 2 + x
4r*
2 on
f(x)^4x*
f(x)-f(x)--
-\nx
[0,
1];
(d)
If
f(x)=l/x* (x-\) on [-1/2,

it
is,
find
1/2].
the values of appearing in this formula.
3.1.16. Using the Lagrange theorem estimate the value ln(l-j-t?)
[38
3.1.17. Using the Lagrange formula prove the inequality
< \n(l+x)<x
Y^rx
at
>
jc
0.
Evaluation of Indeterminate Forms.
3.2.
L'Hospital's Rule
Indeterminate forms
I.
of the
type
~.
functions
the
If
(x)
and g(x) are differentiate in a certain neighbourhood of the point a,

except, may be, at the point a itself, and g (x)=^0, and if
f
lim
x
/ (x)
lim g(x)
x
-+
-*
lim
or
->
(x)
lim g(x) =- oo,

x
-y
then
(X)
,.
1-
f
lim '-)-{= lim
g(x)
a
f (x)
,
II.
_>
lim
exists (U Hospital's rule). The point a
- a 8
oo.
be either finite or improper -f oo or
oo are reduced
Indeterminate forms of the type O oo or oo
provided the limit
may
(X)'
g'W
to forms of the type
-jj-
or
/
w
by algebraic transformations.
Indeterminate forms of the type l 30 oo or 0 are reduced

forms of the type 0-oo by taking logarithms or by the transfor-
III.
to
mation
[f(x)]
3.2.1.
wing
Applying the L'Hospital
lim
*
pw = evwinfw
_ o
x_ e -x.__2x
xsmx
limits of the follo-
sin
1171
3a:
x^=0
a:
2
)
e~ x
/*
lim
(f)
'
both
/ (x)
~
2
75
functions f(x) = e ax
e~ 2ax and
in the neighbourhood of zero, since
=
1
0;
lim
x
->
Furthermore
infinitesimals
lim
x
lim
Q
os3a:
^ ^ Q C
Solution, (a) Here

are
(d)
\
Incns^-*!
=ln(l+A:)
In (1
point
find the
rule,
functions:
(c)
/'
(x)
and
exist
g (*)
In
= 0.
->
in
any neighbourhood
x- 1, and
that does not contain the point
of
the
Evaluation of Indeterminate Forms
3.2.
139
Finally, there exists a limit of the ratio of the derivatives:

/' (x)
,.
Inn
^ttt
lim
Therefore the L'Hospital rule
(\+x)
r:
x>
oa.
= 3a.
ae ax +2ae~ 2ax
r-Tf
lim
applicable:
is
In
T~n~\
e ax_ e -2ax
lim
ae ax +2ae- 2ax
,.
(*)7
1/(1+*)
When
/Vote.
the limit of the ratio is computed according to the

is usually written directly as shown in (*).
the desired derivatives and limits exist is ascertained in
L'Hospital rule the result
Whether
In case the ratio of the derivatives
the course of calculation.
'
again represents an indeterminate form, the L'Hospital rule should

be applied for a second time, and so on until the indeterminacy is
removed or until it becomes clear that the required limits do not
exist. Therefore, henceforward we write only the necessary transformations, leaving to the reader the task of checking whether the
conditions of their applicability are fulfilled.
j/T
+ 2^+1
v
lim
(b)
In
+ x+x
cos (2x 2
(4a:
limit of the
factor
first
3a:
1)
cos
lim
x - o
3a:
(2a:
cos
A
4a:
x)
x)
(2a:
'
cos (2x 2
sin
computed
is
J^2 + x)+l
6a: cos
,.
= 6n
The
1/(2
x)
-=ir
3/0+25)*)
2/(3 v
lim
2
sin 3x
v/
'
l/2
a:)
directly,
i .
lim
x ^ o
sin
(2a:
x)
the limit of
second one, which represents an indeterminate form of the type
found with the aid
6
~
cos
3a:
lim
x - o
cos
-=
4a:
of
(2a:
the L'Hospital
x)
'
the
-jj-
is
rule:
,.
lim -r
\
sin
x ^
= 6
xlim (4a: n cos
(2a:
a:)
j1
1)
_^
(2a:
9
2
\r =
x) = 6 1-1
x>+oo,
>
6.
the functions x k (k
0);
loga Jc; a* (a
1) are infinitely large quantities. Applying the L'Hospital rule, compare these quantities.
3.2.2.
It
is
known
that,
as
>
,.
2.
lim
1.
=
x rn
lim
lim
lim
mx
.
rn
, .
jloga*
0g x
-^f- =
l
Solution.
_l
,
lim
=
i
= \ogae
lim
^ =
m\
-7-71
kx*
r,
0-
0;
140
function x k (k>0) increases more rapidly than

the logarithmic function \og a x(a> 1), and the exponential function
a x with the base exceeding unity increases more rapidly than the
power function x rn
Hence, the power
Find the
3.2.3.
<
limits:
(cotx-
Hra
(b)
a>
lim
(c)
e*
We
Solution, (a)
Let us reduce
have an indeterminate form
it
apply the L'Hospital

,.
lim
x \J
^^jVlnA:
r
lim
x 1 In* =
1) In
r.
(x
lim
x ^
_^
(a)
lim x
x
<b)
lim x n In
\nx(n
fin (1
>
+ sin
We
(a)
a:
=. lim
x
->
We
lim [in
1/* =
[/x
,
In
*T
+
* In *
lim
^ ^
In
a:
-|-2
2'
limits:
0);
2
x) cot In
(1+ x)].
have an indeterminate form of the type 0-co.
Let us transform
(b)
and then
->
Solution,
at
oo.
->
lim
x
IJ
Find the
rule:
= m
3.2.4.
of the type oo
to an indeterminate form of the type
(1
it
- =
-+
In
to
and then apply
- =\\m
1
lim
x
the L'Hospital
fx
" *
->
have an indeterminate form
+ sin- x) cot ln> + *)] =

(1
-+
the type 0-oo:
of
Jim
sin 2x
2 {1 -{-tan 2 [In 2
ln(l+x)
(1
1+*
sin*
= hm ln(l+x)
=
,.
lim
^ Q
1+a:
3.2.5.
Find the
limits:
sin
(a) lim (l/x)
x -* +
*;
lim
(b)
x
-*
rule:
x n = 0, since rc>0.
x^^^-".
Solution,
We
(a)
Let y -~=(\/xY'mx
Evaluation
3.2.
an
have
then
In
\ny=
lim
x-^-fO
lim \nu
x^ + o
Hence, lim y
->
to
it
the type oo.
In (1/x),
form
the type 0-oo).
of
and apply the L'Hospital
=
In
lim
-;
a:
x^ + oh'smx
= e" =
,.
lim
x
\/x
;
(cos x)/sin 2 x
= hm
x
_^
rule:
sin 2 x
xcosx
= A0.
l.
-I
Find the
3.2.6.
of
->
Let us transform
= s\n x
141
form
indeterminate
lim sinxln(l/x) (indeterminate

x
i-
Indeterminate Forms
of
limits:
lim (sin x)
(a)
tan
lim**.
(b)
^;
X-7C/2
x-0
Compute
3.2.7.
->
cot *.
(tanx)
lim
x
+ Jt/2-0
Solution. Let us take advantage of the identity

co *
(tan
= co
'
an x
but
\anx
cot X In
lim
lim
JC-+jt/2-0
x-*+jt/2-0
" tan x
tan *
]Hl =z Q
ylm
|/=tan *
->
oo
Whence
(ianx) coix
lim
x->
= e =
1.
+jt/2-0
3.2.8. Ascertain the existence of the following limits:
lim
(a)
->
,.
lim
(b)
v
x 2 sin (1/x)
sin
24-2aH-
sin 2x
*-*oo(2x+sin2;t)6>
tan
rj
s,n *
a:
lim
(c)
X
-+
31/
Can the L'Hospital rule be applied
in
computing them?
formal application lead to the correct answer?

Solution, (a) The limit exists and equals zero. Indeed,
Does
its
li
of
i .
lim
jj
smx
x-*0
But the limit
_ m
f__smJJ_/)
x-+0
smx
ii
m^s
n _L
x
x->
0.
the ratio of the derivatives does not exist. Indeed,

2x sin
=
(
K
fx)
1
cos
fx)
lim cos
, .
142
but lim cos

-
does
(1 /'x)
not
hence
exist,
Fund's
of
L'Hospital rule
the
is
not
applicable here.
The
(b)
limit of the ratio of the functions does not exist:

2
Hm
*->
+ 2,4-sin2,
oc(2*+sin2*)<?
sin
,.x\
2
{
2xy
2.v-|-sin
'
but lim e~ sinx does not exist, since the function e~ Anx traverses the
X
->
GC
values from
Now we
cc
[2
+ 2 cos
+ (2x
2a;
many
infinitely
show that the

2 -f 2 cos
r
lim
x->
1/e to e
will
-|-
2a:
sm
sin 2x) cos x| e

4
lim
x ^ x
times.
limit of the ratio of derivatives exists:
.,
4 cos "
cos- x
/n
#+(2x+sin
.
=
since the function e~* inx
is
2a) cos
a'
* C S *
lim
v - x
+ 4 cos
4
bounded, and
-j- si
A'
n Q
2x
g -s.nx
cos A
x+
2.V+4 cos
= 0>
*
o.
sin 2a-a:-ôo
Here cosx, which vanishes for an infinite set of values of x has

been cancelled out. It is the presence of this multiplier that makes
y
the L'Hospital rule inapplicable in this case, sine? it simultaneously

the functions being compared.
nullifies the derivatives of

tan
lim
(c)
*
-*
jt/2
a-
SeC x
sec 2 x
,.
lim
*-*JT/2
Here application
of the
SCC X tan X
,.
sec a
urn
x-+n/2 tan x
tan a
Inn
SeC x
...
L'Hospital rule gives no useful result, though
there exists a limit:
tan*
hm
sec
x->jt/2
lim
x->n/2
sin* cos
cosx
lim sin x
1.
Jt->.-r/2
Using the L'Hospital rule
3.2.9.
a;
find the limits of the following
functions:
v
In
'
-*
(a:
cin v
lim arc sin
(g)
Hm f-M
+ V * /
(i)
(d)
Hm
/Ux
10
Xnx
'
x
=
i-4s^(^/6)
'
(e)
3)
+ 3*-
<?H1=.
lim
(c)
v
,3
^ cot
(x
a)\
(f)
lim (n
2 arc tan x)
limfa
/*
tdn
*;
lim (cos mx)"'*
(h)
*
2
;
(j)
->
1)* (a
>
In x;
0);
GO
Mm (2
tan (jiA-/(2a))
Approximate Calculations
3.3. Taylor's Formula:
In
cot 2 X
(m) lim
lim^/ |n <^-
(1)
In
a:
>;
143
(n)
lim
(P)
lim
x x
In
+y
->
l/sin a
lim
(o)
2
a;
cosh
\2+
V~9-{-x
J/x*
1
-.0
lim (lncot^) tan
(q)
lim
(r)
*;
2 arc tan x 2
'
3.3. Taylor's Formula. Application to Approximate

Calculations
If the function
through order n
of the nth order
[a,
b]
f(x)=f
is continuous and has continuous derivatives

on the interval [a, 6], and has a finite derivative
f (x)
1
at
every
point of the
interior
the following formula holds
(a)
+
+
(a)
(x-a)+
(a)
interval then at
true:
f" (a)
-^^ + r
where
l
= a + Q(x a)
<9<
and
called Taylor's formula of the function
It
is
If
in this
fw=f (0)
formula we put a
(0)
= 0,
+ r (0) J +
accordingly, the
^ la+
remainder
' ls
in the
&)%,
The last term in the Taylor formula

Lagrange's form and is denoted R n (x):
R.(x)=
f (x).
we obtain Maclaurin's formula:
ln}
1.
(0)
where g=6*,
is
tt)]
jj^L
0<6<
1.
called the remainder in
ix-ar;
Maclaurin formula has the form
=x
+ 2x
b
x* 2
the polynomial P (x)
2x*
1
the binomial x
using the Taylor formula.
1
Solution. To solve the problem it is necessary to find the value
and its derivatives at the point x=\. The
of the polynomial
3.3.1.
in
powers
Expand
of
144
relevant calculations are given below.
P'(1)
P"'(l)
P (l)-72,
P {n) (x) = (n
(4)
any
at
= 0,
= 18,
P(l)--0,
P"(l)-0,
(5)
(l)=120,
> 6)
x.
Substituting the values thus found into the Taylor formula, we get
P(x)^~(x-ir+^(x-iy + ^(x~\r;
P(x)=3(x iy + 3(x 1)
3.3.2.
+ (jc
l)
5
.
Applying the Maclaurin formula, expand
(up to x 9
powers
in
of
inclusive) the function
= \n(\ + x)
f(x)
defined on the
the remainder.
Solution.
interval
/(0)
The derivatives
of
(0 )
to deleting
= lnl=0.
any order
rw=(-ir
Estimate the error due
1],
[0,
of the
given function
(see 2.3):
{fî.
= (_i)"-i (_i)! (n=
2, 3, ...).
Substituting the derivatives into the Maclaurin formula, we get

In (1
where
as
the
remainder
R 10 (x)
in the
y + îo W,
Lagrange form
will
be written
follows:
(*)
in
+ *)=* y + y
(10)
()
10!
10
9!
10! (1
10
g)
x U)
10
(1
H- )
Let us estimate the absolute value of the remainder

1
and I
mind that
0, we have
Oâ:^
R 1Q (x)\
*)
keeping
10(1
How many
the function
this function on
for
place
<<
>
l*io(*)h
3.3.3.
10
terms in the Maclaurin formula should be taken

x so as to get a polynomial
e
representing
f(x)
the interval [
1], accurate to three decimal
1,
Solution.
The function f(x)=e x has

(n)
(x)
ex .
derivative
of
any order
Taylor's Formula: Approximate Calculations
3.3.
145
Therefore, the Maclaurin formula is applicable to this function. Let

deriva1
us compute the values of the function e x and its first
tives at the point x
0, and the value of the Aith derivative at the
will have
0jc(0<6< 1).
point
We
f(0) = r (0) = r(0) =
fin)
^ =e
...
=/"'- l (0)=--l;
==e Bx
Whence
/(*)
= +TT+ir+
+(f^. + R ^ x ^
where
if
fulfilled,
(7!
0.001
(*)
then the inequality

I
will
"
the inequality
4- <
is
then
1,
3
= -^^<e< _3_
nl
\Rn{x)\
Hence,
0<9<
and
Since, by hypothesis,
< o.ooi
>
7
be fulfilled apriori. To this end it is sufficient to take n
Hence, 7 terms in the Maclaurin formula will suffice.
= 5040).
3.3.4.
At what values
of
cos x
have an error
less
will
the approximate formula
2T
+ TT
than 0.00005?
Solution. The right member of the approximate equation reprethe first six terms in the Maclaurin formula for the function
cos a: (the second, fourth and sixth terms are equal to zero; check it!).
(6)
cos x then
Let us estimate R Q (x). Since (cosa:)
sents
!*.(*)!
For the error to be
less
cos Qx
<
x6
6!
1*1
6!
than 0.00005, choose the values
satisfy the inequality
-LJ1

3.3.5.
Compute
we
< 0.00005.
get
|#|<
0.575.
the approximate values

(a)
cos
5;
of:
(b) sin 20,
of
x that
146
Ch.
accurate to
III. Differential Calculus:
formula
1 -g. + iL
CO sx=
x=n/36\
+( i)-gL + R 2n+2
since
2
lf=2^ =
we
Fund's
decimal places.
five
Solution, (a) Into the Maclaurin
substitute
Investigation of
""'
Tf=l(-f) = 2 410
003808
'
confine ourselves to the following terms:
cos
a:
x 2 /2
the error being estimated at

cos 6x
<-L^<2.5.10-
4T~
And
50,
within the required accuracy
= cos i
=
00
cos 5
3.3.6.
Compute
approximate
the
= 0.99619.
0.00381
value
Y 83
of
accurate to six
decimal places.
3.3.7.
(a)
xx
(b)
tanx>
<
+ x)< x
> 0;
< x < jx/2;
l+x ^<]/ T+x<l+-jX
2
/2
In
( 1
+ x /3
3
at x
at
r
(c)
at
0<x<oo.
Solution, (a) According to the Maclaurin formula with the rema-
R2
inder
(x)
we have
In (1
+*)
= * 2(1 + 6)"
where
< |< x.
According to the same formula with the remainder
In (1
0<l
Since
+*)
= * 4"
3(1
+ ^)3
>
(x)
we have
whe re
<x.
YiTTW >
and
xx
3.3.8.
Show
that
>
< In (1 +*)<
an+EO 8
sin (a
/2
>
at
>
jt
follows that
a:.
ft)
differs
from
sina
+ /icosa
more than h 2 /2.

Solution.
By
Taylor's formula
sin (a
+ h) = sin a + h cos a 4r- sin 6;
by not
3.4.
Taylor's Formula: Evaluation of Limits
147
whence
h
+ h) (sina + /icosa) =
h2
'sin (a
sinE
3.4. Application of Taylor's Formula to Evaluation

of Limits
The expression
f(x)
= f (a) + Lw
{x
_ a)+ rvi (x _ ay +
-\-o(\x a\
{x
_ a)n H
is
q
er
Taylor
the
(x)
= o [ty (x)]
order
that, as x
smallness
of
the remainder in Peano's form where

>a the function cp (x) has a high-
formula with
means
In particular, at
than
function
the
i.e.
lim ?4-t
= 0.
we have
fw=/(0)+m, +
m,2+
...
/^ xn+o(Uh
Peano's form of the remainder for Taylor's formula shows that,

the Taylor polynomial of degree n for / (x) in the
neighbourhood of the point a, we introduce an error which is an
n
as
+a.
a)
infinitesimal of a higher order than (x
The following five expansions are of greatest importance in solving practical problems:
when substituting
e*=l+x + -g.+
sin x
(1
= x~ + ...+(-
+ *)- = + ax +
*+
yl
In
3.4.1.
gral
(1+*)
Expand
powers
of
with respect to
Solution.
/(*)=
We
...
+ Jnr+o(x);
j^L. + o (**");
{a
+ ~
l)
^^
'
'
nl
Yn
v-3
= *-- + -j- +...+ (-I)""
^+
x+o
o (x n ).
the function / (x)

sin 3 x
x l e~ x in positive intex up to the terms of the fourth order of smallness
x.
have
[x-^+owy-x* \-x + ^- + o(x*)

= x + (* + X + (X = X -| X* +
2
(*");
(X 4 ).
Ch. III. Differential Calculus:
148
Expand
3.4.2.
Investigation of
Fund's
= xV x cos x In (1 + x)\
(*) = ln(l+sin*)
(a)
f(x)
(b)
positive integral powers of x up to the terms of the

of smallness with respect to x.
in
Applying the Taylor formula with the remainder

compute the limits:
3.4.3.
.form,
,
l'i"
<b)
lira
X
i-
hm
(d)
Peano's
in
cosx
cosx
e x sin
- X,L
x 2 /2
(1
-\-x)
'
hm
(e)
_tan**
lim
(c)
V\+x
(*>
order
fifth
^*
->
Solution, (a) Retaining the terms up to the fourth order with

respect to x in the denominator and the numerator, we get
-
lim
Y +
1
X 2 COS X
tan4 *
11
(1
-f-#
1/2
2
)
COS X
* + o(* J
l+y* + 1/2 (1/2)
)|
2
.
d
4
[,
1
x2
--2" +
,
x4
24
+0( *
.
)
, .
hm
'
24
= hm
'
'
x-+
(x4 )
*
L 3
Expand the following functions in positive integral powers

variable x up to the terms of the indicated order, inclusive:
3.4.4.
of the
(a)
(b)
x)
= e2x ~ x2
In cos
x
(c)
eX
3.5.
a:
up to the term containing x b

up to the term containing x 6
up to the term containing
x*.
Testing a Function for Monotonicity
Let a continuous function f (x) be defined on the interval [a, b]

and have a finite derivative inside this segment. Then:
(1) For f (x) to be non- decreasing (non-increasing) on [a, b] it is
(/' (x)^ 0) for all x in (a, b).
necessary and sufficient that /' (x)
>
3.5. Testing a Function for Monotonicity
(2)
For f(x)
cient to
fulfil
to be increasing
the condition f (x)
Determine the intervals
3.5.1.
on
(decreasing)
>
(/' (x)
<
b]
[a,
is
it
for all
0)
monotonicity
of
149
suffi-
in (a, b).
for the following
functions:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
= 2x \nx;
f(x) = 2x* 9a;- 24* + 7;
2
f(x)
/(*)
f(x)
= \n\x\= 4x 21 * +
f(x) = e* + bx.
s
20;
The solution of this problem is reduced

which the derivative preserves its sign.
Solution.
intervals in
f (x)
a
it
18*4
f(*)
has a continuous
number
finite
<x <
preserves
derivative in the interval

of stationary points x u x 2i
< xn <
b) y
where
in
each
sign
its
/'
(x k )
the
of
The function is defined at x

Let us find the derivative
(a)
4x
if
>
(&
intervals
2,
b)
(a,
the function
and has in
xn
.
(a,
(a
x x ),
(jc
<x <
then
n),
/' (x)
x a ),
3 ,
0.
= lx\lx.
f'(x)
The function increases
to finding the
If
l/x>0,
i.e.
>
1/2.
The function decreases if Ax

l/x < 0, i.e. x < 1/2.
And so, the function decreases in the interval
<x
<
1/2
and
the interval 1/2<a:<4(b) Evaluate the derivative
increases in
X)
= 6x
18a:
24 = 6 (x 3x
x=
and x=4.
vanishes at the points

1
quadratic trinomial with a coefficient at
in the
then f (x)
intervals
It
its
4).
Since f (x)
highest-power term 6
>
(_
1),
oo,
(4, oo),
and
/'
is
>
a
0,
(x)<0
interval (1, 4). Conthe

sequently, f (x) increases in the
in
first
(1,
(c)
two
4)
in
decreases.
case the derivative
In this
whereas
intervals,
it
x 2 )e~ x vanishes
(2x
f'(x)
the points x
and x=2.
at
In
the intervals ( oo, 0) and (2, oo)
the derivative /' (x)
and the
function decreases; in (0, 2) the derivative
tion increases (see Fig. 39).
Fig. 39
<
3.5.2.
Find
wing functions:
the
intervals of decrease
f'(x)>0 and
and increase
for
the func-
the follo-
150
= cos (n/x);
f(x) = smx + cosx
(a)
Fund's
of
/ (x)
(b)
Solution, (a)
throughout the
on
= sin
ji
tj
As
obvious, the
is
2jx].
[0,
The function y = cos (n/x) is defined and

number scale, except at the point x =
ji
of y'
sign
differentiable
0\
with that
coincides
the multi-
of
plier sin (n/x).
>
< n/x <
sin (n/x) <
s\n(n/x)
(1)
if
2kn
1)
1) Jt
<
(2k
(k
1, 2,
..);
if
(2)
(2k -f
<
jt/*
1)
n.
,2Jfe+l
in
intervals
in the
Hence, the function increases
and decreases
2(6
2k
'
the intervals
26
+2
2k-\-\
Investigate the behaviour of the function f(x)

3x in the interval ( ji/2, n/2).
Solution. The derivative
3.5.3.
= 2s\nx +
-ftanx
f/
(a:)
v
7
'
= 2 cos # H
ri
o
3
COS
5
2
COS
(1
*) (1
COS X
2 COS
COS X
_ 4 sin
sin(3A:/2)
(jc/2)
cos 2 x
is
positive
only
at
3.5.4.
in
= 0.
the
intervals
Hence, in
Prove that at
x
n/2,
( k/2,
0<#<1
0)
jx/2)
and
the
(0, n/2) and vanishes

function / (a:) increases.
the inequalities
x /3 < arc tan < x x*/6

3
a:
are fulfilled.
Solution.
is
We will prove only the right inequality (the

proved analogously).
The derivative
of
the function
f (x)
is
= arc tan x x + X
-g-
equal to
/'(*>=_!
/
1+JC 2
gl
2
= *2(l
(*
-i)
+x
2
)
left
one
The function
scale,
f(x)
in particular,
side this segment

[0,
1]
Testing a Function for Monotonicity
3.5.
is
it
is
/' (x)
<
continuous throughout the entire number

continuous in the interval [0, 1], and in0. Therefore, f (x) decreases on the interval
and, consequently, for any point x,
/(x)</(0) =
fulfilled,
tanx
the inequality
1,
x + <
a:
~q
whence
< x
arc tanx
3.5.5.
0<x^
or
arc
is
151
-g-.
Prove the inequalities

x
x /6 < sin* < x

3
at
> 0.
O^p^l
3.5.6. Prove that for

and for any positive a and b
the inequality (a
by^.a p bP is valid.
Solution. By dividing both sides of the inequality by bP we get
or
where x
Let
show
us
that the inequality
(*)
holds true at any positive x.
Introduce the function
f(x)=
The derivative
/'
{x)
of
= pxP'
1+xP (\+x)P; x>0.
this function
1
p(l+x)P' = p
-p
(X+'xy-p
pÔ
positive everywhere, since, by hypothesis, 1

and x > 0.
Hence, the function increases in the half-open interval [0, oo), i.e.
whence 1 + xp >(1 +x)p, which
f(x)=l+xP (l+x)P>f{0)
completes the prcof. If we put p=\/n then we obtain
is
3.5.7. Prove that the function y = x b

2x*
x increases everywhere,
x* decreases everywhere.
and the function y=l
3.5.8.
Determine the
intervals
of
increase
and decrease
(a)
(c)
= x* + 2x 5;
f(x) = cosxx;
f(x)
(b)
(d)
= In (1 x
f(x) = -jx?~;
f (x)
);
for
the
152
(e)/W = H5;
Prove the following inequalities:
3.5.9.
tan*
(a)
(b) e
> x + x*/3,
l+x
>
(c)
3.5.10.
f(x)
=x
at
At
ax
?.5.11.
>
a:
(0
if
jt/2);
x\
1.
what
values of the coefficient a does

increase along the entire number scale?
At what value
decrease along the entire

3.6.
<x<
values of
for all
function
the
of b does the function
f (x)
(0 f{x)
= s'mx bx + c
number
scale?
Maxima and Minima of
a Function
defined on the interval

then an inthe point of maximum of
is called
the function f (x) [the point of minimum of the function f (x)] if
there exists a neighbourhood
of the point x
such that the
inequality f(x)^.f(x ) [f (x)^f(x )] holds true within it.
The generic terms for points of maximum and minimum of a function are the points of extremum.
A Necessary Condition for the Existence of an Extremum. At
points of extremum the derivative /' (x) is equal to zero or does
not exist.
The points at which the derivative f (x)
or does not exist are
called critical points.
Sufficient Conditions for the Existence of an Extremum.
I.
Let the function f (x) be continuous in some neighbourhood of
the point x
If
y=f(x)
function
terior point x
of
this
is
interval
UX
fi
<x
and /'(#)<
at x > x (i.e. if in mothrough the point x the derivative changes
sign from plus to minus), then at the point x the function reaches
1.
If
/'(#)>
ving from
left
at
to right
maximum.
2.
If
/' (x)
<
at
<x
ving through the point x

sign from
a
minus
to plus),
and
from
/' (x)
>
at
>x
(i.e.
if
in
mo-
to right the derivative changes
left
then at the point x
the function reaches
minimum.
the derivative does not change sign in moving through the

then there is no extremum.
II. Let the function f (x) be twice differentiate (that is /' (x )
0)
the function has a
at a critical point x
If f"(x )<0, then at x
the function has a minimum;
maximum; if /" (x )
0, then at x
but if f" (x )
0, then the question of the existence of an extremum
at this point remains open.
3.
If
point x
>
{)
is
{rn
(x
If
of a
Function
153
= r(x )=...=P''-(x = 0, but /<>(x )^0. H

(x
< there a maximum at # and at
f
Let f'(x n )
even, then at
III.
Maxima and Minima
3.6.
>
{)
is
minimum.
0,
(n)
is odd, then there is no extremum at the point x

Let a function y = f(x) be represented parametrically:
/2
IV.
= <p(0
= ty(t),
where the functions <p(t) and ty(t) have derivatives both of the first
and second orders within a certain interval of change of the argument t, and cp' (0=7^0. Further, let, at t = t
(/)
= o.
Then:
(a)
if
(/
<
(b)
i|/ (/
if
= *o =
the
= 0,
the
function
= f(x)
has a
maximum
at x
has a
minimum
at
 0,
= f(x)
function y
the
0,
= *o = <P('o);
if
(/
i|5
question of the
existence of an
extremum
remains open.
The points
which q/
at
3.6.1. Using the

wing functions:
(a)
(b)
first
vanishes require a special study.
(/)
derivative,
9x +
/(*)=** 8x* + 22x 24x+
f(x)
= -jx'
1)
Solution, (a)
number
entire
(*-3)
extrema
the
of
the follo-
7;
(c)
find
12;
2
;
The function
scale.
/' (x)
is defined
and differentiate over the
Therefore, only the real roots of the derivative
= 3x* 3x
I8x = 3x (x +
2)
(x3)
expression to zero, we find the

(they should always be arranged in an increasing order). Let us now investigate the sign of
the derivative in the neighbourhood of each of these points. Since
there are no critical points to the left of the point
2, the
derivative at all the points x
2 has one and the same sign: it
in the interval (
is negative. Analogously,
2, 0) the derivative is
positive, in the interval (0, 3) it is negative, at x
3 it is positive. Hence, at the points x
3 we have minima
2 and x 3
are
critical
critical
points.
points: x x
Equating
= 2,
x2
this
= 0,
x3
=3
x=
<
x
/( 2)^ 9 and
mum
/ (0)
= 7.
/ (3)
= 40-^-
=
,
and
at
the
point
>
*2
= 0,
maxi-
154
(c) Just
derivative
as
item
(a),
since
the
in
/'(#),
(x)
= (x +
l)
- 3) + 3x (x +
X (x 3) = 3 (x +
3
(x
Equating
2
)
x2
(x):
3) + 2x (x +
(x 3) (2x -3x
l)
(x
3
1
we
this expression to zero,
^ = -1,
Fund's
the critical points are the roots of the

function is defined and differentiate
throughout the number scale. Find f

f'
of
^(3-|/T7)/4,
*,
find
1).
the critical points:
= (3 + |/T7)/4,
x4
= 3.
Let us tabulate the signs of the derivative in the intervals between the critical points:
Intervals
Sign of
/'
<
<
<
x2
x2
<
<
x3
:i
<
<
x4
xA
<
(x)
seen from the table, there is no extremum at the point

there is a minimum at the point x 2 a maximum at the
point x 3 and a minimum at the point # 4
As
xt
is
1,
3.6.2. Using the

wing functions:
(a)
/ (x)
(b)
derivative, find
first
=3
(x)='t/(x-iy+V(x+iy.
Solution, (a) The function

the number scale.
Let us find the derivative:
From
x=
the extrema of the follo-
the equation f'(x)
is
defined and continuous throughout
we
the roots of the
find
derivative:
1.
Furthermore, the derivative goes to infinity at the point x = 0.

x 3 =l. The results
0,
1, x 2
Thus, the critical points are * 1=
investigating the sign

in the
neighbourhood of these
points are given in Fig.
40.
The
investigation
shows that the function
of
of the derivative
has
two maxima:
3.6.3.
extrema
/(
1)
= 2;
/(1)
=2
Using the second derivative,

and
find out
minimum
/ (0)
= 0.
the character of the
3.6.
(a)
(b)
=2
Maxima and Minima
of
a Function
155
sin a;-|-cos2x;
f(x)^2x i
84* +
15x 2
8.
Solution, (a) Since the function is a periodic one we may confine

ourselves to the interval [0, 2n}. Find the first and second derivatives:
= 2 cosx 2 sin 2x== 2 cos x (1 2 sin x)\

= 2sinx 4 cos 2x.
2s\nx) =
From the equation 2 cos (1
y'
y"
a:
points on the interval

x
Now
= jt/6,
find the sign of
[0,
determine
the
critical
2n}\
x 2 =ji/2,
the second
x3
= 5jx/6,
x4
= 3ji/2.
at each
derivative
critical
point:
= 3 < 0; hence, we have a maximum y (n/6) = 3/2 at

the point x = Jt/6;
hence, we have a minimum # (ji/2) =
(jx/2) 2 > 0;
at the
point x = ji/2;
hence, we have a maximum y (5ji/6) = 3/2
(5ji/6) = 3 < 0;
= 5jx/6;
at the point
y" (3jx/2) = 6 > 0; hence, we have a minimum #(3^/2) = 3 at
the point x = 3jt/2 (see Fig. 41).
y" (xc/6)
(/"
a'
:j
Fig. 41
3.6.4.
Investigate the following functions for extrema:
^<Hr +3 ô
Solution,
(a)
)
)
Though the derivative

/
_2(jr<0),
3(x>0)
exists at all points, except the point

minus to plus when passing through
minimum
here:
/ (0)
= 5 > / (*)
at
x=
the
0,
and changes sign from

= 0, there is no
point x
l<x<0.
155
This
at
of
explained by the fact that the function
is
Functus
discontinuous
is
0.
the point x
(b) Here the derivative
/' (x)
= 4x(x
0) also exists at
all
points,
except at x
0, and it changes sign from minus to plus when pass0. Nevertheless, we have here a maximum
ing through the point x
but not a minimum, which can readily be checked.
It is explained by the fact that the function is discontinuous at
the point x
0.
3.6.5.
(a)
(b)
Find the extrema
/ (x)
= 3 ^4
+ 8 ^3_
f(x) = Ve*\.
Solution, (a) Here

8x*
3x*
tion f 1 (x)
18a: 2_|_
is
it
6 o
simpler to find the extrema of the func-
18x + 60. Since

x) = 2x + 24x 36jc=
fi(*) = 12(3* + 4*
f[
2x
(x
+ 2x 3)
3),
the critical
points are:
x1
x2
3,
= 0,
x3
of the extrema is readily determined from the

sign of the second derivative fl(
0; hence, at the point x
3)
the function f 1 (x) has a minimum, and the given function f (x)
hence, at
obviously has a maximum / ( 3)
0;
2/3,
f" (0)
the function f 1 (x) has a maximum, and f(x) a
the point x 2
minimum /(0) 5/6; / 1'(l)>0; hence, at the point x 3 =^\ the
50/53.
function f 1 (x) has a minimum, and f (x) a maximum /(lj
(b) In this case it is easier to find the points of extremum of
and the character
>
=
= 3
<
'
the radicand
which coincide with the points
of
extremum
Let us find the critical points of f 1 (x):

= 2xe x2 f[(x)=0 at the point x
f' (x)
0:
the second derivative at the point x
= 0.
of
the function
/ (x).
Determine the sign
of
f\{x)
= 2e*'{\+2x% fi(0)=2>0.
is
a minimum of the function
x=
Therefore the
point
will also be a
minimum
of the
given function
f (x):
f^{x)\
it
f(0)=0.
3.6.6. Investigate the character of the extremum of the function

0.
cos x at the point x
cosh x
y
Solution. The function y is an even one and apparently has an
extremum at the point x 0. To determine the character of the
3.6.
extremum
point x
Maxima and Minima
us evaluate
let
the
a Function
of
157
function
derivatives of this
at
the
= 0:
y'^smhx sin x,
y'(0)
= cosh^ cos x,
y"' = sinh x + sinx,
# = cosh x + cosx;
y"
y"(0)
y"'(0)=0;
(4)
Since the
non-zero derivative at the
first
= 0;
= 0;
=2 >
point x =
(0)
>
the
following
functions
is
derivative
a mi-
we have
an even order, which takes on a positive value,

nimum y(0) = 2 at this point.
of
3.6.7. Investigate
0:
the point x
0.
an extremum at
for
y=
(a)
cosx
= cos x + -y
j/'(0) = 0;
^"
(b)
= sinx + x
= cosx+1 x; y" (0)=0;
= sinjc y"'(0) = 1=^0.
a:
Solution, (a)
#//
/
1;
And so, the first non-zero derivative at the point x

vative of the third order, i. e. of an odd order; this
0.
there is no extremum at the point x
is
a deri-
means
that
Investigate the following functions for extrema:

2
sin 3x
x*e~*
(b) / (x)
3 sin*.
Solution, (a) The function f (x)
x*e~ x * is continuously differentiate everywhere. Equating the derivative
3.6.8.
(a)
(x)
/' (x)
= 4xe- x2 2x e~ x2 = x e~ x2 (4 2/)
points:
= V2\
Compute
find the critical
to zero,
/" (x)
x2
= 0;
x.,
= V2.
the values of the second derivative at the critical points:
= Wx^-** 8x*e~ x
lOx'e-**
+ 4xe-* =
2
= 2x e- x2 {6 9x -\-2x y
r(0) = 0; r(-K2)<0; f" (V~2 < 0.
Consequently, at the points x = K2 and x =-f-j/2 the function
reaches a maximum
(1^2) = 4e~ = \ As far as the critical
point x =
concerned, nothing definite can be said as yet, we
2
>
is
have
to find derivatives of
order!).
the
first
But
sufficient
f (x)
of
higher orders (up to the fourth
cumbersome, therefore we will turn to

condition of an extremum: let us find the signs
this process
is
Ch. III. Differential Calculus: Investigation of fund's
158
of
the
*a
=0:
derivative
first
neighbourhood
the
in
of the
critical
point
/'(-1)<0; /'(1)>0.
Hence,
at
3.6.9.
= the
y = f(x)
point
the
The function
= 0.
(2 <t <2).
/(0)
represented parametrically:
is
= <p(t) = 5P 20/ + 7,
y== ty(t) = 4P 3t \8t \-3
x
minimum
has a
function
Find the extrema of this function.

have
Solution.
We
<p'(0
(2,
In the interval
Find
2)
it
i|/(0=
(i.
e.
at
(t)
= 24/ 6;
(i.e.
12/
6/ 18 =
*=
(c)
(e)
1 )
y=:f(x)
#=31) and
1033/32).
= x*e-*\
(b)
= - x- V(^W;
= ^/2x + 3jc 36jc;
/ (*)
=
x In *;
/ (*)
f(x)
(c)
the
'<*>=.(>.
(d)
f (3/2) = 30 >
0,
has
f(x)
f (x)
0.
maximum #=14
a
*/
17.25 at
at
= 3/2
Ax
xa
-|-
'
14
=
a:
(g) f(x)
following
=
= s'm xx\
(b)
f (x)
f(x) = s\nxx + ^ ;
e v*,
<d >
considered interval of va-
8x + 2'
a
3.6.11. Investigate
0:
the point x
(a)
0.
minimum
maxima and minima
(f )
the
of
^ = _ 30 <
function
the
at
3.6.10. Find the

(a) f{x)
20.
Consequently,
/=
to zero:
and f = 3/2.
1
*, =
?
These roots are interior points
riation of the parameter t.
Furthermore:
Whence
15/
y'(t)=0.
and equate
\|/ (/)
= 5f
if
x=0,
if
x=
= x In
functions
f(x)==s'mx
2
a:.
for
x +
an extremum
x*j3;
at
3.7. Finding the Greatest and the Least Values
0/
a Function
59*
3.7. Finding the Greatest and the Least

Values of a Function
The
value of a continuous function f (x) on an

attained either at the critical points, or at the
end-points of the interval. To find the greatest (least) value of the
function we have to compute its values at all the critical points
on the interval [a, b], the values f(a), f (b) of the function at the
end-points of the interval and choose the greatest (least) one out
of the numbers obtained.
If a function is defined and continuous in some interval, and if
this interval is not a closed one, then it can have neither the
greatest nor the least value.
greatest
interval
b]
[a,
(least)
is
3.7.1. Find the greatest and the least

functions on the indicated intervals:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
= 2x 3a: - \2x+ on
f(x) = x \nx on [1, e\\
= xe~ x on [0, +00];
f (x)
f(x) = V(\-x*)(l + 2x*) on
2
f(x)
[2,
5/2];
[-1.
1].
the
following
Solution, (a) Find the derivative

I'
It
values of
vanishes at two
(x)
points:
f (x):
= 6x 6x 12.
x =
and x = 2. They both lie in-2
z
consequently both of them
2
'
side the indicated
interval
>
consideration. To find the extreme values of

the function it is necessary to compute its values at the points
a-j
and x 2 and also at the end-points of the segment:
must be taken
into
f(-2)
Hence, the
(b) Find
= 19, f(A) = _16 2

/2 J
greatest value
/( 1) = 8 and the least f(2) = 19.
the critical points: f (x) = x(l + 2\nx). The derivative
= -3,
f(-l)
= 8;
/(2)
'
is
(x) does not vanish inside the given interval

[1, e]. Therefore
there are no critical points inside the indicated interval. It now
remains to compute the values of the function at the end-points of
the interval
[1,
e]
f(l)
Thus, /(1)
is
the
least
= 0;
f(e)
value
of
= e\
the function and f(e)
=e
the
greatest.
3.7.2. Find the greatest and the

(a)
f/
= sin
a;
sin
2a;
on (00,
00);
least
values of
the following
Ch.
160
III.
Differential Calculus:
= arc cosx on [ V
y = x + ]/ x on [0, 4].
2
(b)
(c)
Represent the
Solution, (a)
whence
riod
Hence,
among
values
vative
function y
= sin
a:
sin 2x in the form
cos 3x
2
an even one and has

greatest and the
on the interval [0, n]. Find the
function
extrema
the
J/2/2];
cos x
is
least
deri-
y'\
= y(3sin 3x sin x).
the derivative vanishes at the points
[0,
n]
x,
= 0,
Compute
x2
= arc cos yL=
x3
= arccos^
= y(n) =
= 4-
arc cos
r_
equal to
3.7.3.
value
least
function
of the
4/(3/3), and
in the interval
oo,
oo)
the greatest to 4/(3 1/3).
The function
f(x)=ax + ^
consists
rz=zjl -
vi
Hence, the
x^
'
the values of the function at these points:
y(0)
is
a pe-
to seek the
sufficient
is
it
y'
In
seen that the
is
it
2jx.
2/2,
Investigation of Fund's
two summands:
of
independent
variable
one
the
x,
(a,
x>0)
b,
summand
other
is
inversely
proportional
proportional
to the
to
it.
Prove that this function takes on the least value at x = ]/~b/a.

Solution. Find the roots of the derivative f (x) in the interval
oo):
(0,
f'(x)
at x
tion
= V'b/a (x>0).
f (x)
reaches
Since
= a- =
f" (x)
minimum
= 2b/x> >
at
this
for
critical
3.7.4. As a result
x the numbers x lt x 2
is required to find at
the errors
It
of
of
,
X)
will be the least.
> 0,
the func-
point. This
extremum (minimum) in the interval (0,

Vb/a the function f (x) attains the least value.
only
x
any x
oo).
is
the
Hence,
at
measurements of an unknown quantity

xn are obtained.
what value of x the sum of the squares
- Xl r + (x-x +
2 )*
+ (*-*B
2
)
Finding the Greatest and the Least Values
3.7.
Compute
Solution.
1'
The only
X)
of
Fund ion
161
the derivative
= 2 (xx + 2(xx )+...+2

t
t )
root of the derivative
(x
n ).
is
Then, for
f(x) has its
all
x we have
minimum
Being the only
f" (x)
> 0.
2n
====
Therefore, the function
the point
at
minimum,
coincides
it
with the
the function (cf. Problem 1.3.8).

And so, the best (in the sense of "the principle
squares") approximate value of an

metic mean of the values x ly x 2
,
3.7.5.
Find the
term
largest
Consider
Solution.
[1,
oo).
the
xn
is
value of
minimum
the arith-
the sequence
+200
function
f (x)
=^
2QQ
in
the interval
Since the derivative

1
is
/i
the
unknown quantity x
in
of
least
positive
at
<x<
W~
jJ/400
(400-^)
(x 3
+ 200)
and
negative
at
x>
j/400,
the
< x < j/^400 and decreases at # > jJ/400.

/
follows that the largest term
inequality
the
From
7<j/ 400 <8
Since a =49/543 > a =8/89,
in the sequence can be either a or a
function
f (x) increases at
it
the largest term in the given sequence
3.7.6. Find the greatest and the

(a)
f(x)
= ]-x*-^x-jX* + 2
(d)
least
on [-2,
= |/4 x on [2, 2];

on
/ (x) = arc tan x y In
(b) f (*)
(c)
jt
/(jc)=2sinjc
6 -3148
+ sin2A'
on
0,
|k
is
values of the following
4];
162
(e)
f(x)
= x 2 In x
(i)f{x)=
2^ 2
on
+|
[1, e]\
for
-2<*<0; 0<*<2,
for
= 0.
Solving Problems in Geometry and Physics
3.8.
3.8.1. The force of a circular electric current acting on a small

magnet with the axis perpendicular to the plane of the circle and
passing through its centre is expressed by the formula
Cx
F=
(a 2
where a
x
= radius of the circle

= distance from the
(0 < x < oo)
+*
centre
3/f
)
the
of
circle
to
the
magnet
C--= constant.
At what x will the value

Solution. The derivative
of
F'(x)
be the greatest?
a2
=C
(a
~ 2x
l
+x v
2
has a single positive root x

alV~2. This solves the problem.
Note. It often happens that reasons of purely physical or geometric character make it unnecessary to resort to the differential
methods in investigating a function for the greatest or the least
value at the point under consideration.
Determine the most economical dimensions of an open-air

pool of volume 32 m 3 with a square bottom so that the
facing of its walls and bottom require the least quantity of ma3.8.2.
swimming
terial.
Solution. Let us denote the side of the bottom by x and the

height by y. Then the volume V of the pool will be
V = x 2 y = 32,
(*)
and the surface S to be faced
S x2
+ 4xy.
Expressing y through x from the relation
S = x2 + \x 1
X
Investigate
interval (0,
the
function
thus
=x +
l
we
(*),
obtained
for
minimum
oo):
S'
= 2jc^;
get
2*-^ = 0;
= 4.
in the
The
3.8.
163
single point thus found will obviously yield
the least value

function S, since it has no greatest value (it increases un> oo).
O and
boundedly as x
And so, the required dimensions of the pool are: x 4 m, y ^2m.
the
of
Inscribe
3.8.3.
into
a given sphere a cylinder
with the greatest
lateral surface.
3.8.4. 20 m of wire is available for fencing off a flower-bed

which should have the form of a circular sector. What must the
radius of the circle be if we wish to have
y
a flower-bed of the greatest possible surface
area?
Solution.
(see
Let
us
denote
and the
Fig. 42). Then
circle
by x
2O
the radius of the

length of the arc by y
= 2jc + 0,
whence
Fig. 42
= 2(10-*).
The area
of
S = ^xy = x
the circular sector
10
The derivative S'(#)
Since the least value S
(10
x)
(0<#<10).
2x
has a root x--=5.

reached at the end-points of the
interval [0,
10], the obtained value
x
5 yields the greatest surface area S.
is
required
construct
of capaThe thickness of the material
city V
is d. What dimensions (the base radius
and height) should the reservoir have
so as to ensure the least possible
expenditure of the material?
Solution. Figure 43 represents a lonreservoir,
gitudinal
section of the
where the radius of the base of the
inner cylinder is denoted by x and
the
inner cylinder,
the height of
volume of the bottom
by h. The
3.8.5.
It
is
to
an open cylindrical reservoir

.
Fig. 43
and
the
wall
of
the
reservoir
+ df d + n [(x + df x
V=
jx
On
the other hand, by hypothesis
(x
V
whence
2
]
= nd (x + df + nh (2xd + d
we must have
= nx
).
*)
Ch.
164
Substituting into
Investigation of Functus
III.
we
(*),
get
^ + ^.
V^nd (x + dY + ^(2xd + d')^nd(x+dr + 2

Now we have
extremum at x >
We
investigate
to
the obtained function
(x)
for
an
0.
have
2
2
= M<+">y-r.>
V (x) = 2nd(x + d)- -^-^
The only positive root of the derivative

This solves the problem:
3.8.6.
factory
is
to
be
is
connected
the point
x=
y'Vjn.
by a highway with a
The distance DB
factory to the railway is
0
equal to a the segment AB of the
/
railway equals /. Freight charges on
the highway are
times higher than
/
on the railway (m
1).
a
How should the highway
be
connected with the railway so as to
/'
~
ensure the least freight charges from
^
A
x
A
p
factory to town?
b
Solution. First, let us make a drawAA
r is 44
It
ing (see Fig. 44).
absolutely
is
clear that the highway must also be
straight (a straight line is shorter than any curve connecting two
given points!). Furthermore, the point P cannot lie either to the
the point B. If we denote
left of the point A or to the right of
the distance AP by x it will mean that
Let the freight charges on the railway (per ton-kilometre) be k,
then the freight charges on the highway will be km. The total
freight charge
to A amounts to
for transporting loads from
straight
on which
railway
town A
from
is
situated.
the
/
/
>
0^*^/.
N = kx + km Va + (l x)\
2
Hence, we have to
f
X)
find
the least value of the function
= x + m y a + (xi)\ o<*</.
*
Take the derivative
(x
/)
DP

It
3.8.
vanishes only at one point:
= l-
j/~m 2
If
165
this point
the interval
in
lies
[0,
/],
i.e.
if
or
1
tri
it
yields the least freight charge (which is easy to check).
the indicated inequality is not observed, then f (x) increases on
0.
[0, /] and therefore the least freight charge is obtained at x
then
If
In constructing an a-c transformer it is important to insert

the coil a cross-shaped iron core of greatest possible surface
area. Fig. 45 shows the cross-section
of the core with appropriate dimensions. Find the most suitable x and
y if the radius of the coil is equal
3.8.7.
into
to a.
the source of current is an

then the effect P (watts)
obtained by cutting a resistance R
(ohms) in the circuit is expressed by
the formula
3.8.8.
If
electric cell,
E2 R
(/?+/?/)*'
Fig. 45
E is electromotive force in volts and R the internal resistance in ohms.

Find the greatest effect which can be obtained at given E and R {
where
3.8.9. A
What must
use the least
tin
be
of
volume V has the form
given
of a cylinder.
ratio of its height h to diameter
the
amount
of
material for
its
2R
so as to
manufacture?
3.8.10. In a given cone inscribe a cylinder having the greatest

surface so that the planes and centres of the base circles
of the cylinder and cone coincide.
lateral
3.8.11.
Through
Given
point
this point
draw
(1,
2)
in
a straight
with the positive semi-axes,
the
orthographic coordinates.
that it forms, together
line so
triangle of the least area.
2px
on the axis of the parabola y 2
3.8.12. Given a point
at a distance a from its vertex. Find the abscissa of the point
on the curve nearest to the given point.
Ch. III. Differential Calculus: Investigation of FuncVs
166
The expenses sustained
in one hour's sailing of a ship

empirical formula of the form
bv\ where a and b are constants for a given ship, and v is the
a
ship's speed in knots (one knot is equal to 1.85 km/hr). In this
formula the constant part of the expenses a refers to depreciation
and crew's upkeep, and the second term (bv's ) to the fuel cost.
At what speed will the ship cover any required distance at the
lowest cost?
3.8.13.
are
expressed
roubles
in
by
an
from
three boards of equal width. At

boards be placed to ensure the largest
cross-sectional area of the trough?
3.8.14.
trough
built
is
what slope should the
lateral
3.8.15. A tank with a vertical wall of height h is installed on

horizontal plane. Determine the position of an orifice, at which
the range of a liquid jet will be the greatest if the velocity of
flow (according to Torricelli's

the depth of the orifice.
3.8.16.
Two
of
point of
tance
of
is
equal to
Y 2gx,
where x
aircraft
at
aircraft
be the least and what
Convexity and Concavity of a Curve. Points of
3.9.
is
are flying in a straight line and in the

an angle of 120 to each other and with an equal
v km/hr. At a certain moment one aircraft reaches the
intersection of their routes, while ihe second is at a disa km from it. When will the distance between the
same plane
speed
law)
is
that distance?
Inflection
If f"(x)<0 (> 0) on an interval
on this interval is convex (concave),
any of its tangent lines.
(a,
b) y
i.e.
it
then the curve y

is
f(x)
situated below (above)
If /"(a: )
or does not exist but f (x ) does exist and the second
derivative f" (x) changes sign when passing through the point x Qy
then the point (x 0l f (x )) is the point of inflection of the curve
3.9.1. Find the intervals in which the graphs of the following

functions are concave or convex and locate the points of inflection:
(a)
= x' + x* 18a: + 24a: 12;

2
(b) y---3x*
8x + 6x*+l2;
3
=x+x
= 4l/>-l) + 20K(x-l)
y = ^r (*>)
l
(d)
(e)
(0
'>;
(/
]J
(x^ly,
(g)
(h)
Convexity and Concavity. Points of Inflection
3.9.
= *sin(ln*) (x >
= 2-|**-l|.
Solution,
(a)
12* 2
Hence, y"
0);
Find the derivatives:

y'
whence y"
167
at
>
= 4x + 3x 36x + 24,
+ 6* 36 = 12(V+-|- 3)
3
x1 =
2, x 2 = 3/2.
on the intervals (00,
2) and
00);
(3/2,
<
on the interval ( 2, 3/2). The sign of the second derivative determines the convexity or concavity of the curve in a given interval*
This enables us to compile the following table:
<
2 ~2
Sign of y"
Conclusion
Concavity
<
<
1
+
Convexity
Concavity
Since the second derivative changes its sign when passing through
the points (
the points x 1
and * 2
124) and
3/2,
2,
= 2
are points of inflection.
(d)
Find the derivatives:

/
10
f= 9-i77//
+T x "<
The second derivative is non-zero everywhere and loses its meaning

we have y" < and the curve is conat the point x = 0. At x <
vex, at x >
and the curve is concave.
we have y" >
At the point x=0 the first derivative y'=l, the second deriva-
x=0.
tive changes sign when passing through the point

the point (0, 0) is a point of inflection.
(g) Find the derivatives:
y'
= sin (In x) + cos (In *),
y"
= y [cos (In x) sin (In*)] = -~- sin
The second derivative vanishes

Xk
î/A + kn
9
&
at
(-4-
In
Therefore
the points
= 0, 1,
zh 2,
...
The function sin(jt/4

In*), and together with it y\ changes sign
when passing through each point x k Consequently, the points x h
.
Ch. II L Differential Calculus: Investigation
168
In the intervals
are the abscissas of the points of inflection.

2&Jl + JT/4^
^>2fcjl-3Jl/4
the curve
is
concave, and in the intervals

^>2fcjl
it
is
(h)
Fund's
o)
2&Jl+ 5JT/4^
+ JT/4
convex.
The given function can be written in the following way:
(x
2+
x>
x<
y=
(a:
1),
1),
1,
1.
Therefore
r
x=
At the point
5x\ *>
_
~\
\
x<l.
5x\
there
no derivative. Further,
is
20a: 3
1,
x>
x<l;
20x\
y"
at
tervals:
the point x
( oo,
Compile
0),
= 0.
(0,
Hence, we have to investigate
three
in-
oo).
(1,
1),
table of signs of y"\
<
<
Convexity
Conclusion
(0,
1)
is
<
>
Sign of y"
The point
1,
Concavity Convexity
point of inflection, the point
(1,
2)
being
a corner point.
3.9.2. What conditions must the coefficients a, b c satisfy for

bx 3
cx 2 -{-dx
e to have points of inflection?
ax*
the curve y
Solution. Find the second derivative:
y"=
The curve has points
\2ax*
has different real roots,
inflection
of
e>ax
i.e.
+ Sbx + 2c.
and only
if
the equation
+ 3bx + c =
when
3b
if
the discriminant 9b 2
8ac >
0.
24ac > 0,
or
3.9.
3.9.3.
Convexity and Concavity. Points of Inflection
At what values
169
a will the curve
of
= x* + ax* + ^-x +
2
be concave along the entire number scale?

Solution. Find y"\
y"
+ 6ax + 3.
\2x*
number
The curve
will be concave along the entire

values of x, i.e. when
for all
Ax 2
For this
be
it
fulfilled;
is
+ 2ax + >0
for
all
if
y"
^0
16
scale
x.
necessary and sufficient that the inequality 4a 2
whence
|a|<2.
3.9.4.
Show
curve
that the
--=
has three points of

{
inflec-
tion lying in a straight line.

Solution. Find the derivatives:
x 2x+
*
'
'
l)
2x
6x 2
:i
-\
'
6x
(x*-f-l) 3
"
The second derivative becomes
which
three points,
zero at
the
are
[i
+ 3x 3x = 0,
2
whence
x
[/
3~,
x2
- 2 + [/T,
<
Sign
of
00
<
-2-
<
J/T
-2-
y"
-2-l
< v<
<
F"3
^3
x
<
<
1
<
(- 2 - kT.
are points of
inflection.
^)
It
is
easy
<
oo
+
Concavity
Convexity
Concavity
Convexity
_L_
Conclusion
Hence,
j/"
<-2r
y"\
Let us compile the table of signs of
x,
(-2 + ^3.
to
^p-).d.
ascertain that
all
of
them
Ch. Ill
170
lie
in
Indeed, the coordinates of these points satisfy
a straight line.
_2 }/T
-2+/" 3 -1
(1- }/T)/4
the relation
Fund's
Investigation of
(\+V 3)/4+l
3.9.5. Investigate the curves represented by the following equations for convexity (concavity) and locate the points of inflection:
(a)
(b)
= x- ^(x-3)
x
( jx/2 < x < jt/2).
y=e
2
s[n
3.9.6.
lie
Show
that the points of inflection of the curve
on the curve y 2
3.10.
+ # = 4x
2
(4
= xsmx
Asymptotes
A straight line is called an asymptote to the curve y f(x) if

the distance from the variable point
of the curve to the straight
recedes to infinity along some
line approaches zero as the point
branch of the curve.
We will distinguish three kinds of asymptotes: vertical, horizon-
and inclined.
Vertical asymptotes. If at least one of the limits of the function
or on the left) is equal to infif (x) (at the point a on the right
a \s a vertical asymptote.
nity, then the straight line x
A, then the straight line
Horizontal asymptotes. If lim f(x)
tal
y=Â
is
a horizontal
the left one as x
Inclined asymptotes.
->
00
asymptote (the right one
as
oo).
then
exist,
-*
the
cc
and
the limits
If
lim
X
x> +
straight
kv
lim
*- +
line
[f (x)
k x]=b
1
oo
= k x+b
1
is
an
inclined
(right)
asymptote.
If
the limits
Urn
X
-+
CO
=k
and
lim
X
-*
[f (x)
k x]=b
2
00
k 2 x-\-b 2 is an inclined (left) asymphorizontal asymptote may be considered as a particular

0.
case of an inclined asymptote at k
exist,
tote.
then the straight line y
3.10.1. Find the asymptotes of the following curves:

(a)
#=
-^3
(d)
#=
7 + 4,v
(b)
2
;
y=
(e)
^r+3x;
y-=xe^;
(f)
(c)
= -^;
</=--f
In
= Vl + x* + 2x\
y = 2Vtf + T.
(i)
The curve has
Solution, (a)
lim
-+
sin-L;
asymptote x
= 3,
,x
'
T-
oo
3'
point x = 3 is a point of discontinuity of the second

Find the horizontal asymptote:
(the
lim
*
And
lim
a:
->
->
00 X
asymptote
vertical
lim
x-1+0
-+
=3
and
a horizon-
x=
since
1,
Â
-r
\*~~
+ 3x = +
00.
Find the inclined asymptotes:
k=
b
=
X
lim
GO
lim
(ykx)
a;
Thus,
=3;
-*
3*
3x = 3
the straight line
y=3x+3
3a:
lim
co
->
asymptote
inclined
(e)
==
lim
an
is
Fig. 46).
curve has a vertical asymptote
The
lim
-* +
*/
Hg. 46
(see
lim
X
->
xe l/x
x=
since
-^-=+00
lim
oo
Problem 3.2.2.).
Find the inclined asymptotes:
(see
&
=
X
(a^ 1 /*
lim
*
-*
CO
lim 4"=
- CO *
x) =
lim
Xv
-+.
lim
X
->
V3
~
CO
^=
g=l;
l x
e l
kind).
= 5.
00;
(-^13^==
x ~~
lim
a:
lim
x-+
lim
X
= 5.
The curve has a
(b)
y
GO
the curve has a vertical asymptote x
so,
one y
tal
-*
since
5x
lim
x
171
vertical
0"
x^3T
+x
y=}/\
(h)
(g)
Asymptotes
3. 10.
'
.
:
lim
l/x -
172
of
Thus, the straight line y

x+\ will be an inclined asymptote
the curve (see Fig. 47). Note that
liin
-V
The function
(f)
is
->
-*
0.
and continuous
defined
xe l/x
Urn
x
<
and x
>
e ^ >
at
0,
i.e.
at
3e
Since the function is continuous at

every point of the domain of definition,
vertical
asymptotes can exist only on
finite boundaries of the domain of definition.
As x >
y=
lim
we have
^\n(e ~)
lim
In (e
liin
Fig
As x
(see
Problem
line
a;
47
^+
+ z)
=
3.2.2.),
not
is
i.
e.
the
straight
vertical asymptote.
we have
lirn
K-*\/(3e)
x\n[e
lim
3x
the line x=-l/(3e) is a vertical asymptote.

let us find the inclined asymptotes:
i.e.
Now
k
lira
X-*cc X
lira
[y
kx] =
1r
lirn
X-+cc
[n{l
-3x-e
lirn
x-*<x>
Hence,
(see Fig.
(g)
the
straight
line
y 3x2
an
is
2e
inclined
3^
2e
asymptote
48).
The curve has no
vertical asymptotes, since
continuous everywhere. Let
us
limits will be different as x+

to consider two cases separately.
look for
oo and
the function is
asymptotes. The
-oo, therefore we have
inclined
173
3.10. Asymptotes
*,=
[i
*^ +
6,
>"
',
+ 2 -
CO
Yl +
lim
X-*
[|/T+72 --;e|:
lim
x* + oo
Fig.
left
Iim
fe
lim
oo
j/
-f *
48
= 3x.
Fig. 49
(as
x-+
jClT^f^
oo):
lim
iH^J
+ x + 2a; x\ =
2
since both summands

0.
positive at x
0.
+*
the curve has an asymptote y
asymptote
1+JC 2
lim
*-*
Find the
= 3;
=
Thus, as
+2
CO
(^1+a:2 + 2x 3x)
lim
+ oo):
x-^
Find the right asymptote (as
([/l+r* and
lim
a;))
0,
the denominator are
in
<
oo.
so, the curve has an asymptote y = x as x >
The curve has no vertical asymptotes, since it is continuous
x =^=0, and in the neighbourhood of the point x=^0 the function
And
(h)
at
is
bounded.
Let us find the inclined asymptotes.
lim
-00
We
have
lim
00
1-0=0.
X-+
Then
f
+ ^sin =% _
!
AT
as x
as v
+ oo,
oo.
174
Thus, the curve has two horizontal asymptotes: y

1 and y =
1
Fig. 49). The same result can be obtained proceeding from
symmetry about the origin and keeping in mind that the function
y is odd.
(see
3.10.2. Find the inclined
= j^-^
function
as
may
asymptote
and show that
oo
of the
graph
of the function
the interval (100, oo) this
in
be replaced by the linear function y
= x
with an
error not exceeding 0.01.

Solution. Find the inclined asymptote:
b=
X2
lim TT-t
lim
t4
V1+*
x+cc
And so,
Form
1;
x)
the equation of the asymptote

the difference:
-(*-!)
l+JC
1.
is
= x 1.
Hence, assuming
x>
for all
100,
we
introduce an error of not more than 0.01.
3.10.3. Find the asymptotes of the following curves:

*2
-6*+ 3
(a)
^==
(c)
y=x+(smx)/x;
(e)
(b)
= 2x arc cos
(d)
= xarctanx;
y = In (4 x
)\
3.11. General Plan for Investigating Functions and

Sketching Graphs
The analysis and graphing
by elementary methods
Using the methods
of differential calculus, we can now carry out a more profound and
comprehensive study of various properties of a function, and explain
the shape of its graph (rise, fall, convexity, concavity, etc.).
It
is convenient to investigate a function and construct its graph
were considered
in
Chapter
of
functions
1.3
and
1.5).
according to the following plan:

1.
2.
Find the domain of definition of the function.

Find out whether the function is even, odd or periodic.
3.11. Investigating Functions and Sketching Graphs
3.
Test the function
for continuity,
out
find
175
the discontinuities
and their character.

4. Find the asymptotes of the graph of the function.
5. Find the points of extremum of the function and compute the
values of the function at these points.
6. Find the points of inflection on the graph of the function,
compute the values of the function and of its derivative at these
points. Find the intervals of convexity of the graph of the function.
7. Graph the function using the results of this investigation. If
is necessary to specify certain regions of the curve, calculate the
it
coordinates of several additional points (in particular, the x- and
^/-intercepts).
This is a very tentative plan, and various alternatives are posFor instance, we recommend the student to begin sketching
the graph as soon as he finds the asymptotes (if any), but in any
case before the points of inflection are found. It should be remembered that in sketching the graph of a function the principal reference points are the points of the curve corresponding to the extremal
values of the function, points of inflection, asymptotes.
sible.
3.11.1.
(a)
Investigate and graph the following functions:
=x
3x* + 3x*
(b)
5;
y--=\/~x Vx+l;
y- -^
1
c)
y=-zi*
-4
(e)
= x+ln
(g)
= x*e
(x 2
1);
'x
;
d)
(f)
= -j sin 2* + cos*;
(h)
= arc sin 1=^-
Solution, (a) The function is defined and continuous throughout

the number scale, therefore the curve has no vertical asymptote.
x)
The function is even, since /(
f(x). Consequently, its graph
about the (/-axis, and therefore it is sufficient to
is symmetrical
investigate the function only on the interval [0, oo).
There are no inclined asymptotes, since as x-ôo the quantity
y turns out to be an infinitely large quantity of the sixth order
with respect to
x.
Investigate the
0'
= 6*
derivative:
first
I2x + = e>x(x* 2x +
s
=x{x 2 l) 2
e>x
1)
the critical points are:

*i
Since in the interval

increases.
1,
[0, oo)
*2
= 0>
the derivative
y'^0
the function
Ch.
176
III.
Fund's
Investigation of
Investigate the second derivative:
"
= 3(k
The positive roots
36* + 6 = 6 (5x 6x +
2
of the
*,
1 ).
second derivative:
1/K5,
*2
=1.
and pictorialness let us compile the following

the points of interest are arranged in an ascending
For convenience
where
table,
all
order:
(-
(f?0
7?)
+
y'
25
y"
(I.
<*>)
^5
-f
(5
-t-
23
On the right one more additional value of the function is computed to improve the graph after the point of inflection.
Using the results of the investigation and the above table and
taking into consideration the symmetry principle, we construct the
graph of the function (see Fig. 50). As is seen from the graph, the
function has roots
where
1.6.
(b) The function is defined and continuous over the entire number
a&
and is negative everywhere, since \/ x < \/ x + 1.

The graph has neither vertical, nor inclined asymptotes, since the
order of magnitude of y is less than unity as x* oo. Determine
scale
the horizontal asymptote:

lim
lim
(j/x
Hence, the straight

graph.
line
l)
y=^0
is
the horizontal asymptote
of
the
3.1 J. Investigating Functions and Sketching Graphs
The
177
derivative
first
3^/'(FH7
becomes zero
at
the point
x2
y
*i
and
infinity
,
xb
the
at
points
= 0.
-1
Fig. 50
Fig. 51
The second derivative

y
_ J_/
___2 \
3 V
3 J
_J
does not vanish and
Compile
-l
y'
00
y"
00
A)
1_
y#
3
is
infinite at the
same points x
1,
x3
= 0.
table:
(--{)
K-)
+
(0,
oo)
00
16
1
9yj
00
0.26
With the aid of this table, and of the asymptote y

the graph of the function (see Fig. 51).
construct
178
of
Fund's
The function
is
defined and continuous over the entire axis
The function is odd, its graph is
points
symmetrical about the origin, therefore it is sufficient to investigate
the function on the interval [0, oo).
The straight line x 2 \s a vertical asymptote:
(c)
except
at
x=2.
the
lim
*
-+ 2
2x s
x2
2* 3
lim
x-2 +
-\-
OO
Determine the inclined asymptote:

2x 2
lim
v_w
_1_
m X
lim (y
X
-*
-*
2x) =
+CC
Sx
y2x =
>
<
j
I
The
first
derivative
y
in
the interval
CD
8x
lim
+ CD
inclined asymptote #
The curve has an
[0,
4) 4x
4)
6x 2 (x 2
= 2,
lim
(x 2
= 2x,
and
> 2,
<2
2x (x 12)
~ (x
x
x
at
at
4)
oo) vanishes at the points
= 0, *=2]/~33.46
at the point x = 2.
*
and becomes infinite

~
x=
becomes zero
Compile a
at
the point
y"
(at
(A:
-h 12)
4)
and
infinite at
= 2.
table:
(0,
y'
16a:
2)
oo
+o
00
(2,
2/" 3
r
)
2 |/"3
(2V
3",
3
2
oo)
179
Using the results of the investigation, sketch the graph of the

function (see Fig. 52).
(e) The function is defined and continuous at all values of x for
oo,
which x 2
or |x|>l, i.e. on two intervals: (
1)
1>0
and
+ oo).
(1,
-A
4*
-1\
Fig. 53
Fig. 52
We
seek the vertical asymptotes:
lim
-
lim
lim
y=
[x
+ In (x
[x+
lim
= oo;
1)] = oo.
2
In (x
1)]
Thus, the curve has two vertical asymptotes:
x=
and x =
Find inclined asymptotes:

u
i-
lim
=
Jt
y =
lim [y
00
i-
lim
x] =
In
(a:
=
1
lim In (x
oo
In
,.
urn
(a:
1)
]-
l)=+oo.
X-+
-*
Hence, the curve has neither inclined, nor horizontal asymptotes.

Since the derivative
^ 1+
i
2*
^r
and is finite at all points of the domain of definition of the

function, only the zeros of the derivative
exists
x,=
can be
critical
- \V%
points. At the point
=-l + \f2
x = +
x2
the function
is
180
Ch.
III.
Fund's
Investigation of
= l~l
not defined; hence, there is one critical point x

ging to the interval (
00, 1). In the interval
derivative y'
and the function increase.
(1,
2 belon-
00) both the
>
hence,
curve
the
convex
is
and
everywhere,
at
the
point
= ^2^ 2.41 the function has a maximum

(2 + 2^2) 0.84.
y _ J/2) J/2 +
To
In
where there are no charactethe following additional points:
plot the graph in the interval (l,oo),
ristic
points,
x=2\
*/
we choose
= 2 + ln3^3.10
and
x=
1.2;
1.2
+ ln0.44
^0.38.
The graph of the function is shown in Fig. 53.

function is defined and continuous throughout the num(f) The
ber scale and has a period 2n. Therefore in investigating we may
confine ourselves to the interval [0, 2n\. The graph of the function
has no asymptote by virtue of continuity and periodicity.
Find the
first
derivative:
y'
On
the interval
[0,
*i
= cos 2x sin x.
2k]
has three roots:
it
= ~Q~
5ji
ji
"g"
^2
3ji
*8 == ~2~
Evaluate the second derivative:

y" ==
On
x,
the interval [0, 2n]
= y,
x2
2 sin 2x cos x.
it
has four roots:
= k + arc sin (1/4),
x3
= ^,
x4
= 2n arcsin(l/4).
Let us draw up a table of the results of investigation of all

points of the first and second derivatives (the table also
cludes the end-points of the interval [0, 2ji]).
tical
Since in the interval ^0,
-^ the roots
of
the
first
criin-
and second
alternate, the signs of the second derivative in the inits critical

points are indicated only for the last
intervals.
derivatives
tervals
three
between
The
results of the investigation enable us to construct the graph

the function (see Fig. 54).
(g) The function is defined, positive and continuous on each of
the intervals (
is a disconti00, 0) and (0, 00). The point x
of
ji
Jl
5ji
6~
~6~
181
3ji
AJ
(*
t)
(-)
x4
2ji
(* 4 .2ji)
y'
y"
]T3
3~
nuity. Since (see Problem 3.2.2.)

lim y
lim
x=0
the straight line
jt
e /*
[
limy
x-+
^-
Iirn
= oo
vertical asymptote.
is
lim x e Ux
2
*^
= )
But
= 0.
y=x e Ux
x+.oo.
There are no inclined asymptotes, eince the function

has the second order of smallness with respect to x as
\t/2
n
jc
2%
i*
-1
Fig. 54
Let
us find the extrema

evaluate the derivative:
y'
whence we
Since
for
find
= 2xe
of
[/x
the
function,
e = 2e
{
'
the only critical point
'*
{x
for
which purpose we
1/2),
*=y.
x=^=0
y" (x)
= 2*/* - e*'* + 1
= 1 e u* (2x* - 2x +
1)
>
0,
Ch.Iff.
182
on each
the
a
the
of
function
is
Differ eniial Calculus:
Investigation of
Fund's
intervals of the domain of definition the graph of

1
concave, and at the point x
/ 2 the function has
minimum
p*
*
1.87.
From
the information obtained we can sketch the graph as in Fig. 55.

oo, 0) and (V 2
oo) the
specify the graph in the intervals (
following additional points are used:
To
x=
= e~ ^ 0.37;
y = e^2J2.
l
1,
The function
(h)
x=l
defined and continuous

since at any x
is
throughout the number scale,

1-f-x
at
*>0.
continuous, the graph has no vertical asymphas a horizontal asymptote:
As the function
but
it
is
limy
x
The
first
1.
Since the function is even, we may confine

ourselves to the investigation of the function
Fig. 55
totes,
<
-*
arc sin
D=Hf.
(-
oo
derivative
2x (\+x 2x(\x
2
(1-**)*
(1+x
(l+x 2
4*
2 |*|
X (1+x 2
~
2
)
2 2
)
negative for x>0, therefore the function decreases

The derivative is non-existent
point x=0. By virtue of
at the
the symmetry of the graph about
the y-axis there will be a maxiis
mum
at
the
point
#(0)
= ^-.
=
No-
the
at
the point x
derivative is equal to
1,
1.
and the left one to
The second derivative is positice
that
right
tive:
x)
2(l+x 2 )2x
(l-fx 2 ) 4
8x
(i
+*
2 )3
>
for a
Hence, in the interval (0, oo) the graph of the function is concave.
Also note that the curve intersects with the x-axls at the points
1.
3.12. Algebr. and Transcendent. Equations
Taking into consideration the results of the investigation, construct the graph of the function (see Fig. 56).
3.11.2.
(a)
(c)
Investigate and graph the following functions:
y=\+x y; (b) y = j~^\

y = ~ + ^- (d) y = -^r
2
(e)
(f)
=y^-^=A-
y
y = x*\n(x+2);
\x
arc
(g)
tan atxÔ,
10
at
= 0.
3./2. Approximate Solution of Algebraic

and Transcendental Equations
Approximate determination
of isolated real roots of the equation

usually carried out in two stages:
roots, i.e. determining the intervals [a, P] which
1. Separating
contain one and only one root of the equation.
i.e.
computing them with the required
2. Specifying the roots,
degree of accuracy.
The process of separation of roots begins with determining the
a lt a 2
signs of the function f (x) at a number of points x
whose choice takes into account the peculiarities of the function / (x).
then, by virtue of the
turns out that / (a k ) f (a k+1 )
If it
0,
property of a continuous function, there is a root of the equation
6 in the interval (a ky a k+1 ).
f(x)
Real roots of an equation can also be determined graphically as
^-intercepts of the graph of the function y
f(x). If the equation
has no roots close to each other, then its roots are easily separated
by this method. In practice, it is often advantageous to replace
a given equation by an equivalent one
f(x)
is
<
*i (*)
= * (*)
where the functions

(x) and i|; 2 (x) are simpler than the function
f(x). Sketch the graph of the functions y = ty 1 {x) and y = 2 (x)
and find the desired roots as the abscissas of the points of intery\)
section of these graphs.
The Methods
the interval
= and f
proximation x 1
f(x)
of
1. Method of Chords.
If
contains the only real root of the equation
is continuous on the interval, then the first apfound by the formula
b]
[a,
(x)
is
Approximating a Root.
184
To obtain the second approximation x 2 a similar formula is applied to that of the intervals [a,
or [x 19 &], at the end-points
of which the function f (x) attains values having opposite signs. The
process is continued until the required accuracy is obtained, which
judged of by the length of the last obtained segment.
Method of Tangents (Newton's method). If f(a)f(b)<0, and
f (x) and F ( x ) are non-zero and retain definite signs for
then, proceeding from the initial approximation x (x [a, b]) for
which f (x ) r(*o)>0, we obtain all successive approximations of
is
2.
the root g by the formulas:
10 rw
"'
/'w
X"- Xn -*
To estimate the absolute error in the nth

apply the general formula
r(*-i)'
approximation we can
where
m =
1
min
\f(x)\.
Under the above conditions the method
of chords and the method

tangents approximate the sought-for root from different sides.
Therefore, it is usual practice to take advantage of their combination,
i. e.
to apply both methods simultaneously. In this case one can obtain
the most precise approximation of a root more rapidly and the calculations can be checked. Generally speaking, the calculation of the
approximations x l9 x 2
x n should be continued until the decimal
digits to be retained in the answer cease to change (in accordance
with the predetermined degree of accuracy!). For intermediate transformations we have to take one or two spare digits.
3. Iteration Method. The equation f(x)
is first reduced to the
of
form x = cp (x) where q/ (x)

q < 1 (q = const) for a^x^b. Starting from any initial value x [a b] successive approximations of
the root I are computed by the formulas x 1 = q) (x ), x 2 = q> (Xj),
xn =
^y( xn-i)' The absolute error in the nth approximation can be
estimated by the following formulas:
|
\t x n\<Tz^\xn -iXnl
if
the approximations x n _ 1 and x n
lie
on the same side
of the root,
and
I
Xn
if
the approximations x n _ 1 and x n
X n-1
lie
Xn
on different sides
of the root.
3.12. Algebr. and Transcendent. Equations
185
Locate the roots of the equation
3.12.1.
Solution. Compile a table of signs of
at
some chosen points
00
~3
f (x)
+
+
4-
+- oo
From this table we draw the conclusion that the equation has
three real roots lying in the intervals (3, 1), (0, 1) and (1, 3).
Determine the number
3.12.2.
of real
f(x)==x + e* =
Solution. Since
= +e x >
/' (x)
0; /
0.
oo) = oo;
(+
oo)
= + oo,
the given equation has only one real root.
An approximate
3.12.3.
= x*xl=0
is
value of the root
x=l.22. Estimate
of the
the
equation f{x)
absolute error
in
this
root.
We
Solution.
1.23
have /(*)
= 2.2153 1.22 = 0.0047.

1
Since
at
jc=
/ (x)
the root
4r*
in the
lies
increases
given interval
= 2.2888 .23 - 0.0588,

1
interval (1.22, 1.23). The derivative f (x)

therefore its least value in the
monotonically,
is
m = 4xl.22
1
wherefrom we get an estimate

x
I
= 4x 1.816
of
-6.264,
the error
< LZiZU =^^l 0.00075 < 0.001.

1
3.12.4. Solve graphically the equation
x log X
Solution.
=
1
0.
Let us rewrite the equation in the form
'.
Here
\f 1 (#)
= log
a:,
these functions, and
i|)
W=j-
There are tables
for the values of
simplifies the construction of their graphs.
this
graphs y
Constructing the
Fund's
Differential Calculus: Investigation of
Ch. Ill
186
= \ogx
and y
= -j
(see Fig. 57),
the approximate value
of
we
find
the only
2.5.
root 1
3.12.5. Find the real root of the
equation
/ (x)
= x 2x + 3x5 =
s
with an accuracy up to 10~ 4

(a)
by applying the method
:
of
chords,
(b)
by
applying
the
method
of
tangents.
Solution. Let us first make sure
Pig 57
that the given equation has only
one real root. This follows from the fact that the derivative
/'
(*)=3* a
4* + 3>0.
Then, from /=(1) =

that the given
it follows
3<0, (2) 1
polynomial has a single positive root, which lies in the interval (1, 2).
(a) Using the method of chords, we obtain the first approximation:
= >
^=1-=^.
4
1
1=1.75.
Since
/(1.75)
and
/ (2)
= > 0,
1
then 1.75
= 0.5156 <0,
<<
2.
The second approximation:

x2
1.75
0.25
.75
+ 0.0850 =
.8350.
< <
<
2.
0.05059
Since / (1.835)
0, then 1.835
g
The sequence of the approximations converges very slowly. Let
us try to narrow down the interval, taking into account that the
1.835 is considerably
value of the function f (x) at the point x 2
less in absolute value than f (2). We have
f(1.9)
Hence, 1.835
<<
1.9.
= 0.339 >0.
Transcendent. Equations
3.12. Algebr. and
Applying the method

will get a
chords
of
187
the interval (1.835,
to
1.9),
we
new approximation:
*3= l-835-
.3-;
059
0065 = L8434
Further calculations by the method of chords yield
x4
xb
1.8437,
1.8438,
1.8438 with
and since /(1.8437)<0, and / (1.8438) > 0, then
-4
the required accuracy of 10
(b) For the method of tangents we choose x = 2 as the initial
and /" (x) = 6x 4 >
in the inapproximation, since /(2)=1
2
4x
3 also retains its
terval (1, 2). The first derivative f'(x) = 3x
.
>0
sign in the interval (1, 2), therefore the

plicable.
The
method
of tangents is ap-
approximation:
first
^==2 1/7=
1.857.
The second approximation:

0.0779
(1.857)
QC7
7
1.857
^= 1.857-^-^=
-^27g= 1.8439.
,
The
QC
Q/1Qft
third approximation:
^= 1.8439-^^= 1.8438,
already gives the required accuracy. Here the sequence of the approximations converges much more rapidly than in the method of
chords, and in the third approximation we could obtain an accuracy
up to 10" 6
.
3.12.6. Find the least positive root of the equation tan x

an accuracy up to 0.0001 applying Newton's method.
= x with
x
logx=0 by
3.12.7. Find the real root of the equation 2
combining the method of chords with the method of tangents.
Solution. Rewrite the left member of the equation in the following way:
f(x)
= (2-x) + (- log*),
it
is seen that the function
f (x) is a sum of two monotonically decreasing functions, and therefore it decreases itself. Consequently, the given equation has a single root .
Direct verification shows that this root lies in the interval (1, 2).
whence
This interval can be narrowed
still
1.6<<
further:
1.8,
Ch. 111. Differential Calculus: Investigation of Fund's
188
since
^
(1.6)
= 0. 1959 >
0;
= 0.0553 <
.8)
( 1
0.
Then
W = _l_l
lege;
/*(*)
= -! log*
and
/'(*)<
0;
Applying
over the whole interval

rW>0interval
both the method
this
to
method
first
of tangents with
approximations:
'
the
V(i78
6)
(1
l /(i
x[=l.6pffi =
point
initial
6)
6H
0.
+ 0.1540=
1.6
,v
[1.6;
8].
chords and the

=1.6 we obtain the
of
1559=
.7559;
1.7540.
Applying the same methods
to the
interval
1.7559],
[1.7540,
we
get the second approximations:
(1.7540-1.7559) / (1.7559)
/ (1.7540)/ (1.7559)
jc,= 1.7559-
7540x'-l
l./DW
X
2
/(1
= 0.00001,
x'2
Since x 2
up to 0.00001.
3.12.8. Using the
f(x)==x 3
ox + =
1
7540)
1.75558,
1.75557.
(1.7540)
the root
computed with an accuracy
is
combined method
find all
accurate to three decimal places.
Applying the iteration method
find the real roots of the

accurate to three decimal places.
sin a:.
Solution. Represent the given equation in the form x
0.25
Using the graphical method, we find that the equation has one
real root
which is approximately equal
3.12.9.
equation x
sin x= 0.25
to
1.2 (see Fig. 58).
Since
>
1.3 = 0.9636 <
sin 1.1
sin
=0.8912
1.1
0.25,
1.3-0.25,
the root lies in the interval (1.1, 13).

Let us rewrite the equation in the
form
x
cp
(x)
= sin x + 0.25.
cos x in the interval (1.1, 1.3) does

Since the derivative q/ (x)
1 in absolute value, the iteration method
0.46
not exceed cos 1.1
is applicable. Let us write successive approximations
<
xn
<
= sin x n _, + 0.25
(n=l,
2,
...),
3.12. Algebr. and Transcendent
taking x
1.2 for the
jc,
x3
x4
jc
x6
Since
Equations
189
approximation:
initial
= sin 1.2 +0.25 = 0.932 +0.25=1.182;

= sin 1.182 +0.25 = 0.925 +0.25= 1.175;
= sin 1.175 +0.25 = 0.923 +0.25= 1.173;
= sin 1.173 +0.25 = 0.9219 + 0.25 = 1.1719;
= sin 1.1719 + 0.25 = 0.9215 + 0.25= 1.1715;
= sin 1.1715 + 0.25 = 0.9211+0.25= 1.1711.
^=0.46 and
hence,
yzrj<
we have
1.171
within the
required accuracy.
3.12.10. Applying the iteration method, find the greatest positive
root of the
equation
x*
+ x=
1000
accurate to four decimal places.

Solution.
root
We
Rough estimation
gives us the approximate value of the
10.
can rewrite the given equation
x=
1000
the lorm
in
a:
3
,
or in the form
1000
l_
X2
or in the form
x=jj/l000 x and
The most advantageous
one, since taking [9,
the
of
(p
we
find that
indicated
for the
10]
so on.
main
Y 1000
methods is the preceding

and putting
interval
x,
the derivative
<P'(*)=
3
does not exceed
3/
(1000
-x) 2
1/300 in absolute value:
|q>'
(X)
<C
3
990*
~ 300
6W = 4-
190
Compute
successive approximations of x n with one spare digit by
the formula
x n+1
=y\000-x n
x2
x3
(n
= 0,
...),
2,
1,
*o= 10,
1000 10 = 9.96655,
1000 9.96655 = 9.96666,
=V
=V
= J/ 1000 9.96666 - 9.96667.
9.9667 with an accuracy of 10~ 4

put
Note. Here, the relatively rapid convergence of the process of iteration is due to the smallness of the quantity q. In general, the
smaller the q, the faster the process of iteration converges.
We may
3.12.11. Applying the

the equation
of chords,
find the positive root of
= x + l.U + 0.9* 1.4 =

3
f(x)
with an accuracy
method
of 0.0005.
3.12.12. Using the method of chords, find approximate values of

the real roots of the following equations with an accuracy up to 0.01:
l)2_2sin* = 0;
(a)
(b) e
2(1 =
x)
0.
3.12.13. Applying Newton's method, find with an accuracy

the positive roots of the following equations:
to 0.01
(a)
*3
+ 50* 60 = 0;
+ x 32 = 0.
(b) x*
method
3.12.14. Using the combined

of the
up
find the values of the root
equation
x3
on the interval
[1,
-0
with an accuracy up to 0.005.
2]
3.12.15. Applying the iteration method, find all roots of the equa5 accurate to four decimal places.
5 In x
tion \x
3.13. Additional
3.13.1.
Problems
Does the function
f{x)=
satisfy the conditions of the
if
\\/x
if
<
*>1
x
Lagrange theorem on the interval
[0,
2]?
$x
ax
3.13.2. Prove that for the function y
y the number
Lagrange formula, used on an arbitrary interval [a, b] is the
in the
arithmetic
mean
of the
numbers a and
b:
= (a-f fc)/2.
3.13.3. Prove that
the equation
if
a x
191
+a x
n~
+a n _ x =
has a positive root x ot then the equation
na x n
"
+ (nl)a x n ' +
2
has a positive root less than x
+a n _ =
x
4x 1=0
3.13.4. Prove that the equation x 4

real
has two different
roots.
3.13.5. Prove
more than two
function
the
that
real
/ (x)
roots for n even and
= x n + px-\- q
cannot have
for n odd.
more than three
3.13.6. Prove that all roots of the derivative of the given

nomial f(x)
(x+ l)(x \)(x 2){x 3) are real.
poly-
3.13.7. Find a mistake in the following reasoning.
The function
f{x)
x 2 sin (l/x)
for
\
is
differentiate for any
x 2 sin
x.
cos 4-
As x tends
By Lagrange's theorem
x = x( 2| sin
whence
x =^=0,
forx
= 2 sin \
cos \I
x sin
< < x).
(0
to zero E will also tend to zero. Passing to the
we obtain limcos
(1/g)
= 0,
whereas
it
is
known
limit,
that Tim cos (l/x)
l -*
is
x-+
non-existent.
3.13.8. Find a mistake in the following deduction of Cauchy's
formula. Let the functions f (x) and y(x) satisfy all the conditions
of the Cauchy theorem on the interval [a, b]. Then each of them
will satisfy the conditions of Lagrange's theorem as well. Consequently, for each function we can write the Lagrange formula:
f(b)-f{a)
cp(ft)
Dividing the
first
(a)
= f{b-a),
= (I) (ba),
expression by the second,
f(b)-f(a)
(p(ty-cp(a)
f'($)(b-a)
y'(t)(b-a)
3.13.9. Prove the following inequalities:

(a)
<
In
J < r-
-r-
a<t<b,
a<l<b.
cp'
if

1.
roots of the Chebyshev-Laguerre polynomial
are positive.
3.13.11. Prove that if the function f (x) satisfies the following

conditions:
(1) it is defined and has a continuous derivative of the (n l)th
~
order f (n 1} (x) on the interval [x 01 x n ]\
(n)
(x) in the interval
(2) it has a derivative of the nth order f
(*0
'0>
(3)
(*o)
= / (*l) =.-=/ {*n)
then inside the interval [x

that
i,l)
(l)
3.13.12.
= 0.
The
<X <...< *),
(X
]
there
at
is
one
least
point I such
limit of the ratio of the functions
lim
is
xn
e-'2x (cos x -f 2 sin x)

-p-:
e-*(cosx + sinx)
non-existent, since the
hm
_ ^
expression
^
1
^~ x,.1- L 2 tan*
r -Manx
,.
8"
is
-j-
tan x
discontinuous
nn n/2 (rc 0, 1, ...), but at the same time

the points x n
limit of the ratio of the derivatives does exist:
\e~ 2x (cos x~\-2 sin x)\'
lim
xôo
nr-=
+ sinx)]'
-
(cos^
5e~
. =
-2e-*sinx
2x s'mx
l;
lim
5
2 x
lim e -*
^ x
at
the
= n0.
Explain this seeming contradiction.
number
remainder
of
the Taylor
+ h) = f(a) + hf'(a) + ^ f" {a + Qh)

/"' (x)
continuous at x a and
h *
/"' (a)=^=0.
formula of the
first
in the
order
fia
tends to 1/3 as
if
is
number
3.13.15. Prove that for
0<x^n/2
decreases.
the function
obtain the inequality 2x/n
and give its geometric meaning.
From
< x < jt/2
e is
this
f (x)
<
sin
3.13.16. Show that the function / (x) = # + cos x

whence deduce that the equation x + cos x = a has no
for a < 1 and has one positive root for a > 1.
3.13.17. Show that the equation
root found in the interval (0, 1).
xe x
=2
has
---(s'mx)/x
<x
for
increases;
positive roots
only one positive
{x )
function
= {i x + x2sln T
{
is
193
Additional Problems
3.13.
for
x=0
for
x=
>
not monotonic in any interval containing the origin. Sketch the
graph f(x).
3.13.19. Prove the theorem if: (1) f (x) and
interval [a, b] and differentiate inside
and
(3)
f'(x)>y'(x)
Show
3.13.20.
nor
minima
+ px + q
2
3.13.21. In the trinomial x
mum
equals
minimum
3.13.23.
function
the
x--x 09 where n
continuous
at
=x
Given
has neither maxima,
is
/ (x)
= (x
a natural
that
q)
(x)
(b)
= \x\
= E(x)
sin 7)l*l
w = j( 2
for
for
for
extremum
number; the function
(p
at
(x) is
continuous function
/(#)
n
)
has
at
*^=>
at
x=
0.
minimum
at the point x
0, but
0.
or on the right of x
is
not
left
3.13.24. Find the greatest and the least values

y
y
= y(a)\
(a<x<b).
and (p(# )^=0.
monotonic either on the
(a)
continuous
f(a)
choose the coefficients p and q

3 and that the miniat x
Show
(2)
5.
3.13.22. Test
the point
= ^+
/ (x)
bc=^0.
so that the trinomial has a
it;
then f(x)>y(x)
that the function
ad
at
(a<x<b),
are
(x)
(p
in the
2<x<
of the following
1.
3.13.25. Do the following functions have

values on the indicated intervals?
the
greatest
and the
least
(a)
f(x)
(b) / (x)
= cosx
= arc sin x
for
for
ji/2
^ <
a;
<x<
1
ji,
3.13.26. Prove that between two maxima (minima) of a continuous

function there is a minimum (maximum) of this function.
function
a:
sin 2 (l/x) for
\0
for
=
f W
x=0,
x
194
has a
minimum
at
the point #
3.13.28. Prove that
if
at
right-side derivative, then

left-side derivative,
3.13.29.
Show
then
it
it
the point of a minimum there exists a

if there
is non-negative, and
exists a
is non-positive.
that the function

I/* 2
\3* 2
has a
minimum
at
not change sign
minimum).
(not a strict
(x>0),
(x<0)
the point #=^0, though its first derivative does

passing through this point.
when
3.13.30. Let x be the abscissa of the point of

flection on the
curve y = f(x). Will the point x be a point of extremum for the
function y
f (x)?
i
3.13.31. Sketch the graph of the function y

if
of the point
1
x=
bourhood
f(-i>=2,
3.13.32. For
probabilities"
r< i)
what choice
i.
of the
= f(x)
in the
neigh-
/"(-i)=o, r'(*) >o.

parameter h does the "curve
= -4r -*'**
V
inflection x = zko?
of
(ft>0)
Tt
have points
of
3.13.33. Show that any twice continuously different iable function

has at least one abscissa of the point of inflection on the graph of
the function between two points of extremum.
x*
8x*+ 18a: 2 8 as an example,
3.13.34. Taking the function y
ascertain that there may be no points of extremum between the
abscissas of the points of inflection on the graph of a function.
Prove that any polynomial with positive coefficients,

an even function, is concave everywhere and has only one
3.13.35.
which
is
point of
at
minimum.
3.13.36. Prove that any polynomial of an odd

least one point of inflection.
3.13.37. Proceeding
the straight line y
directly
= 2x+l
2x 4 -f-;c 3 +l
is
degree
n^3
has
from the definition, ascertain that

an asymptote of the curve y =
Chapter
INDEFINITE INTEGRALS.
METHODS OF INTEGRATION
BASIC
Direct Integration and the
4.1.
Method of Expansion
Direct integration consists in using the following table of integrals:

(1)
(2)
(3)
U du
+C
]^- = \n\u\ + C-
dw-=â* + C;
aa
= sin u + C;
(4)
cos a da
(5)
cosh u du
(6)
f;
= e + C;
sin^dw = cosw + C;
J
= cosh w + C;
^ sinh udu
e
= sinh u-\-C\
du
du
tt
dl
f
t
2
J sin
= cot w + C;
1
(8)
f-^==l a rctan- + C= iarccot-^ + C, {a > 0);

du
= arc sin + C= arccos 4-C. (a > 0);
[ r
(9)
(7)
(10)
u1
a 2
=ln(tt
=
-
J/
i^tf)
+ C;
+ C.
In all these formulas the variable u is either an independent

variable or a differentiable function of some variable. If
\f(u)du = F(u)
+C
then
J/
a
(ax
+ b)dx = jF (ax + b) + C.
The method of expansion consists in expanding the integrand into

linear combination of simpler functions and using the linearity
Ch. IV. Indefinite Integrals
196
property of the integral:
2=
4.1.1.
(x)dx=^
fi
a i lf
(x)dx
i
J
Find the integral
*2
+5*V
\{=
|fl/|>0).
/
dx.
Solution.
j
x2+
î~
(jc / 2
+ 5*"', x - v.) dx =
i>dx
+ b^x i>dx^x-
=j
}x
i*dx==
= fi_ + C + -3- x + C - 2*'/. + c =

3
/2
= 2^(^ + |-l) + C.
Note. There is no need to introduce an arbitrary constant after
calculating each integral (as is done in the above example). By combining all arbitrary constants we get a single arbitrary constant,
denoted by letter C, which is added to the final answer.
a
P6*3 + * 2 2*+l
4.1.3.
/=
f
2
,
2
J sin * cos *
Solution. Transform the integrand in the following way:

sin 2 *-)- cos 2 *
sin 2 * cos 2
sin 2 * cos 2 *
a;
sin 2
cos 2 *
*'
Hence,
4.1.4. I
= ^tan
f-^r-
2
J cos *
f tan 2
=J
Solution.
we
(x 2
2,
= sec
^|
xdx= [
cos *
J
t/
4.1.5.
xdx.
Solution. Since tan 2 x

/
= tan x cot x + C.
+ J[ -tsin x
+ 5)
1,
then
I
dx
= tanx + C.
jc
dx.
Expanding
the
integrand
by
the
binomial
formula,
find
/=
j(x 6 +
4.1.6. /
15jc
+75a; 2
= J (3x + 5)
17
+ 125)dx = y- + -^ +
dx.
^+
125x
+ C.
4.1.
Direct Integration and the
Method
of
Expansion
197
Solution. Here it is not expedient to raise the binomial to the

3x-\-5 is a linear function.
17th power, since u
Proceeding from the tabular integral
we
get
(3*+5)
4.1.7.
/=
4.1.8.
r
rc.
is
cos(jtx
J
Solution. Proceeding from the tabular integral
cos w du
J
(4)
= sin w + C,
we obtain
= J-sin (nx +
4.1.9.
cos
4a;
cos
7a:
+ C.
1)
d*.
Solution. When calculating such integrals

the trigonometric product formulas. Here
cos 4* cos 7*
(cos
3a:
+ cos
it
is
advisable to use
1a;)
and therefore
= IP cos 3a: dx + y
1
P
\
cos
lU^^-g-sinSAr + ^sin 11a:+
/Vote. When solving such problems

following trigonometric identities:
it
is
expedient
C.
to use the
n) x + sin (m-\-n) x];

n) x cos (m + n) x]\
sinmA:sin nx =^ [cos(m
cosmx cosnx =
Y [cos (m n)x + cos (m + n) x].
sin
mx cos nx = -^
[sin
(m
4.1.10. /
cos a; cos 2x cos
5a: dA;.
Solution.
(cos x cos
2a:)
We
have
cos 5x
= y (cos + cos 3a:) cos 5x =

= [cos 4a: + cos 6a:] +
a:
-j-
(cos 2#
+ cos 8#)
198
Thus,
cos,
2 x dx
+ J cos d# ^ cos6xdx+ ^cos8xdx^ =

= sin 2x + sin 4x + ~ sin 6a: + ^ sin 8a:
4a;
-f-
-g-
4.1.11. /
$sin
3A:dA:.
Solution. Since sin 2
=Y
l
Since
Solution.
/=-
2!?!?
cosh 2 w
= ^2 + ^ +5
= cosh
10)]
dx =
4.1.16. /
=j
Solution.
4.1.17.
= arc tan (* + 2 + C
)
d*
V4 9x
'
r r
dx
==
7=f^J|==r7=iL
VS x-t-Ax
j/9-(x+2)
=
^?
+ C.
=.
4-1.19. /
dx
/= 1-7=^=^ = 4- 1-7====- = 4- arc sin
/=
5o/^to.
lx + l s inh(16x+10) + C.
dx
then
= ]C x + 4x+5 = ^C
Solution.
then
(8x+5)dx.
[1+ cosh (16*+
4.1.13. /
(1
11
cos6A:)dA; =-ja:
^sin6^: + C
= ^cosh
4.1.12. /
3A;
-f-
arcsin^
+
^ C.
3
_^_.
|4
Solution.
1
{
J 4
dx
4x
2
C
J
ch
<ta
t+2) 2
(a;
=TT7^1n
4^2
j/l + AT+2
/*2 (* + 2)
+ C.
C.
4.2.
Integration by Substitution
199
4.1.21. Evaluate the following integrals:
P3 2 cot 2
4.1.22.
'
(c)
d>
<
+ 3x
JiM?^^
at^.h-
cos 2*
(5)
x*
4.2.
Integrate:
f
^
cos**
cos*
dx;
(d)
(sin
5*
^
*
sin*
sin 5a) dx.
The method
stituting
cp(/)
function.
On
of substitution (or
for a; where q) (t)
we
substituting
change of variable) consists in subis

a continuously differentiate
have:
lf(x)dx=lf[<p(t))<p'(t)dt,
and
we
integration
after
stitution
-1
return to the old variable by inverse sub-
(x).
q)
The indicated formula

(01
5 f [
= y(t).
= J xVx^dx.
4.2.1. /
Solution.
Make
the substitution
Whence
x=
a: 5=t\
+ 5,
we
Substituting into the integral
get
+ 5)*.2* dt=2 j(/ + 5*

4
/=J(/
Now
dx=2tdt.
2
)
df
=2- +
^+
C.
return to the initial variable x:
'
4.2.2. /
= j- +d*e*
2(*-5) 6/
10(*-5)
3/
'
'
Solution.
Let us
e
make
=
t
\,
the substitution
= ln
1),
l+e*=t. Whence
dx=dt/(t
\).
200
Substituting into the integral,
we
get
dt
Jn(/-I)'
\+e x
<
But
1
t(t
therefore
Coming back
l_
\)~t\
^ -^
= ln\t-l\-\n\t\ + C.
we obtain
to the variable x,
I^ln^ + C^x-lnil+e^ + C.
Note. This integral can be calculated in a simpler
tiplying both the numerator and denominator by e~ x
way by mul:
j^dx = - 7^- dx = -\n(e-*+l) + C =

l
= -ln^-tl = x-ln(^+l) + C.
4.2.3.
/=
4.2.4.
/2+3
dx.
V&x--5)3
(x2
/=r
4
+ 3x
- x)dx
+l)arctan^-t-J
Solution. Transform the integrand

(\
+ l/x)
Make
the substitution x
\/x*)dx
+l]arctan(.*:+l/;tr
+ -j=t;
differentiating,
(l-)dx = dt.
Whence
d
/-f
Make one more
(/
+l)arctarW
substitution: arc tan

dt
t
+\'
'
= u.
du
and
/
= j^=ln|| + C.
Then
we
get
Returning
to
first
= In
4.2.5. /
4.2.
and then to
arc tan
we have
x,
+ C = In
t\
201
arc tan (*
+ 7) + c#
|
V a '~ x2 rlr
x*
Make
Solution.
the substitution:
x= T
dx =
-^
dt
Hence,
Now make
=
1=2.
one more substitution: \faH 2
Then 2a 2 /
dt
2zdz and
Returning to
^ 2
(3
and then to
/ ~~ r
2
2
J a sin
x+b 2 cos 2
we obtain
x,
"
a:
Solution.
a 2 sin 2
A;
+&
cos 2 a:
dx
b2
Make
the substitution
&
Returning to
a:,
Solution.
4.2.8. /
/T + 3
Make
t;
a?2
dt
tan
+
.
a:
cos 2 a:
dx
-%-
"
6 cos 2
Then
a:
we obtain
/
4.2.7. /
^-tanx
= ~ arc tan
tan
+ C.
sin xcosjcd*.
the substitution
l+3sinA:
3cosjc<2a;
= <#.
^7d^^pv. a=i.4<v.+c= (l+3 ; n ^

<
j"
cos X
Then
/,
+c.
202
Ch. /V. Indefinite Integrals
^-yr
4.2.9.
f
b
J (arc cos x) y
Solution.
Make
x'
the substitution:
dx
arccosx^/;
1^
/
4.2.11.
d/-4-^"
4
- X*
= dt.
Then
+
~ c = 4 arc cos rx + c.
^
^^L=dx.
.10.
Cr
J/ 5
sin 2x
= j_5!^L<fr.
+ sin x^
2
Make
Solution.
the substitution:
sin 2
1 -f-
x=t;
2 sin
x cos x dx
= sm 2x dx ~^dt.
Then
/=Jy-
= ln/ + C = ln(l + sin
*)
-|-
C.
Substitute
Solution.
and
+ #lnA; =
/,
(1
+ \nx)dx = dt
get
/
4.2.13.
=j = \n\t\ + C = \n\3 + x\nx\ + C.
Evaluate the following integrals:
In
x) x
4.2.14. Find the following integrals:

(a)
^yi-xdx;
In
(b)
x dx
f-i^
cos x V^sin
(c)
(d)
.xrck;
4.3.
In
Ax
y*
The formula
^
udv = uv
ydw
is known as the formula for

integration
are differentiate functions of x.
by
parts,
where w and v
4.3.
203
To use this formula the integrand should be reduced to the product of two factors: one function and the differential of another
function. If the integrand is the product of a logarithmic or an
inverse trigonometric function and a polynomial, then u is usually
taken to be either the logarithmic or the inverse trigonometric function. But if the integrand is the product of a trigonometric or an
exponential function and an algebraic one, then u usually denotes
the algebraic function.
4.3.1.
arc tan x dx.
Solution. Let us put here
= arc tan
dv
a;,
= dx>
whence
dx
^ = r+^
*
V==X)
= jarc tan x dx = x arc tan x ^ iq~^2 = x arc

4.3.2.
4.3.3.
/=
/
Solution.
an *
~^ x ^
arc sin xdx.
xcosxdx.
Let us put
u
= x\
dv
= cos
a; <*;,
whence
du
1=
We
will
^ A;cosA:dA:
= dx\
= Arsin
a:
= s'mx
sinA:dA:== Arsin
show now what would

and dv.
from an
result
x-fcosx + C.
unsuitable choice
of the multipliers u
^xcosxdx
In the integral
//
let
us put
^ cos x]
dv
= x dx,
whence
du
sin
a:
dx;
=y
2
a;
In this case
/
As
is
~ -1
cos x
+yJX
sin
a: <2a;.
obvious, the integral has become more complicated.
4.3.4.
/=
3
a:
lnA:dA:.
204
Solution. Let us put
= In x\
dv
=x
dx,
whence
i
du
/
jc
In
4.3.5.
dx
=
X
= .,\
1
;
'
-j^x^dx = ^-x*\nx -^x + C.

4" J ^ ^ T
=
2* + 5)<T*dx.
x
nA:
(a;
=x
2x +
dv
5;
= e~ x dx
whence
= (2x 2)d;c; u = e~ x
2x+5)e- x dx = e- x {x 2x + 5) + 2
\
=^
We
again integrate the
dv
u\
whence
du
=2
Finally
7
(jc \)e~ x
J
we
by
integral
last
x =
71
(x\)e~ x dx.
(x 2
= dx;
Put
parts.
e~ x dx>
= e~ x
dx= 2e- x (x l) + 2
e-*dx=
2*g-* + C.
get
= e-*(*
+ 5) 2xe-* + C = e~
2a;
x (x 2
+ 5) + C.
a result of calculation of integrals of the form ^ P (x) e ax dx

we obtain a function of the form Q(x)e ax where Q(x) is a polynomial of the same degree as the polynomial P(x).
This circumstance allows us to calculate the integrals of the indicated type using the method of indefinite coefficients, the essence
of which is explained by fhe following example.
Note.
As
Applying the method
4.3.6.
1=
Solution.
(3a:
17)
e 2x
of
indefinite coefficients, evaluate
(3x 3 \7)e 2x dx.
dx=
(Ax 3 + Bx2
Differentiating the right and the

(3a;
7) e
2x
Cancelling e 2x
left
+ Dx + E) e 2x + C.
sides,
we obtain
= 2 (Ax + Bx + Dx + E) e2x + e2x (3 Ax + 2Bx + D).

3
we have
3x 17 = 2 Ax + (2B + 3 A) x + (2D + 2B) x+(2E + D).

3
205
4.3. Integration by Parts
Equating the
the equal powers of x in the
coefficients at
we
right sides of this identity,
left
and
get
= 2B + 3A;
= 2A\
0-2D + 2B;
3
17=2 + D.
Solving the system, we obtain
~-
'
Hence,
(3x 3
7)
a
?
~ + -J x
^
*dx - (-| a; 3
a;
2
) e *
+ C.
Integrate:
4.3.7.
=J
(*
+ \)cosxdx.
Let us put
Solution.
a;
= cos x dx,
do
whence
da
/
where
lx
= (^3 +1) sin

=
= 3jc
a:
a:
cos
= ^ (x*+
1)
a;
+ 1) sin x 3/
lf
get
cos x
2,
we obtain
+ l)sinA;+3A: cosA: 6a: sin x 6 cosa: + C =

= 6a: + sin x + (3a: 6) cosa:+C.
2
cosA:(iA:=(A: 3
The method
indefinite coefficients
of
(a:
may
also
be
applied
sin
2x
form
P (x) sin ax dx,

J
1)
/=
+ 2/
have:
to integrals of the
4.3.8.
= xsmx + cos x + C.
(a;
Note.
dx= (x
atâ:.
I2
we
we
Integrating by parts again,
Finally,
sin x
= sinA:.
x sin x dx.
/x
/2
a;
where
(iA;;
+ 3a: + 5) cos 2a:
P (x) cos ax dx.
g!a:.

(a:
jj
+ 3a:+ 5) cos
= (A
2a:g!a:
+ A x+ A
x
2)
cos
2a:
+ (B
a:
+B x+B
x
2)
+ C.
206
Differentiate both sides of the identity:
+ 3x + 5) cos 2x = 2 (A x + A x + A sin 2x +
(2A
x+A cos 2a; + 2 (B x + B^x+B^) cos 2x+ (2B x+B
+
= [2B x + (2B, + 2A x+(A,+ 2B cos 2x +
+ [ 2A x + (2B 2A,) x -f (B 2A
(x2
2)
l)
)s'm2x=
2 )}
2 )]
sin 2x.
Equating the coefficients at equal powers of x in the multipliers

cos 2x and sin 2x> we get a system of equations:
2B
2(B 1 + A
1;
2A = 0;
= 3;
A,) =
2 (B
A
B
0;
1
x
+ 2B = 5;
2
2A =
2
0.
Solving the system, we find

A
/i
_A.
d
u, /Jo
J_2
/I
'
__J_.
'
_
A2
/i
'
_
A4
R
2
'
Thus,
J
(*
+ 3x + 5)cos2xdx= ( y + t) cos2jc+ (y * + jx + ~) sin

2
4.3.9.
/=
(3a:
+ 6a: + 5) arc tan
a:
x+C.
dA:.
= arc tan
do
a:;
= (3a: + 6a: + 5) dx
2
whence
^w
"
= + 3a: + 5
2
a:
a:.
Hence,
/
= (* + 3a: + 5x) arc tan x ^"^ 3 5* dx.

j
ff
2
Single out the integral part under the last

the numerator by the denominator:
by
integral
=J + 3x + 2j^-3.J I ^ 1 =f + 3*+21n(x
dividing
+l)-3arctanA'+C.
Substituting the value of / lf we finally get

I
= (x* + 3x + 5a: + 3) arc tan x

2
/2
3x 2
4.3.10. Find the integral

/
Solution.
ê bx cosAxdx.
Let us put
e bx
= ^;
cos
4.v
=. do,
In (x
+ + C.
1)
integration by Parts
4.3.
207
whence
5e bx dx
= du\
sin
4a:.
Hence,
4 e
1
5*
sin \x
I 1 z=
sin
Thus,
= -j e bx sin 4a:
1
/
l.
Axdx^
e 5 *sin4A:dA:.
we obtain

r*
-^-e *cos4.*;
5/1
j
(
e 5 * cos
\x
+ ^-
P
\
e *cos4A:dA:.
e bx cos
4xdx)
e.
= -L e bx ^sin 4x + -|-cos 4a: ^
Whence
/
4.3.11.
=$
= ê bx
^sin
4a:
cos
-|-
4a:
+ C.
cos(lnx)dx.

/
= cos(lnA:);
dv
= dx
whence
= sin (In x) ^
a:.
Hence,
/
cos (In
A:)rfx
= xcos(lnA:) +
^ sin (In
a:)
dx.
Integrate by parts once again

//
-=sin (In
dv=dx,
x)\
whence
da
dx
cos (In
a:)
v=x.
Hence,
/i
=Js
n (lnA:)dx
= xsin(ln
a:)
a;)
cos (ln^)dA:.
J
Thus
/
cos (In
a:)
dv
a:
cos (In
+ x sin (In x) /.
Hence
/
=y
[cos (In
a:) -f-
sin (In
a:)]
+ C.
208
4.3.12. /
= jxln(l
+-j)dx.
Let us transform the integrand
Solution.
In
+ 1 ) = In il = in (x + - In x.
1)
Hence
/
(x+
In
Let us integrate
and
/x
\)dx
/2
\^x\nxdx =
Ii
by
= ln(x+
Put
parts.
1);
dv
/2
= xdx,
whence
Hence
/1
= Jxln(^+l)dx = -i(x- l)ln(x+l)-l - \)dx

j
X
(x+l)-i*
In X +l)-(x-\)dx =
(
Tln
+ x + C.
Analogously,
I2
Finally
/
xln
xdx=Y^ nx
-j"
*a
we have
= J*ln(l
4.3.13.
=^
+^)^ = l(x
-l)ln(x+l)-^lnv+|+C.
= j ^^R[ln(^+l)-2 1n,]^
Solution. First apply the substitution
Then
<
2dx
= -V
or
dx
j,
<ft.
Hence,
The obtained
integral
easily evaluated by parts.
is
= \nt;
dv
= \/"tdt.
Then
du
= Y>
=-~t\ft
Let us put
4.3.
209
Whence
-1 Jj/Tln*<tf=
Returning to
x,
-g-
\jtVT\nt
we obtain
'
(^+i)
9x 3
4.3.14. /
4.3.15.
= J \n{VT^x+VT+lc)dx.
Solution.
sinx
In
[23
In
(1+33)]
+C
tanxdx.
Let us put
= In
+ /l+x)
dv
= dx,
whence
~~
'
j/t^*+ i^tt*
'
]/T=i2~~
'
^r=^
a;.
Hence,
/
= x in {VT=Tx + VTTi) - \
x^^^dx =
= ^1^/1 x +
+ x) yjc + y arc sin x-fC.
In calculating a number of integrals we had to use the

integration by parts several times in succession. The
result could be obtained more rapidly and in a more concise form
by using the so-called generalized formula for integration by parts
(or the formula for multiple integration by parts):
Note.
method
û
of
(x) v (x)
dx
= u (x) v (x) u' (x) v (x) + u" (x) v (x) ...

+ ( l)"- ^"- (x) v n (x) ( l)"" J u (x) vn (x) dx,
1
{n)
where
v1
(x)=^v (x) dx;
v 2 (x)
=^v
Here, of course, we assume that

ring in this formula exist.
(x)
all
dx;
v n (x)
= J vn _
(x) dx.
derivatives and integrals appea-
210
The use
of
formula
generalized
the
for
integration
by parts
is
especially advantageous when calculating the integral ^ P n (x) cp (x) dx,

where P n (x) is a polynomial of degree n and the factor y(x) is
times. For example,
1
such that it can be integrated successively
y
n+
dx =
P n (x)
P n (xf - P'n (x)
~+
+ (-!) PJ {x)t + C =
4.3.16. Applying the generalized formula for integration by parts,

find the following integrals:
2x + 3xl)cos2xdx,
(2x + 3x 8x +
V2x + 6 dx.
2
^(x 3
(a)
(b)
J
1 )
Solution.
^( x
(a )
2x + 3xl) cos 2x dx = (x
2
{3x 4x + 3)
/o
9
2
o\ f
^
cos
2a:
/c
j+(>x
,
2x + 3x 2^
2
1 )
sin 2x\
J
4)l^
= 5!?f (2^3 _ 4x + 3*) +

Sx + l)V~2x + 6dx =
c6cosj^ + Cn =
2a:
(b)
l(2x
+ 3x
= (2x + 3x
3
8x+
{2x
\)
4.3.18.
In (x
(2*
arc
4 3 19
+ Vl+x*)dx.
Yx{\nxfdx.
s ' n ****
J
x cos # dx
4.3.20.
sin 3
a:
3* cos x dx.
4.3.21.
J
6* 2
+ 6)3/2 --(e>x + 6jc 8) (2

2
+ 6) (7 0x
Evaluate the following integrals:

4.3.17.
8* + 3) + C
*y +
45x - 396* + 897) + C.

2
Formulas
211
4.3.28. Applying the formula for multiple

calculate the following integrals:
integration by parts,
2x + 5)e
2
4.3.22.
^(x 3
4.3.23.
^(l+x2
4.3.24.
^(x 2
(a:
4.3.26.
jc
3x dx.
cosxdx.
+ 2xl)sm3xdx.
2x + 3)\nxdx.
4.3.25.
2
)
Reduction
4.4.
arc tan
jc
dx.
arc cos
jc
dx.
4.3.27.
J
(a)
+ x 2) sin
^(3x 2
(3*
\)dx\
x * ~* x+
(b)
dx.
Reduction Formulas
4.4.
Reduction formulas make it possible to reduce an integral depending on the index n

0, called the order of the integral, to an
integral of the same type with a smaller index.
>
Integrating by parts,
4.4.1.
derive reduction formulas for calcu-
lating the following integrals:

(a)
(c)
=
I
/=
(**
(a
+ a*)
Solution, (a)
We
(b)
~m
dx;
dx.
integrate by parts.
(*
Let us put
dv
+ a 2\n
a
= dx,
whence
,
du
2n x dx
= r(x^
-â n +
1
ir
,
9
= x.
Hence,
/
(x 1
a'
whence
n+
~~ lna h
l
'
{x 1
-f-
a 1 )'
2n
'
a1
212
IV. Indefinite Integrals
Ch.
The obtained formula reduces the calculation
of the integral I n+1

and, consequently, allows us
to calculate completely an integral with a natural index, since
to the calculation
the integral
of
/,
f 2
J x
+ a = a arc tan a + C.
2
'
n=l, we
For instance, putting
In
obtain
+ a + 2a? ai C
*
J (**
putting m
/
3
~~
+a
= 2,
we
~~
dx
C
2
J (*
~~ 2a 2
2 2
+a
2 3
'
a:
+a
~~ 2a 2 x*
an
+C
get
3
a:
4a 2
2a 2
(x 2
"
+a
2 2
~~
7 2 ~~~
4a 2
4a 2" (x 2
+a
+ 8a*
2 2
)
'
3
^
alX 130 "7 + C
+ 8^
i
x^fa~2
r*
"
Let us apply the method of integration by parts, putting
(b)
w=sin'-i1 x;
sin *
= cos
a
*
ay
OT
a:,'
whence
da
du
= (n 1) sin" -2 x cos
v
a:
= (m
d^:;
1X
1)
(m
v
m -1 #
cos
.
1)
Hence,
sin" -1 *
~~
(m
cos"2
-1
~ m
-2 x dx
si
C sin"
sin"- 1 *
(m 1)
(c)
- #
~ccos 7
-1
cos* 1
"" 2 a-*
'
m ^=1
/-
Integrate by parts, putting
= (a
whence
= 2nx (a
2
a;
dv = dx,
)";
2
a:
)"
-1
dx;
= x.
Hence
j
n=zX
(a*
x )"- dx =
a + a
= x(a x + 2n
x + 2n $ x
n
(tf
(a:
a:
2
)
(a
(a 2
2
a;
a;
)"
2 )"" 1
In
=x(a
2
)
+ 2na
In _ 1
Hence,
j
7/1
2na 2
x2 ) n
2/z+l
~2/i+l
2
__ x(a
-i'
2n/ + 2na I
2
Wherefrom, reducing the similar terms, we obtain
(\+2n)
dx
n_v
213
Reduction Formulas
4.4.
For instance, noting that

.
I-
we can
find
1/2
_
=
P
\
ax
dx
r -n
>
successively
= JV^"^ ^ = |(a -x
= J(a
~x + Cn
.
" arC sin
~A; 2 ) 3 / 2
^=
-J-(a
2 )i/2
+ ^/_ 1/2 ^
= -i[/5î + -ârcsin| + C,
3/ 2
)
+ -|-a
/ 1/2
and so on.
Applying integration by parts, derive the following reduc-
4.4.2.
tion formulas:
(a)
(b)
/=
(\nx) n dx
= x(\nx) n nl n _
*>"
= \ x (In x) dx =
xn e x dx
= x? ex nl n -
^
\
(a^-1);
(c)
(d)
/= J^'sin"**^
= -noSin" ^(asinx ncos^H

Derive
4.4.3.
= (-^sin"
and use
it
reduction
formula for the integration
the
for calculating
to
integral
a:
4.4.4.
(a)
the
In
Derive the reduction formulas for the
= J tan n xdx;
J
V x*-\-a
(b) /
^-
cot" xdx\
/ 3a
of
/_,.
=f-^r-.
sin* x
J
following
integrals:
h a p
BASIC CLASSES
OF INTEGRABLE FUNCTIONS
5.1.
If
Integration of Rational Functions
the denominator
(x)
(x)
of the proper rational fraction pry-(
can
be represented in the following way:
= {xa) k {x b)
{x)
1
.
(x
+ ax+$)
where the binomials and trinomials are

the trinomials have no real roots, then
Ax
P(x)
A2
xa
(x)
x2
x b
+ yx +
different and,
\i)
s
.
furthermore,
Ak
~
~ (xa)*
,
'
'
'
(xb)*
+ ax + p
*a
(x
(xa)*
(*
+ V^+M-
"
+ cu;+p)
(*
M*
b) 1
(jca
+ Y*+M0
'
+ ouc + P)'
(*
+ Y*+H)
where
i4
i4 lf
B 19 B
.
.
M N
lf
19
7W 2
2y
/? lf
L lf
/? 2 ,
L2
They
are determined by
reducing both sides of the above identity to integral form and
then equating the coefficients at equal powers of x, which gives
a system of linear equations with respect to the coefficients. (This
some
are
real constants to be determined.
is called the method of comparison of coefficients.) A system

equations for the coefficients can also be obtained by substituting suitably chosen numerical values of x into both sides of the
method
of
identity.
(This
successful
method
is
combination
experience, often allows
us
method of particular values.)

the indicated methods, prompted by
to simplify the process of finding the
called the
of
coefficients.
If
first
the rational fraction
be singled out.
is
improper, the integral part should
5.1. Integration
of
215
Rational Functions
5.1.1.
,
\5x 2*
f*
4x oi
81
+ 4) (*-l)
<ix
Solution. The integrand is a proper rational fraction. Since all

of the denominator are real and simple, the integral will
appear in the form of the sum of three simple fractions of the form
roots
Ax 81
3) (x+4) (x
15a:
(x
where A, B,
X 3
1)
a+4
x 1
are the coefficients to be determined.

then rejecting
common denominator and
fractions to a
Reducing the
it,
we obtain
the identity
- 4x 81 = A(x + 4) (x + B {x3) (x +
+ D(x-3)(x + 4).
15x 2
l)
Comparing the
the
coefficients
we
identity,
get
1)
powers of x in both sides of

equations for determining the
equal
at
system
(*)
of
coefficients
A+B+D-
3A 4B +
15;
Solving the system

Hence,
of
equations
= 31n|x 3 + 5 In
|
we
find
us use
2D = 8
A = 3, B = 5, D- 7.
same example
the
+ 4 + 7 In |* + C =
= In
AWe. Let
4 A + 3B
D = 4;
(x3)
(x + 4)
fi
(x
to demonstrate the
I)
7
1
-f C.
applica-
tion of the method of particular values.

The identity (*) is true for any value
of x. Therefore, setting
arbitrary particular values, we obtain three equations for
determining the three undetermined coefficients. It is most convenient to choose the roots of the denominator as the values of x
3 in the identity (*),
since they nullify some factors. Putting x
three
we
we
get
A =3;
get
D = 7.
5-1.2.
5.1.3. I
=j
=$
putting x
(2
= 4,
we obtain B^=5; and putting x-=l,
+ x)(S-ir
Xi
-<Z7X
dx
of the numerator is higher than that

the fraction is improper, we have to single
out the integral part. Dividing the numerator by the denominator,
Solution. Since
of the
the
denominator,
power
i.e.
216
Ch. V. Basic Classes of Integrable Functions
we obtain
x*
3x 3* 2
x x 2x
2
x(a: 2
+2
x 2)"
Hence,
rx*
3x*3x2,
p,
Expand the remaining proper
(x
+ 2)d*
fraction into simple ones:
*(* 2)(x+l)~~
x+2
1W
2 + a:+1*
Hence
+ 2 = A(x2) (x + l) + Bx (x+ + Dx (x2).

(the
Substituting in turn the values ^ = 0, x = 2, x =
x
l)
of the
denominator) into both sides
/4= _l;
And
of the equality,
fi= |;
roots
we obtain
D= |.
so
= ^ + * + ln|*| -|ln|x 2| yln|x+l| + C.

5,4
=) ^-2 fl+x
dx
Solution. Here the integrand is a proper rational fraction, whose

denominator roots are real but some of them are multiple:
x3
2x
+ x=x(xl)
2
.
Hence, the expansion into partial fractions has the form
3*-f3 _
2x'>+x~~~
2x*
x*
whence we get the

2x
A
x
~"
B
(x l) 2
+ x
'
identity:
3* + 3 == A (x
l)
+ Bx+Dx(xl) =
^(A + D)x + (2 A D + B)x + A.
2
(*)
coefficients at equal powers of x we get a system

equations for determining the coefficients A 6, D:
Equating the
of
+ D = 2;
A=3; B = 2; D =
A
Whence
2A D+B=3\
A=3.
1.
Thus,
/=3j? + 2j 7
^-J^ = 31n|,|-^T-ln|,-H +
T
C.
5.1. Integration
The
Note.
way
roots),
At
coefficients can be
the identity
in
if
of
Rational Functions
determined
in
^=0;
x2
we put
(*)
somewhat simpler
217
(the
denominator
and x 3 equal to any arbitrary value.
x=0
we obtain
we
get
3=A\
#=1
at
5-4 + 2B + 2D;
we
will
= 3 + 4 + 2D;
have 2-=B;
whence
at
D = 1.
=2
5.1.6.
x+
+ = +
2
Solution. Since x 3
1
(x
(the second factor is
1) (a:
1)
not expanded into real multipliers of the first power), the expansion of the given fraction will have the form
x
X3
Bx-{-D
X+\
X2
# +
'
Hence,
x = A(x
x + + (Bx + D) (x+l) =
l)
= (A + B)x + (A + B + D)x + (A + D).

2
Equating the coefficients
A=
at
-T>
equal powers of
fi
x,
we
get
= T' D = T-
Thus,
To
calculate the integral
let
us take the perfect square out of the denominator:

3
and make the substitution x
\ =
t.
Then
tdt
3 V
d/
lln(/*+4) + K3 arctan^L + C.
Returning to x, we obtain
/1
= jln(x
x+l) + K3" arctanî + C.
218
Thus,
= y ln|* +
-g-
ln(x 2
*+l) + X^-arctan -y~

2
The denominator has two
Solution.
complex
roots,
+C.
pairs of different conjugate
therefore
_ Ax + B + Dx + E
(jc*+1)(jc 2
+ 4)~~
*a
+4
'
hence
l=(Ax + B) {x
+ 4) + (Dx+E) (x +
2
1).
Here it is convenient to apply the method of particular values for

determining the coefficients, since the complex roots of the denominator (# = i and x = 2i) are sufficiently simple.
Putting x = i, we obtain
3fl+3>U
=^
E=
whence ,4=0, B
D = 0,
whence
dx
(x
1 )
= 2i
we obtain
+ 4)~~
i_
3 J x2
y arc tan x
l,
3E 6Di =
-g-
+l
3 J x2
dx
+4
_
""
+ C.
arc tan
dx
~ i (* + x + 2) (** + 4* + 5)'
x + 4x +llx +12x-f-8
(* + 2x + 3) (x+l)
J
2
'
Expand
Solution, Here we already have multiple complex roots.

the fraction into partial fractions:
^4
4a: 3_|_ 11
(x 2
^2
+ 2x + 3)
Find the
(x
2^
*~
B = U
(jt
+1U +12a; + 8-dx+ 2x + 3) (x+\)
4a:
(a;
+ 2x + 3)
Dx + E
2
'
x2
f_
+ 2* + 3 + * +
coefficients:
-4=1;
Ax+B
+8_
1 )
Hence,
^4
1,
Thus,
2
2
J (x +1)(a:
5.1.8.
Putting
D = 0; = 0; f=L
'
5.2.
Calculate /,
^
= (x+
,2
+ 2x + 3
x2
Since
x-\-
dx.
3)2
l)
+ 2,
make
us
let
substitution
the
Then we obtain
i=\
The
(/2
+2
dt
dt
~2 I V
+ 2)
(/a
+ 2)
~~ 2/ 2'
integral
2
is
219
Integration of Certain Irrational Expressions
2
2
J(/ +2)
Problem
calculated by the reduction formula (see

.
dt
4.4.1):
Thus
/
i-
Returning to
/
l
We
i~
finally
(*2
L_
2(/>+2)
2(/
+2)
^r
i
f2
we obtain
x,
2(x 2
o rn for,
2}A2
+ 2a;+3)
2(a: 2
!_arctan^tl-J C
+ 2a;+3)
V2
^2
obtain
+ 2*+3) (a:+1)
2
= ln|x + 11 0/
o*,"^
2
+ + 3)
2
(a:
2a:
ox
YU^2
arc
tan^y + C.
V^2
Find the following integrals:

.
^"^^ 22a; 8 ^>

5x 3 -j-9x 2
5#1 10
r;;
-4a
dx
5.1.11.
(jc+1)(a:+2) 2
5.1.12.
4a:+4)
(a:
(jc
+ 3)'
4a:
+5)
dx
5.1.13.
(1+*)(1+* > )(1+* 8 )'
x +3
U4 IcT+W+T)^'
3
'
'
5.2.
Certain types of integrals of algebraic irrational expressions can

be reduced to integrals of rational functions by an appropriate change
of the variable. Such transformation of an integral is called its rationalization.
220
Ch. V. Basic Classes
If
I.
the integrand
Integrable Functions
rational function of fractional powers of
is
of
p-
2l\
an independent variable x, i.e. the function R\x x*,

x^j
then the integral can be rationalized by the substitution x=t m
where m is the least common multiple of the numbers q lf q 2
., q k
II. If the integrand
is
a rational function of x and fractional
9
powers of a linear fractional function

tionalization
ax
b
~t
cx-\-d
,
5.2.1.
m
,
'
the
of
where
integral
is
of the
effected
form
by
then
the
ra-
substitution
has the same sense as above.
l=\ x+ Y*+~x dx.
Solution. The least common multiple of the

therefore we make the substitution:
numbers 3 and 6
is 6,
= t*, dx^Wdt,
whence
= 6p
Returning to
x,
+ 6 J^^7 = y/ + 6arctan/ + C.
4
d/
we obtain
2
5.2.2.
5.2.3.
f*+K*
dx.
(2x
3)
+1
Solution. The integrand

Q
we put
3
t
refore
+6 arc tan 1/ x+C.
2x =
dx = 3t b
dt;
is
rational function of
/2x
3, the-
whence
(2x
T=
3) _L
3
\
(2x 3)
=/ 2
Hence,
1+/ 2
3-y~ 3-J- + 3-^ 3^ + 3 arc tan + C.

/
Returning to
/
=3
11
I
5.2.
x,
(2x 3)
we
-6
221
get
l
-i-
(2x 3)
y (2x 3)
-J-
(2x 3) 6"+ arc tan (2x 3) T + C
5.2.4.
/= f-
/"
The integrand
Solution.
2qr^ therefore
function of x and the
rational
is
ex-
us introduce the substitution
let
+x
+x
'
whence
Hence
j
2(l+/ 3
~~
16/
Returning to x
we
2
)
(1
/>12/ 2
'
" r
ai ___3_
~~
2j^""4/ 2 t U#
3 2
)
/=
get
'=4K(W+ C
5.2.6.
"
(*__=_.
Solution. Since
/(x-lH* + 2) = (x-l)(x + 2) ]/ 2,
5
jZTj
us introduce the substitution:
x-\
%-l
whence
_ tj
a:
/
+2
a:
-12/ a
(/4
#-f-z
,*
1)2
3/4
therefore
let
222
Hence,
l
~ _ Jp
Returning to
(/4-l)(/4
3.3^(^ 4
1)
\2t*dt
-D
"~
3 J
dt___i_ r
/2-3/ + Lt
we obtain
x>
dx
5.2.7.
V 1 *
(1- x)
d*
5.2.8
t+1)
7^=
5.2.9.
j (,-2)
(x
4
l)
/}xx dx.
5.3. Euler's Substitutions

Integrals of the form
R(x
[/ ax 2
-\-
bx
+ c) dx are
calculated with
the aid of one of the three Euler substitutions:

(1)
V ax* + bx + c = txVa
2
(2)
V~ax
(3)
V~ax 2
+ bx + c=tx ]/"c
+ bx-\-c = (x a)t
ax
i.e.
if
5.3.1.
is
if
+ bx + c = a(x a) (x
a=l > 0, therefore we make

Vx + 2x-\-2 = x.
2
Squaring both sides
we
2x
whence
^+
2*
'
+ 2 = + <-^=%T7F
P 2(l+<)(< 2
_ + 2/ + 2
2(l +

.
and reducing the similar terms,
+ 2tx = 2,
*~~2(1 +/)
the substitution
of this equality
get
f$),
root of the trinomial ax -\-bx-\-c.
Solution. Here
if
real
/=f
> 0;
c> 0;
a
if
we obtain
+ 2/ + 2)
+ 4i + 4)2(l+0
(<
+ 2<+2)rf<
(l+0(<+2) 3
'
Now
tial
us
let
223
Euler's Substitutions
5.3.
expand the obtained proper rational fraction into
par-
fractions:
2
(t
B
D
+ 2/ + 2 _ A
+ 2) ~~ + + + 2 + + 2)
2
Applying the method
B = 0, D =
(/
1 )
(t
'
undetermined coefficients we
of
find:
i4=l,
^>
2.
Hence,
r2
+ 2/
Returning to
we
x,
In (x
/=
5.3.2.
Ai
-f-
d/
d/
Q p
iii
get
2
+ C.
+ + j/> + 2x + 2) H x
r
+ 2+ y x* + 2x + 2
*
_
c+ V * 2 x-\-
Solution. Since
substitution
c=l>0,
here
Vx
we can apply
x+
= tx
the second
Euler
1,
whence
(2/-l)x =
(/
-l)x
^=-2^^^;
Substituting into
/,
= ^rr;
+ Kx'-x+^y^y.
we obtain an
integral
rational
of a
r 2; + 2/
J /(/ !)(/ +
fraction:
I)
-2/ 2
+ 2/ 2
i4
t(t\)(t+\) 2
By
the
method
of
(t
'
\)
undetermined coefficients we
B = -y;
A = 2;
Z>
+
find
= - |.
= -3;
Hence
,
Cdt_
- Z9
1_
dt
o C
J/-1
dl
^J(/+l) 2
Ji/
+r
= 21n|/|[ln|/-l +
I
where
)/"x a
/
5.3.3.
x+l +
/=f (1+x)
d*
^l + x
a;
In
l
\
+C
Ch. V. Basic Clastes of Integrable Functions
224
5.3.4.
x dx
f-
(]ffx\0 x*) 3
'
<
<
and c
therefore neither the first,
Solution. In this case a
nor the second Euler substitution is applicable. But the quadratic
10
x 2 has real roots a
trinomial 7x
therefore we
5,
2, P
use the third Euler substitution:
y'7x\0x = V(x 2) (5 *) = (x2)t.

2
Whence
5
_ +
X
+
5
2)
2/ 2
v2
2
ax _
'
%
\
6/ dt
(1
2 2
Hence
,
where
+ 2)*--(-f + a
.^--fl|

/.
1/"7jc
^
10
jc
+C
Calculate the following integrals with the aid of one of the Euler
substitutions:
dx
5.3.5.
f
J
5.3.6.
J Y
j2
x Vx + 2jc + 4
dx
1
AT
dx
5.3.7.
5.3.8.
j
f
]/"(2x
2 3
)
^
^+.GI?"
yT+x
2
O^ter Methods of Integrating Irrational Expressions
The Euler substitutions often
lead to rather
cumbersome
calcu-
should be applied only when it is difficult

to find another method for calculating a given integral. For calculating many integrals of the form
lations,
therefore
they
R(x,
Vax
+ bx + c) dx,
simpler methods are used.

I.
I=f
J
Vax 2 + bx+c
dx
5.4. Methods of Integrating Irrational Expressions
are reduced
by the substitution x
Vat'+K
*J
M N K
where
are
ly
l9
The
+ -^ =
new
*J
225
to the form
Vat* + K
coefficients.
reduced to the integral of a power function,

while the second, being a tabular one, is reduced to a logarithm
(for a
0).
0) or to an arc sine (for a
0,
first
integral
is
K>
<
>
II.
P-
Vax 2 + bx + c
P m (*) is a
reduction formula:
where
=v
:?Tl+ ^+c
KaA: 2
polynomial
P m _ 1 (x) is
constant number.
where
dx,
of degree
m, are calculated by the
(x)^Hw/([-7
polynomial
degree
of
z
V ax
1,
=-,
bx + c
+r
and
is
(i)
some
The coefficients of the polynomial P m (x) and the constant

number K are determined by the method of undetermined coeffici^.
ents.
III.
dx
1
(xai)"
Vax 1 -\-bx-\~c
are reduced to the preceding type by the substitution
x-a = T
1
For trigonometric and hyperbolic substitutions see 5.7.
IV.
5.4.1.
=f
Solution.
4a:
Make
+ 4*
the substitution
/
Hence,
1
4
CiLh5)dt_
2#+l = /,
dx
whence
-^dt.
+ 14ln|/ + ^
^-4
./-tj
-4| + C.
Returning to x, we get
I
=ly^ + 4x3 + ^\n\2x+l +
r 4xi
+ 4x3\ + C.
Ch. V. Basic Classes of Integrable
226
5X
/=
5.4.2.
H*.
^x + 2x+5
2
/== f
5.4.3.
+-
F uncttons
f-x-zjL^dx.
+2x+2
Here P m (x) = x 3 x 1. Hence,
P m - (x) = Ax + Bx + D.
2
Solution.
We
seek the integral in the form

/
A x> + Bx + D) Vx 2 + 2x + 2 + K
Differentiating this equality,
/'
x2
f
j
-= dx
y * 2 + 2* +
we obtain
+ +2
2x
= (2 Ax + B) Vr x* + 2x + 2 + (Ax + Bx + D)
2
x' ~\~
2x ~
4
2
+ Vx'
Reduce to
x*
common denominator and

2
Equating the coefficients at equal powers

system of equations:
of x,
+ D) (* -f 1) + K.
we
get the following
2A + A=1,
B + 4A + B + A=0;
2B + 4A + D + B = l\
2B + D + K =
Solving the system,
+ 2x+2
equate the numerators
x = (2Ax + B) (x + 2*+ 2) + (/l* +

1
1.
we obtain
Thus,
dx
*
+ 2x + 2
where
1
Vx 2 + 2x+2
5.4.4.
/= JjAx
J
2
1)2+1
-r
/-r
4x + 3dA:.
Solution. Transform the integral to the form

4
/=[ Jf- *^ dx = (Ax + B)V4x -4x + 3 + K
2
^
A
Methods
5.4.
of Integrating Irrational Expressions
Applying the method
undetermined
of
4f
V2
]/4x
9' 3 -3' 2
f
5.4.5.
j/4j^
1 -|-
4x+3) + C.
dx.
(*+4)dx
(f
r
1
J (a:
Solution.
In (2x
/=
get
rf
K3x 2 2x+l
5.4.6.
5.4.7.
4x+3 + y
+2
we
coefficients,
V(2x-\\> + 2
J
2
227
1)
(a:+2) 2
Represent the given integral as follows:
Expand the
+ jc+1
fraction
?
\X
1 )
x+4
(x
l)(*
x+4
(x-{-4)dx
(x-l)(x + 2) 2 j7>
T\X
-\-
+ 2)
1)
dx
(a:+2) 2
yx + x+{
2
into partial fractions
9 2
Z)
.
x\
(at
(x
+ 2)
+2
Find the coefficients
Hence,
1
9(x-\)
3(x+2) 2
dx
(x
y + x+
xt
1)
dx
9 (a:+2)J
dx
f
J
(x+2) 2 |A^-f-x-fl
"
5_
The
first
integral
is
leave the solution to the reader.
5.4.8.
3
f*
5.4.9.
f
J
- 6**+H*- 6 ^
W+4x+3
3^ + 5^-7,+ 9 Wt
|^2a; 2
5a:
+ 2) /x + x-H
2
calculated by the substitution
second and the third by the substitution x
We
dx
f
J
+7
+2=
-j-'
==
the
228
xdx
5.4.11
I (x 2 3x + 2) Vx 2 4* + 3
dx
5.4.12.
(^+l)
l+3x +
x Vf-
bers,
integral
xm
;c
of a Binomial Differential
5.5. Integration
The
"
/^ + 37+2
l)dx
5.4.13.
(a
+ bx n y dx,
where m,
n,
p are rational num-
expressed through elementary functions only in the follow-
is
ing three cases:
Case I. p is an integer. Then, if p > 0, the integrand is expanded

by the formula of the Newton binomial; but if p < 0, then we
put x=t k where k is the common denominator of the fractions m
and n.
y
Case
II.
an
is
We
integer.
put
+ bx n =
a
,
where a
is
the denominator of the fraction p.
Case
is
^-^- + p
III.
We
put a
+ bx n = tx n
where a

5.5.1. /
j/x(2+j/"x) 2 dx.
we have Case
I.
Solution.
an integer.
is
*3"
(jc
r
J
\2+x-V
y dx.
-(
3
2 \
= J*
5.5.3.
Here
/?
= 2,
i.e.
G+*
C-/T+V*
*
\
m = j2
integer; hence,
= j\
-1
dx.
dx.
+ xT ) T
J_
= -^
1
d.*:.
m+l = (-4+0 =
1,
{
3"
integer.
an
+ 4xT +4) dx = J (x T + 4x T +4xT ) dx =

- 24 ii
3
5.5.2.
Solution.
Here
i.e.
an
5.5. Integration of a Binomial Differential
We
have Case
make
Let us
II.
l+x* =f
the substitution
229
dx = 2tdt.
Hence,
=6
5.5.4. /
5.5.5.
=
[
2
t
dt
J*~(2 +
JK
+x
x b {\
= 2t + C = 2(1 +xT ) T + C.
3
T ) Tdx.
)~ dx.
5.5.6.
= jV
11
(\
+ x*)~dx.
+ = also
= -j a fraction,
=
y
---3
an integer, i.e. we have
+p =
a fraction, but
y=
=
Hence
xH
Case III. We put
+ x*
tdt
dx
x
2(f
Solution. Here p
is
is
(t
l)
I)
Substituting these expressions into the integral,
=
Returning to
5.5.7.
x,
we
get
r~
jj-
dx.
dx.
5.5.8.
5.5.9.
j-
J*
(!+**)
dx.
we obtain
_^ ^_i)M/=-^+|-4+c.
(
Ch. V
230
Basic Classes of Inlegrable Functions
\Vx Y^ + V x
5.5.11.
dx
5.6. Integration of Trigonometric and Hyperbolic

Functions
1.

I
and n are rational

the binomial differential
where
of
= ^ s'm m xcos n xdx,

numbers,
n-
/=$/*(l /*)
are
reduced to the
integral
dt
= smx
are, therefore, integrated in elementary

following three cases:
and
functions only in the
odd {j-^- an integer^,
(1)
(2)
(3)
m+n
is
odd
is
is
(^rp
an integer^,
even ^^y-^
+ ^p
an integer^.
an odd number, the substitution sin#=/ is applied.

an odd number, the substitution cosa;=/ is applied.
If
the sum m + n is an even number, use the substitution
tan#=/ (or cot^=/).
is
If
If
is
In particular, this kind of substitution

of the
is
convenient
for
integrals
form
^tan n xdx (or ^cot n xdx^>

is a positive integer. But the last substitution is inconveboth m and n are positive numbers. If m and n are nonnegative even numbers, then it appears more convenient to use the
method of reducing the power with the aid of trigonometric trans-
where n
nient
if
formations:
cos 2
or sin x cos x
5.6.1.
1=
x=y(l + cos 2x)
=y sin 2x.
s
f , iilli- dx.
J j/cos**
sin 2
A;
= y (1
cos2jc)
5.6. Integration of
Here m = 3 is an
which gives
Solution.
sin
xdx =
Trigonom. and Hyperbolic Functus
dt,
=3
j/cos a:
(
odd
y cos
We
number.
jc
+C
put
231
cosa:
/,
5.6.2. /
-^d*.
=fJ sin
x
5.6.3. /
sin 4
x cos 6
a: c(a:.
Solution. Here both

and n are positive even numbers.
use the method of reducing the power:
/
=~
(2 sin
The second
cos
a:
of the
a:)
cos 2
xdx =
obtained
sin 4 2jc(1
integrals
is
+ cos 2x) dx =
Let us
lx
+/
calculated by the substitu-
tion:
2x =t, cos
sin
/,
= gg Jsin
We
2a:
cos 2x dx
again apply to the
first
2a:
t*
dx = -^dt,
dt
==^ + C ==^sm* 2x + Q.
integral the
method
of
reducing the
power:
Ii
= 52 sin4 2x dx = y J cos 4a:) dx=

(
J_ x y sin 4#j
+26 J
128
:
And
so,
256
5.6.4. /
^
256
A*-i sin4 *+^ sin8 *+ c
0111
sin
^" + ^
^ 2048 sin
+
" 320 sin
4a:
8a:
2a:
+ 0.
2
r sin x
g-dA:.
\
6
J cos *
Solution. Here both

negative. Therefore,
tan a:=
Hence,
8a:)c(a:
finally,
/__L *^
is
+ cos
and n are even numbers, but one
we put
/;
^ = +
cos 2 a;
2
;
T~ti==dt.
cos 2 a;
of
them
232
5.6.5.
^dx.
/=
2
[
J sin x
Solution. Here we can put cotx=t, but

by expansion:
sin 2
2
J Vsin x
= cot*
2a;
simpler to integrate
is
it
-f
j" (1
cos2x)dx =
3x\
~
r + -j\
+ C.
sin 2x
cotx +
.
5.6.6. /
5.6.7. /
cos 4
we
jj/sin 11 x cos
a:
their
(~ y
y)
and
~y = 4
sum
is
negative
are
an even number,
there-
put
dx
tan x=t;
11
4
J cos * j/tan *
j//
= dt.
11
(1
+ 4 tan
8 tan
5.6.8.
a:'
Solution. Here both exponents
fore
d*
-J
numbers and
Find the integrals
of
tanx and cot
a:
x)
C.
^/tan^Sc
x.
Solution.
\
tanxdx=
J
\
cot x dx
\
<J
sin
/=$ ian xdx.

Solution. We put tanx=tf,
/5
-'
=
=I
In
cos x
-)-
C;
AT
dx =
In
sin
at
+ C.
5.6.9.
dx =
J COS
TT7-.
K'
-jr
x = arctan?; dx
+ '-TTT.)*
tan 6 a:
We
get
tan 4 x
+ y tan
x+
In
cos x
+ C.
5.6. Integration of Trigonom. and Hyperbolic Fund's
/=
5.6.10. (a)
5.6.11. /
^cotxdx;
tan 3 xdx.
= C2^fdjc.
sin *
J
Solution. Here sin
an odd power. Let us put
raised to
is
a;
cosa:
We
(b) /
233
sin xdx =
dt.
obtain an integral of a rational function.

/
-dt.
Here,
it
methods
is
simpler
integrate by parts
to
than to use the general
of integration of rational functions (cf.
Problem 4.4.1
(b)).
Let us put
Then
du =
2(1
1
3t 2 dt\
2
)
Hence,
/
t*
2(1
dt
2
)
t*
"2(1
cos x
5.6.12.
II.
/=
dt:
_i
l
1 t*
2 J
3,3.
+ ln
2(1 P)
\t
+ cos *
+ T ln
COS X
1
-cosx
+c.
dx.
f
J COS*
i?(sin.x:,
cos x) dx where
/? is
a rational
function of sin x and cos x are transformed into integrals of a rational

function by the substitution:
tan l^-jj
This
is
=t
( ji
<x<
In this case
so-called universal substitution.

sin x
2t
IT/*'
= 2arc tanf;
cos x1
dx
n).
t
/
'
2dt
i+t 2
'
234
Sometimes instead
make
tageous to
of the substitution
the substitution cot-|-
tany = /
is
it
<x<
(0
more advan-
2n).
Universal substitution often leads to very cumbersome calculations.

Indicated below are the cases when the aim can be achieved with
the aid of simpler substitutions:
(a) if the equality
sin
R(s\nx,
is
then
satisfied,
cosx
(b)
form
cosx)
x=
x,
effect
is
cosx)
x,
by substituting tanx
gained
t.
latter case
sin cos x) = R (sin
then a better
fulfilled,
The
cos x)== R(s\nx
the equality
if
or cot
cos x)
to the former equality,
R(
is
more advantageous to apply the substitution

and s'mx = t to the latter;
is
it
= R(s'mx
cosjc)
a;,
or
example,
encountered, for
is
in
integrals
of
the
(tanx)dx.
5.6.13.
/=
dx
/0
J sin x (2+ cos
.
Let us put
Solution.
r
sin x)
x2sj^
tan~ = t;
then we have
2dt
Expand
into simple fractions

l
t(t 3)(t\)
Find the
t\
coefficients
=b
B =ih
D =-
Hence
J
Jt_
3 J
d
t
+
,
_5_
3 J
dt
t-3
dt
= -iln|/| + |ln|/ 3 1 ln| + C =

/
T ln
tan
|
T + |-ln|tan| 3| In
tan-
X
2
+ C.
Integration of Trigonom. and Hyperbolic Funcfs
5.6.
235
dx
5.6.14. /:
5+ sin x + 3 cos x
dx
5.6.15. /:
sin
(2
a;
1)
cos 2
Solution.
expression
the
in
If
sin
cos 2 x
(2
we
substitute
1)
sin x for sinx, then the fraction will change its sign. Hence, we
cosa;; dt
sinxdx. This
take advantage of the substitution /
gives
dl
2/2_
'
1}
Since
2/ (1 2/
)(1 2<
2
(2
(1 2 )(\ 2t 2 )'
(1
<
2/ 2
then
In
1-/1^2
+ VT COS
1-^2
i
JC
COS X
+ COS X
1+^2
+ ln
cos #
I
tan
Y^2
In
2
II
""T
= -=ln
5.6.16. /
+c=
dt
dt
1 2/ 2
J sin #:+ cos #
dx.
Solution. Since the integrand does not change sign

their signs, we take advantage of
tution
and cos x do change
= tan*;
dt
= COSdx X
2
when sin*
the substi-
'
"
Hence,
7r
C tan 2 X cos 4 x
J
Expand
C sin 2 # cos #
dx
(tanx+l)
cos 2 *
dt
2
2
(/o_iw/2_
J (*+l)(/ +l)
into partial fractions
A
t+\
/*
(/+l)(/a
21)
Bt
t
+D
Et
+F
+\ M/ 2 +l) 2
Find the coefficients
B=
D--
12
'
F=-
2
Hence,
=11 '+1
lt 2 +\
dt+
<
2
Ch. V. Basic Classes of fntegrable Functions
236
In
-JL-4
^ +
^2
^+
1
sin
In
si
a;
2 tan ^ + 3
/= f sin
t
+2 cos
5.6.17.
C=
a:
4- cos
-|-
cos
a:
Solution. Dividing the numerator and denominator by cos 2

dx
substituting tanx=/;
dt. we obtain
2
cos
^_
2tan*+3
r
'
2
J sin
x+ 2 cos
=
jc
and
AT
tan x
(2
+ 3)
tan 2
a:
+ C.
x(smx + cos
cos 2 x
x+2
i=
=
j|J|^ = ln(^ + 2) + -ârctan T + C
= In (tan * + 2) + -2= arc tan tan *

2
/= [j^-dx.
J + sin x
5.6.18.
Solution. This integral, of course, can be evaluated with the aid
tany = /,
of the universal substitution
desired result by resorting

integrand:
sin#(l
sin x
1-J-sin*
(1 -j-
sin
a:)
sin x)
sin x)
sin
sin
it
easier to get the
is
following transformation
the
to
but
of the
x)
cos 2 x
(1
sin'2
sin x
COS 2 X
sin x
COS 2 X
COS 2 X
-tan 2 x.
Whence
/
5.6.19.
S1 " *
C
9
2
J COS X
/=
dx
J[ sec
x dx
+ Jf dx =
COS
tan a:
AT
+ # + C.
1
f
4
2
J cos x sin
dx.
a:
the substitution tanx^/ can be applied, but it

simpler to transform the integrand. Replacing, in the numerator,
unity by the trigonometric identity raised to the second power, we
Solution. Here
is
get
r
Sm
4
2
2
4
C sin #-f- 2 sin x cos x-f cos x
2
cos 2 x) 2
C (sin
4
2
sin'
cos
x
x
J
dx-\-2
[
4
2
J cos x
J cos *
1
~~
h C
f
2
J sin *
= y tan
3
a:
cl.s 4
J
-
ftan 2 x
* sin 2 x
~~
^ + 2 tan cot x =
cos 2
a:
a:
+ 2 tanx cot x-\-C.
Integrating Irrational Functions by Substitutions
5.7.
237
III. Integration of hyperbolic functions. Functions rationally depending on hyperbolic functions are integrated in the same way as
trigonometric functions.
Keep in mind the following basic formulas:
cosh
cosh 2 x
sinh x =
2
tanh ~2=ty then sinh x
= y (cosh 2x
(2
= 2 Artanh/ = ln({-j) (-1< <

*
/=
5.6.20.
,^2
= ^_
1
cosh x
1 );
= y sinh 2x.
sinh x cosh x
2t
= _
]
sinh 2 x
= y (cosh 2x + 1);
If
t2
1);
dx
cosh 2 xck.
J
Solution.
I
5.6.21.
= j y (cosh2*+ 1)
/=
cosh 3 ^d^.
J
Solution. Since cosh x
co$hxdx
= dt. We
/
d*=|-sinh2* + y.x: + C.
= j cosh
is
an odd power, we put sinhjc =
raised to
/;
obtain
2
* cosh
xdx
- j(l +/
= sinh x + y sinh
2
)
a:
d/
= +y + C =
*
+ C.
5.6.22. Find the integrals:

(a)
v
'
f sinh
J
# cosh 2 x dx;
(b)
v
/
x+2^
C-r-r
J sinh
cosh
a;
5.7. Integration of Certain Irrational Functions with the

Aid of Trigonometric or Hyperbolic Substitutions
Integration of functions rationally depending on x and \âx 2

bx
c
can be reduced to finding integrals of one of the following forms:
I.
II.
III.
$/?
(ty P H* + q*)dt-
\R(t, ]fpH*
J'/?(f,
q*) dt;
dt
238
Ch. V. Basic Classes of fntegrable
where
= x + ^\
ax 2
+ bx + c = p q
2 2
t
Fund ions
out a perfect
(singling
square).
Integrals
of the forms I to III can be reduced to integrals of

expressions rational with respect to sine or cosine (ordinary or hyperbolic) by means of the following substitutions:
I.
= tan 2
t-=
or
sinh2.
P
II.
= sec2
or
= cosh 2.
p
III.
= sin2
or
= tanhz.
P
dx
I=[-r
5.7.1.
Solution.
+ 2x + x = 4 + (x+ 1)
2
/_
We
2
.
integral
of
x+l=t. Then
put
us
- j" (4+/
1 7(1+2^+^)3
have obtained an
Let
2)3
the form
I.
Let us introduce
the substitution:
*
We
= 2tan2; d*=-^-; /4+7~ = 2/1 + tan

2
cos z
get
cos zdz
=
t
tan z
+
y5 + 2* +
x
5.7.2.
/=f
J (*+l)
Solution. x
Let us put
dx
-C.
jc
V*a+2*+2
+ 2x + 2 = (x+l) + L
2
#+1=/;
then
dt
Again we have an
tf
= sinhz.
of the
integral
form
I.
Make
the substitution
Then
dt
= cosh z dz\ Vt +\ = Kl+sinh

2
= cosh z.
5.7
Integrating Irrational Functions by Substitutions
239
Hence,
,
cosh z dz
r
dz
= C0th Z + C^ =
,
U92
J sinh z
J sinh- z cosh z
^+
VT+Zi/-
V l+sinh2 2
2jc
+2
= ^x Vx^-ldx.
2
5.7.3.
5.7.4.
/-j^d*.
5.7.5.
= $K(*
l)
d*.
Perform the substitution:
Solution.
= cosh?;
dx
= sinh/d^.
Hence
/
$j/"(cQsh*/
= -i j cosh
l)
2/ df
= y j(cosh+
sinh
dt=\
j cosh
l)df
-J-
sinh 4
2/ df
sinh 2/
-J-
J
^
d/
-J-
= sinh At \ sinh 2t + 1- + C.
1
Let us return to x:
= Arcosh x = In (x + Vx*
sinh 2t = 2 sinh cosh = 2x V'x l;
sinh 4/ = 2 sinh 2* cosh 2t = 4* Vx \ (2x
t
);
Hence
5.7.6.
/=f
J
Solution.
*
V x)Vx-x*
_
(1+
We make
x
the substitution:
= sin
2
/;
dx
= 2sin*cos/df
1).
^>
240
and
j
get
r
f
2 sin
(1
+ sinO
cos
Vsin 2
=2
dt
^
sin
2 dt
+ sin
[tzli
dt =2 tan
2
cos
^- + C
COS
'
7 i =+ c5.7.7.
r
~>
5 ,.s.
= [VZ 2x
Solution.
1)
+c.
dx.
2*+5)
5.5. Integration
5.8.1.
CLi
,=j
(x 2
2(l
of Other Transcendental Functions
= Ji2djc.
We
integrate by parts, putting
= In x\
dv
= ^;
x
2
dx
a:
a:
5.8.2.
_
-
In
C dx
T + J"^-
a:
T + ^
1
/=fi^.
Solution. Let us put:
e*dx
Apply the reduction formula
'
In
(i
(see
= dt. We
get:
+<*)*
Problem
4.4.1):
= YiJ^T) + T arctan + C = 2(1$^ + T arctan + c
5.8.4.
= $e-*ln(e*+l)dx:.
5.8. Integration of Other Transcendental Functions
Solution.
We
integrate by parts:
= \n(ex +
1);
du= +f *e xY dx;
t
= - e -ln(l+^) +
= e - *
JT
^=-
In (1
dv
= e~ x dx;
e~ x
\
*
'
-Mn(l+^) +
-î^^ =
+ex + x ln(l + e*) + C.

)
~aarc tan *
5.8.5.
dx.
= l-
(1
g g g
+*
2
)
Pa: arc tan
x dx
jn~+T2
Solution.
241
Integrating by parts,
= arc tan x;
= T+x
|/
arc tan x
we
dv
get
In (x
xdx
+**
'
+ |/* + l) + C.
a
242
Methods of Integration
of Basic Forms of Integrals)
5.9.
(List
No.
Method
Integral
^[(pMlfW dx
Substitution
W M dx
(p
(x)
Integration by parts
<p'
integration
of
W 9' W d*=
method
This
integrals
(x)
is
the
of
(x)
(p
form
(x) /' (x)
dx.
example,
to
applied, for
polynomial, and
is
/ (x)
(x) f (x)
f (x)
is
where
dx>
one of the
sina#;
e^'y cos ax;
In x\
arc tan x\ arc sin x, etc.
and also to integrals of products of an exponential function by cosine or sine.
(n)
<f
W d*
Reduced
to
integration of the product
(x)q*(x) by the formula for multiple integration by parts
{n)
x)
(p
(w)
f'(x)
...
(x)
q>
dx
"- 2
>
= f (x)
(x)
- 1)
q><
+ /" (x)
(p
pn
(x)
>
w+
fi)(x)q>(x)dx
J
Applying the formula for multiple integraby parts (see above), we get
dx,
tion
where p n
(x)
is
polyno-
mial of degree n.
e**p n
(x)
dx
=
~ ~
a2
+
5
"- 3 (*)...
(-_l)i.-i/(i.-D X )q,
(
+ (-l)
4
(x)
Mx + N
+ px+q
2
J x
4q <
X>
Substitution
a3
'<
'
P"
j?
+c
Methods of Integration (List
5.9.
No.
Method
Integral
dx
a.
of Basic Integrals)
of
Reduction formula
integration
used
is
x
n
fPW
ttH
P(x)
where 7r^-J
is
proper rational
sum
frac-
tion
Integrand
= (x x
-x )" ...
(x)
1)
~(2n 2)(x 2
P(x)
Q(x)
(xx x
+ l)"-
(x 2
+ px +
+ ...
(x-x 2
(*-* 2
X
'
where
[cx+d)
R is a
function of
10
Xl
(*-* 2 )'
<7
(x*
+ px + q)*
{x *
+ px + q) k
its
dx
>
)l~T~
'
Reduced to the integral

by the substitution
of a rational
frac-
tion
rational
arguments.
Mx+W
+ ^+c
f j
I
2
J |/a^
of a
At
2
)
tion
~~n
the form
in
A2
(x x t
tion of its arguments.
Reduced to the integral of a rational fracby the substitution x t k where k is a

rational func- common denominator of the fractions
1")^,
is
2/1
(x-
a:
where
2n
1
fractions
*a+p* +
expressed
is
of partial
243
cx-\~d
By
dx
is
the substitution x-\--^
reduced to a
Mx+N
f
sum
of
two
*-mS
the
integral
integrals:
m
t
+
2
-f/n
The first integral is reduced to the integral

of a power function and the second one is a
tabular integral.
Qh. V. Basic Classes of Integrable Functions
244
No.
Method
Integral
(x,
\âx 2 -\-bx-\-c) dx
where
function of x and
lâx'1
-|-
bx
integration
Reduced to an integral of rational fraction

by the Euler substitutions:
rat ion a
is
ot
Vax* + bx + c = t x V~a
{a
+ bx + c=tx
(c
Vax
+c
V ax
where x
V^~c
-\~bx+c=t (xx x
the root
is
of
(Aac
>
>
0),
0),
<
0).
the trinomial ax 2 -\-
+bx + c.
The indicated integral can also be evaluated by the trigonometric substitutions:
- 4ac
sin
cos
2a
+2a=<
4ac
b2
(a
2a
<
0,
\ac
<
0)
- 4ac
b2
sec
2a
+ Ta
Aac
cosec
2a
(a
>
Aac
4ac--b
0,
<
0)
tan
2a
4ac--b 2
cot
(a
2a
>
0,
4ac- -6 2
Pn
12
}/"ax 2
where P
+ +c
(*)
dx
mial of degree n.
0)
Write the equality

t
toc
is
>
polyno-
P
j/~a# 2
(x)
dx
+ +c
6#
dx
|/~ax 2 -j-kx;-j-c
where Q n -i(x) is a polynomial of degree

1. Differentiating both parts of this equan
2
lity and multiplying by Vax -\-bx-\-c we
get the identity
Pn
(x)
i (*)
+ bx + +
W(2(w + 6) + A
(<u 2
+ |q b .
c)
which gives a system of n-\-\ linear equations for determining the coefficients of the
polynomial Q n - 1 (x) and factor k.
Methods
5.9.
No.
of Integration (List of Basic Integrals)
Method
Integral
And
245
of integration
the integral
dx
V ax' + bx + c
2
taken by the method considered
is
(M
dx
13
(x
14
Xi) m
xm
where m,
(a
Vax 2 + bx + c
+ bx n )Pdx,
p are rational
n,
numbers (an
binomial
integral of a
= 0;
in
No. 10
N=l).
This integral is reduced to the above-considered integral by the substitution
This integral is expressed through elementary functions only if one of the following
conditions is fulfilled:
if
(1)
differential).
an
is
.m+
nteger,
if
an integer,
(3)
if
is
(2)
m+\
-p
is
an integer.
1st case
(a)
if
positive
is
integer,
remove the
brackets (a
bx n )P according to the Newton
binomial and calculate the integrals of powers;
negative
integer, then the

the common
is
denominator of the fractions
and n leads
to the integral of a rational fraction;
(b)
if
is
substitution
k,
where k
2nd case
*
an integer, then
is
if
n
tion a-\-bx n
the
substitu-
applied, where
denominator of the fraction p;
t
is
is
the
3rd case
if
~~~ JrP
ls
an integer, then the substi-
is
tution a-\-bx n
x n t k is applied, where k
15
(sin
cos x) dx
Universal substitution tan -?r=t.

If
R( s'mx
cosx)=
then the substitution cosa:

If
(sin
R(slnx
/
cosx)= R
then the substitution smx=^t

If
cos x)
R( s\nx,
R
then the substitution tanx
/
is
cos
x),
applied.
(sin
cos
a:),
applied.
cos*),
(sin x
is applied.
is
246
Ch. V. Basic Classes of Iniegrable Functions
No.
Method
Integral
16
dx
(sinh x, cosh x)
The substitution tanh-^this case
sinhx
17
sin
bxdx
^ sin ax cos
bxdx
^ sin
ax
-;
sin
-i-
d* =1
In
__ /2
m
^ sin x cos" x dx,
inte-
b)
a; cos
fr)
x-j-cos (a-\-b) x]
b)
x-j-sin
[cos (a
=
[sin (a
If
is an odd positive
the substitution cosa:
/.
If n is an odd positive
substitution sin#
/.
If
m-j-n
(a+b)
x)
number, then apply
gers.
(a-\-b) x]
ax cos bx
=-^-
and n are
cosh*^^;
[cos (a
-^-
cos ax cos 6*
used.
is
sin ax sin bx
where
Transform the product of trigonometric

functions into a sum or difference, using one
of the following formulas:
^ cos ax cos bx dx
18
Integration
of
number, apply the
an even negative number, apply
is
the substitution tan#

/.
If
and n are even non-negative numbers,
use the formulas
m
.
sin 2
Reduce
^ sin^ x cos^
19
to
differential
(0
and
bers.
20
<
#
<
cos 2x
;
the
cos 2 x
integral
1+cos2x
of
the
binomial
by the substitution sin# = /
ji/2),
rational
sinP xcos?
num-
xdx=^ tP(\ t*)**-
dt
J
(see
No.
14).
Transform
into
an
integral
function by the substitution e ax
of a
rational
Chapter
6
THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL
6.1. Statement of the Problem.

The Lower and Upper Integral Sums
Let a function f (x) be defined in the closed interval

following is called the integral sum:
[a, b].
The
i-
where a
=x <
hXi
< x n _ < xn = b,
= 0,
li[x h x i+l
<x <
2
= x i+1
(J
1,
/2
1).
n- i
The sum S
2=
M,.
is
Aa:,-
called the upper (integral) sum,
and
/
A2
sn
=
i
niikXi
^
=
is
called
the
lower
M =
where
sum,
(integral)
= supf(x)
The
[m^mlfix)] iovx [x h x i+1 ].

definite integral of the function f {x)
on the interval
[a,
fr]
is
the limit of the integral sums
If
val
/ (*)
= lim
f (/) Aa;,-
this limit exists, the function

[a, b].
6.1.1.
Any continuous
function
when max
Aa:,|
is
is
> 0.
called integrable
on the
inter-
integrable.
For the integral

JX
find the
sin
xdx
upper and lower integral sums corresponding to the division
of the closed
interval [0, n]
into 3
and 6 equal subintervals.
Ch. VI. The Definite Integral
248
Divide the closed interval
Solution.
[0, n]
into 3 equal parts by
the points:
_
n
%o
_
~3~
n
^
2ji
-^2
xs
*^
The function sin* increases monotonically on the

and
therefore
= sin^- = -?y-.
*
[iT' T"j
The
m =s
= sin-^-=l. On
we
interval
this
for
value
least
have
an d the
the interval
Jtj
interval
0,
yj
= sin0 = 0, M =
on the interval
function
the
of
ra o
value
greatest
is
M =
x
the function sin* decreases
monotonically and therefore

2ji
V3
n
AA
= -^y= sin -y
M
m = sin n = 0,
.
Since
Ax k
all
are equal to -y
=Z
s3
Ax,
+ o) = ^p- ~0.907,
= iL (o +
k=0
When
subdividing the closed interval
ill
by the
==
5ji
points
x6
jt,
we
JX
rv
y
*t=-g-,
find
ji
1
'
m = sm T
5ji
m = sin-^"~
6
.
ji
x3
into 6 equal intervals

2jl
Jl
= -y
^^T*
>
= sin-^- =
== o,
== sin
1,
7W 3
= sin-y =
1,
7W 4
= sin -y =
'
M = sin -y =
Jl
m = sin T "~
= ^->
7W
m = sm TT ~~
m = sin
k]
by analogy:
m = 0,
.
x2
[0,
Jl
2ji
M = sin =
5
/3
2
1
'
Xb
Sums
6.1. The Lower and Upper Integral
249
For this division we obtain
s,=}K + i+... +m )=^-(l+K3)~ 1.43,

S= (Af + M +
+ M = (3 + /3 2.48.
5
5)
As would be expected, the inequalities

ji
s3
^ ^
^ sin
s6
x dx
^S ^S
6
hold true (the exact value of the integral

6.1.2.
8>0
At what
equal to
is
2).
does the relation

n-i
sin
xdx
2 sm %k & x < 0.001

k
max hXi
follow from the inequality
<
8.
<
<
S, then for the required inequality to

Solution. Since s n
/
hold true it is sufficient that the upper and the lower integral sums
differ by less than 0.001:
0<S-s<
0.001.
But
n-i
n-i
S n -s n
=
i
2
=
(Mim,) A*,
<
where
and m are the greatest and the
f
tion sinx on the interval [x h x i+1 ] (i = 0,
(M,
2
=
least
for simplicity that
the point ^-
is
/n f ),
values of the func-
1).
Assuming
of the
points of
1,
chosen as one
division and taking advantage of monotonicity of the function s'mx
on the intervals
0, -^-j
and
nj
we obtain
X(M m = 2 (sin-| sin0) =

f
f)
Consequently, the required

i.e.
<
not
is
satisfied
if
26
<
0.001,
0.0005.
Show that the Dirichlet function [see Problem

integrable in the interval [0, 1].
6.1.3.
is
inequality
2.
1.14.4 (b)]
In dividing the closed interval [0, 1] into a fixed numwe must take into consideration, in particular, two
possible cases: (1) all points
are rational; (2) all points
are
Solution.
ber of parts
250
irrational. In the first case the integral sum is equal to unity, in

the second to zero. Hence, no matter how we reduce the maximum
length of subintervals, we always get integral sums equal to unity
and integral sums equal to zero. Therefore, the limit of integral
sums is non-existent, which means that the Dirichlet function is
not integrable on the interval [0, 1].
6.1.4. Find the distance covered by a body in a free

the time interval from t
b sec.
a sec to t
fall
within
body moves
in a free fall with constant acceleration g

Consequently, the velocity at the instant t
is equal to the velocity increment within the time interval from
to /, i.e. v(t)
kv. For a short time period A^ the velocity increment is approximately equal to the acceleration at the instant t
multiplied by A/. But in our case acceleration is constant, therefore Au = g"A/, and hence, v(t)
/.
t
gt since At
Let us subdivide the time interval from t=a to t = b into n
equal parts; then the duration A/ of each subinterval will be equal
Solution.
and
initial velocity
= 0.
to
A/^^1n^. We
each subinterval
assume that during
to
body moves uniformly with

beginning of this interval,
velocity
v n -i
time the
= g[<* + (n
The
by the body during the
find the distance covered
Vi
of
velocity at the
its
i.e.
subinterval:
equal to
=ga,
Whence we
covered by the body
distance
entire
ith
is
approximately equal to
^^s n = ^(v + v +
ba
-7T8 na+
1
+v n _ =
1)
\-2
1
n.
\-
= (ba)g
z
With n
1)
'
[a
anin
+
2~~"J
,
1)1
increasing the distance covered can be evaluated
more accu-
Sums
6.1. The Lower and Upper Integral
The exact
rately.
s=
Urn s n
value of
found as the limit
is
[a+y (b a)
lim^g(ba)
= g(b-a)
(l
251
sn
is
oo:
fl+ l(ft_fl)]
= !( & 2__ a2)
an integral sum
n-
the distance
an
is
=o
integral:
b
=^
vdt
= ^gtdt = j- (b a
2
6.1.5.
n>
-^-)J
Since s
as
2
)
Proceeding from the definition, compute the integral

i
Solution.
By
definition,
xdx =
\\m
t
2
=
S/Ax;
max
as
where
= * <*i<--. <*=!.
A#; = a^^+j
1.
Subdivide the closed interval
points
x.
= -L(i = 0,
The length
as n
>
of
1,
2,
Ax,
0,
UK
x^-.
1]
[0,
into
n equal parts by the
...n).
each subinterval
is
equal to
Ax
=^
and
-i-
oo.
Let us take the right-hand end-points of the subintervals as the

points
lt
Form an
g.
= *. +1 ==^(/ = 0,
integral
',=s,="f '1.1=1
i
As az oo
1,
1).
sum:
(1+2+
... +(l)
=o
the limit of this
sum
is
lhn
...
2n
equal to
~2-
= iiii>.
252
Hence,
i
x dx =
Using
2.
we
example,
this
show that
will
for
any other choice
of points l f the limit of the integral sum will be the same.

Take, for instance, the mid-points of the subintervals as
f
+T
'
= -}T
==0
(t
o
c
+
= S-sr T=2^L 1+3+5
i
sum
integral
^'2t'+l
n ~V-
1
*
Form an
|~
---
ixl
i/o
+(2n_1)
==
2n 2
4^
= ^l
Hence
lim / n
n
-+ cc
= i-*
compute the
6.1.6. Proceeding from the definition,
integral:
\x m dx
(m=^ 1, 0<a<b).
Solution.
In this example the following points can be conveniently
chosen as points of division:
= a\
Xi=a(-\
a
xâiÂ
a J
JL
_L
,...,*
They form
a geometric progression with the
The length
of the
ith subinterval
Sx aq
Therefore the
= aq n "
(q
Now
I,-:
,.
let
i+1
common
equal to
is
aqtâq
(ql).
length of the subintervals equals

n-l
J_
l)
=a
lim^
a<7''
+l
and
tends
to
max Ax
zero
with
l.
us choose the right-hand
= x f+1 =
ratio
maximum
increasing n, since
as
=a
(i=0,
1,
2,
end-points of the subintervals

....
1).
6.1. The Lower and Upper Integral Sums
Form an
n-
253
integral sum:
n-
= 2 8^*,= 2flY + ^(?-l) =

=
i=0
0 +
=
= i+l( 9 _l) 9 *[l+ 9 *+l+. ..
(m
l)n
+
n
q
= a^{q-\)q- qm+l _ ^(b^-a^)q1!/B
In
l>]
fl
,o
Let us calculate the limit of the

t.
e.
q+
as
integral
sum
as
max Ax
0,
1:
Hm /H^ +1 -a" +1
)H^
Thus,
d* =
am+1
bm+1
7h~T\
)-
from the definition, compute the integral:
6.1.7. Proceeding
iti
Solution. Subdivide the interval [1, 2] into n parts so that the

n) form the geometric propoints of division x t (i'=0, 1, 2,
gression:
* =1; x 1 =q; x 2
whence q= j/2.
The length of the
2
\
x3
=q
ith subinterval
Ax,
n~
=q
+1
<7'
is
..;
xn
= q n = 2,
equal to
f'^'fa-l),
- oo, i. e. as g
1.
(q 1) >0 as
q
t
us choose the right-hand end-points of the sub intervals
x i+ ^=q i+1
as the points \ h i.e., li
max Ax
and so
Now
let
Form an
i=0
fe
sum:
integral
i=0 9
'
lim
n
/=
lim
n
-* cc
-*
"( 2 "-0 =ln2>
<x>
since
~ In 2
J
as
noo.
2"
254
And
SO,
*
dx
= ln2.
Evaluate the integral
6.1.8.
/=$
J/25
dx
proceeding from
its
geometric meaning.
The curve y=V2hx 2 is the upper half of the circle

x* + y = 25. The portion of the curve corresponding to the variation
to 5 lies in the first quadrant. Hence, we conclude
of x from
that the curvilinear trapezoid bounded by the lines x = 0\ x = 5;
Solution.
2
= V25x
and y
.,
area
its
is
j.
equal to
is
quarter of the circle x 2 -\-y 2
= 25\
and
25ji
Hence,
I
Evaluate
6.1.9.
= ^V25-x
the
integral,
dx
= ^.
proceeding
from
geometric
its
meaning:
/
=$
(4x
l)dx.
6.1.10. Prove that

X
^-arcsin-J
Solution.
The
integral
4
2
J1
(0<x<a).
a:
\
1
la.
,27
dx
expresses the area S 0AMx of the portion of a circle of radius a lying in

the first quadrant (see Fig. 59).
This area equals the sum of the
and the
areas of the triangle
OMx
sector
OAM.
>OMx
Fig. 59
6.1. The Lower and Upper Integral Sums
The area
where sin/
255
of the sector
Hence,
a2
ÔAM ~Y arC Sin "J

c
'
and consequently,
I
= ~ya
2
6.1.11. Proceeding
# + 4r arc sin
2
from the geometric meaning
the integral,
of
show that
2ji
(a)
s\n 3
xdx
= 0;
(b)
dx^2
e~*
\e~*
dx.
Solution, (a) The graph of the function y

s\n 3 x is shown in
60. Let us show that the area situated above the x-axis is
equal to that lying below this axis. Indeed, let n^x^.2n, then
sin 3 ^.
x 1 where
sin 3 (n
and sin 3 x
xj
Therefore, the second half of the
Fig.
O^x^rc
x=n +
graph is obtained from the first one

by shifting it to the right by n
and using the symmetry about the
x-axis. Hence,
2jx
^ s'm
xdx= 0.
Fig. 60
6.1.12.
Given the function f(x)
=x
on the
find the lower (s n ) and the upper (S n ) integral

interval by subdividing it into n equal parts.
6.1.13.
integral,
Proceeding from
prove that:
the
geometric
meaning
2jx
(a)
s\n2xdx =
0\
(b)
(2x+\)dx = 6;
0;
(c)
\cos 3 xdx =
3
(d)
interval
sums
jK9=]?dx =
9jt
[2,
for the
of
3],
given
the definite
256
6.1.14. Passing to the limit from the integral sums, compute the
integral
by subdividing the interval

(a)
into equal parts;
(b)
by
choose
(1)
(2)
(3)
[1, 4]:
forming a geometric progression.
points
In
both
cases
as:
left-hand end-points of the subintervals;

right-hand end-points of the subintervals;
mid-points of the subintervals [x h x i+1 ].
6.2. Evaluating Definite Integrals by the

Newton-Leibniz Formula
The following
known
is
Newton-Leibniz formula:
as the
b
b
\f{x)dx=F(x)
= F(b)-F(a),
where F
(x)
is
one
the antideri vatives of the function f(x),
of
F'(x)
= f(x)
i.e.
(a
6.2.1. Evaluate the integral
Solution.
Since
the
function
derivatives of the function
F (x)
(x)
= arc tan x
_^V2
formula we get
f
J
6.2.2.
dx
l+* 2
~~
Compute
the integrals:
ji
is
one
of the anti-
using the Newton-Leibniz

6.2.3.
6.2.
Newton- Leibniz Formula
257
Given the function

x2
<x<
for
=\
x)
for
<x<2.
Evaluate
Solution.
2
(x)dx.
J f
6
12
By
\f(x)dx=^f
12
the additivity property of the integral
(x)
dx+ ^f(x)dx=^ x dx+ \ V~xdx =

2
3
~2
_
~
X*_
2^
6.2.4.

2
= Sl
lx\dx.
Solution. Since
,
we
for
for
0<*<
1
1,
<*<2,
obtain, taking advantage of the additivity property of the integral,
1 x\dx= 5 (1
(x
l)d;c
(1
-*) 2
(*-
l)
=1+1=1
2^2
l#
6.2.5.
where a
< b.
Solution.
If
0â<6,
then
/ (*)
= 1~- ==
therefore
a
= b a.
= a 6.
If
a<b<0,
Finally,
if
then /(*)
< <
ft,
and
f(x)dx
= b ( a) =
then divide the integral
^ /
258
into
two
integrals:
b
\f{x)dx
= \f{x)dx+\f (x) dx=b {a).

a
The above
three cases
may
be represented by a single formula:
l\-dx
= \b\-\a\.
Note. When evaluating integrals with the aid of the Newton-Leibniz formula attention should be paid to the conditions of its legitimate use. This formula may be applied to compute the definite
integral of a function continuous on the interval [a, b] only when
is
fulfilled in the whole interval [a, b]
the equality F' (x)
f (x)
[F (x) is an antiderivative of the function f(x)]. In particular, the
antiderivative must be a function continuous on the whole interval
[a, b], A discontinuous function used as an antiderivative will lead
wrong
to the
6.2.6.
result.
Find a mistake
in the following evaluation:
V3
dx
arc
rr tan
=
tan
2
1
T-i
-77
( arc
where
Vs
2x
tan
\x
y^r) =
V 3) arc tan 0] = ^
[arctan(
ct
yq^(*=?M).
Solution, The result is a priori wrong: the integral of a function

positive everywhere turns out to be negative. The mistake is due
2x
to
the
that the function
fact
-y arc tan
{
of
the
lim
The
-rr
arc tan
2x
has a
discontinuity
x=l:
kind at the point
first
_ x2
n
= -t\
arc tan
1
urn
correct value of the integral
2x
under consideration
TC
is
equal to
V3
dx
arc tan x
V3
= arc tan ]/"3 arc tan =
-?-
Here the Newton-Leibniz formula
F (x) = arc
F'(x)
tan x
= f(x)
is
is
is
applicable,
continuous on the interval
fulfilled
on the whole
0,
interval.
since
the function
and the equality
6.2. Newton- Leibniz Formula
6.2.7.
Find a mistake
in the following
259
evaluation of the integral:
jt
dx
J
+ 2 sin H
2
2
J cos' x-j- 3 sin x
dx
71
-f
+3 tan
(The integral of a function
arc tan (V
j/"3~
positive
everywhere
= 0.
3tanx)
turns out to be
zero!)
Solution.
The Newton-Leibniz formula

7
since the antiderivative Z (x)
tinuity at the point x
F(x)=
lim
(K 3
arc tan
applicable
tan#) has a discon-
arc tan
([/"
3 tan x)
F=-arc tan(+oo) =
F
lim
(x)
arc tan (K 3 tan
x)
V
The
can be obtained
correct result
dx
__ C
+ 3 sin
2
J cos #
+3
arc tan
/3
also
be
found
arc tan (K3 tan
integration [0,
ji]
a:).
into
oo)='
2V~3
the following way:
7rr=-
tan
arc
1/3
can
sin 2 *
=
It
dx
cot 2 #
in
lim
here,
Indeed,
-S-.
lim
=-pLr
not
is
with
the
For
this
aid
(V 3 cot x)
the
of
1^3
function
F (x)
purpose divide the interval of
two subintervals,
0,
yj and
j~y
jij
and
take into consideration the above-indicated limit values of the function
(x)
as x
y=F0.
nuous function on each
Then the antiderivative becomes
of the subintervals,
a conti-
and the Newton-Leibniz
2-0
formula becomes applicable:
_JT_
arc tan
3 tan
([/
arc tan (|/~3 tan
a:)
a;)
^"3
Compute
6.2.8.
the integral
dx.
Solution,
+ cos
2a:
2 cos 2 x
cos
a:
cos x,
O^Zx^-j
cos X, y < x <
Jl.
Therefore
-j-
cos 2x
dx =
cosxdx +
= sin x 7 + (sin*)
Note.
If
we
ignore
the
cosx)c(a:
^ =(l_0) + (0 ( 1)) = 2.
fact
that cos*
is
and put
f
V
we
get the
wrong
4-co s 2x
2
cos
a;,
result:
cos x dx
= sin x^ = 0.
negative in
ji
6.2.
Newton-Leibniz Formula
261
6.2.9. Evaluate the integral

IOOji
We
Solution.
Kl cos 2xdx.
have
Vl cos2a:= [/~2
Since
sin
a:
has a period
IOOji
sin
jc
|.
then
ji,
IOOji
jj
\cos2xdx=\r 2
sin
a:
rfA:
o
ji
100
J/T
sinxdA;=200|/2
J
o
6.2.10. Evaluate the integrals:
<>'
= }' 7ITW
(b)/
(c)
/=
sin a
ydx;
Ix
'
-3
-2
(d) /
-ji
J ^qry^;
o
_2_
JT
sin
i_
n
1
(g)
Htt^'
3
xdx
JI
T
(j)
7=5
Kcos* cos 3 Jed*;
jt
~
"3
(h)
i+* 8
262
6.3. Estimating an Integral.

The Definite Integral as a Function of
1.
f(x)^q>(x)
If
a^x^b,
for
then
b
J f
Limits
Its
(x)dx<^
q>(x)dx.
In particular,
b
<
\f(x)dx
\\f{x)\dx.
a
a
b
m (ba) ^lf{x)dx<^M (b a)
2.
the greatest value of the funcis the least value, and

tion f(x) on the interval [a, b] (estimation of an integral).
3. If the function f (x) is continuous on the interval [a b], then
where
\f(x)dx=f(&)(ba),
a<l<b
(mean-value theorem).
4.
<p(x),
If
in
the functions f(x) and y(x) are continuous on [a, b]

addition, retains its sign on this interval, then
and
\f{x)y{x)dx = f{l)\y(x)dx,
a<l<b
(generalized mean-value theorem).

a
5.
/ (/) dt = / (*);
-gj-j
/(*)#
= /(*) at
each point x of
continuity of the function f(x).

6.3.1.
Estimate the following integrals:

JT
~3~
(a)
= j K3 +
Solution,
tonically
dx;
(b)
+2
(a)
Since the function
on the
interval
[1,
3],
/ (x)
then
= )/3 + x increases monom = 2, M = /30, ba = 2.

2
6.3.
Estimating an Integral. Integral as a Fund,
Hence, the estimation
of
263
Its Limits
the integral has the form
of
3
2-2
l.
< Jl/T+l?dA:<|/"30-2,
e.
< ^3 + *
(b)
The integrand
f(x)
dx:<2|/"30^
= j
10.95.
decreases on the interval
ji
3"
L"4
since
its
derivative
j,
Hence, the
x cos x
sin x
(x
tan x) cos x ^
value of the function:
least
m-
V3
2ji
its
greatest
value being
2 V'2
M=
Therefore
3 /*3
ji
Jt
2ji
i.
e.
6.3.2.
Estimate the absolute value of the integral

19
sin;
~>
dx.
10
Solution. Since
|sin*|<l,
[-\-x 9
<
for
x>10
10" 8
the inequality
fulfilled.
is
Therefore
19
sin
TT X
<(19 10)10" <

8
10
(the true value of the integral
^ 10
).
10"?
jt
'
264
6.3.3.
Which
of
the two integrals

i
x 3 dx
is
the greater?
As
Solution.
is
Y* >
known,
x 3 for
Y xdx >
6.3.4.
1.
Therefore
x 3 dx.

i
(a)
0<x<
0<
/l^_ < j\
1+ *
<
[e*
dx<e.
<
Since
Solution, (a)
(b)
<
V +%
0<x<^l,
for
then
i
<
(b)
Since
*M=< [*dx=
(-
<x<
for
exists the inequality
there
< ex < e,
*
then
i
^dx
<
ê*
dx<
edx.
Hence the inequality under consideration holds
true.
6.3.5. Prove the inequality

ji
T
ê-R*tox dx< JL(i_e-)
(R>0).
= nx
si
Solution. Since the function f(x)
Problem
6.3.1
(b)],
then
decreases on
0<x<j
for
/(*)=x >^t] = c
Hence, on this interval
sin
( ji \
sin#>2 x,
sin *
<^ g
therefore
n
^0,
jx
[see
J
Estimating an Integral. Integral as a Fund, of Its Limits
6.3.
265
and
2
~2R
e~ R
6.3.6.
sin
<
*dx
Prove that
the interval
(a,
b),
for
the
dx
ji
2^
-
any functions f (x) and g(x), integrable on

Schwarz-Bunyakovsky inequality takes place:
^f(x)g(x)dx <:
Solution. Consider the function
= [f (x)-kg(x)}>,
F(x)
where k
is
any
number. Since
real
F (x)
then
0,
or
&
X2
J
/;
dxTk
(x)
g (x)dx +
/ (x)
The expression
in the
at
any X
this trinomial
i.
>
0.
is
quad-
follows from the inequality that
It
non-negative. Hence,
is
dx
side of the latter inequality
left
ratic trinomial with respect to X.
non-positive,
/* (x)
J
a
discriminant
its
e.
2
/ (x)
-Jf
g (x) dx
j
Hence
(x)
dx
J
6.3.7.
/~
<j/ ^f*(x)dx
r?
y(x)g(x)dx
which completes the
(x)
d*
<
0.
1
2
^g
(x)dx,
proof.
Estimate the integral from above

i
,
('
sin x
Solution.
sin x
I
l+x'
By
the generalized mean-value theorem
~t2
dx = sin l\
b
J l+*
we have
= sin \ arc tan x = -J-sin6(0<6<
1).
is
266
Since the
sin
<
sin
1.
function
sin
on the interval
an upper estimate of the
increases
a:
Whence we
get
[0,
1]
then
integral:
sin x
-7-
It
is
theorem
possible to get
in the form
A aA
< r sin 0.64.
.
T dx
better
estimation
we apply
if
the
same
sin x
dx
+ Sj J
sin x
dx
= y^|2
(1
cos <
')
cos
0.46.
Proceeding from geometric reasoning, prove that:

f (x) increases and has a concave graph in the
interval [a, b] then
6.3.8.
(a)
if
the function
y
(ba)f(a) <^f(x)dx<(ba)(b)
if
interval
the function
[a,
b]
f (x)
increases
and has
f(a)
+ Hb)
convex graph
in the
then
b
(b-a)
Solution, (a)
f(a)+f(b)
<
f(x)dx<(ba)f(b).
limitation of generality we may assume

the graph of a function means, in particular, that the curve lies below the chord
through the points
A(a,f(a)) and
B(b, f(b)) (see Fig. 61). Therefore the
area of trapezoid aABb is greater than
that of the curvilinear trapezoid bounded above by the graph of the func-
Without
f(x)>0. Concavity
of
tion,
i.
e.
^f ix)dx< SaABb =
(b-a).L^+m,
(b-a)f(a)< \f(x)dx
a
is
obvious.
i
6.3.9.
Estimate the integral ^\fl-\-x*dx using

(a)
6.3.
267
the mean-value theorem for a definite integral,

of the preceding problem,
(b) the result
+ x* <
(e)
the inequality
(d)
the Schwarz-Bunyakovsky inequality (see Problem 6.3.6).
Solution,
By
(a)
]f
the mean-value theorem
= J \fl+x
dx
= V'T+V,
where
0<<
1.
But
i
< VT+T* < V%
whence
(b)
The function
1< / < K2 1.414.

is concave
f(x) = VY+
on the interval
[0, 1],
since
rw=f^|>o, o<,o.
On
the basis of the preceding problem

i
we
get
< ^\f\T7*dx< -f-l&
(c)
l<I = frl+T dx< j(l
!+-!.=
\ +x*,g(x)
Bunyakovsky inequality
(d)
Put f(x)
1.207.
\/
and take advantage
\V\+#dx =^Vl+x*dx = I<y
r~\
1.1.
of the
Schwarz-
5(i+^)dx.J
l*dx
= l/T2T
6.3.10.
Find the derivative with respect
functions:
(a)
F(x)=\\ntdt
(x
>
0),
X2
Vx
(b)
F(x)=
cos
(t
)dt
(x>0).
to
of
1.095.
the following
268
Solution, (a) Write the given integral in the following way:
(x)
\ In
MM- \
K2
where
*3
XZ
In tdt
X'
\nt
dt
tdt,
$ In
C
>
is an arbitrary constant.
us find the derivative F' (x) using the rule for differentiating a composite function and the theorem on the derivative of
an integral with respect to the upper limit:
Now
let
F'x
(x)
\ntdt
(x% =
\ntdt
In
cos (t*)dt-\- $cos(* 3 )d*
2x =
cos (t*)dt
=-
= (9x* 4x)lnx.
-J
F'(x)
a;
Vic
In
x 3 3x>
Xs
_C
<b) F(x)
X2
cos
(t
2
)
di
i
= COS-o1/
)*
cos (P)dt
Trrr
== -.cos
with
derivative
cos (t*)dt;
J
J
1
+ COS*
,
6.3.11. Find the

functions:
( x
1,1^cosa;.
to
respect
x of
the following
23
f(x) = ji!lii;
(a)
(b)
F (x)=^T+T*dt.
X
6.3.12. Find the points of
in the
domain x
Solution.
extremum
of the function
> 0.
Find the derivative

sin x
The
critical
points are:
x=nn
2,
...),
where sinjc =
0.
(x)
^^-dt
Estimating an Integral. Integral as a Fund, of
6.3.
Find the second derivative

cv,
M=
,
F" (nn)
7
v
Limits
269
at these points:
x cos x
Its
sin X
;
=
cos (nn) =
nn
nn
v
n
1
(
v
'
)
7
0.
derivative is non-zero at the points x

nn
these points are points of extremum of the function,
namely: maxima if n is odd, and minima if n is even.
2,
1,
second
the
Since
(n
.),
Find the derivative
6.3.13.
of y,
with respect to x
of the func-
tion represented parametrically:
x=
i/ z\n zdz\ y =
\nzdz.
yt
As
Solution.
is
known,
xt
Find x and
t
x't
y\\
= [^Y~z\n
zdz)
(t
y
t
= t\nt.3t = 9t
2
\nt'
yt
\VT
2Yt
'YT
whence
y'
= - 36/
31n
-\Vt
J/7
(f
> 0).
\nt
^ sin Iâ:
(a)
lim 2
-5
;
'
(b)
lim
x-+
+ a>
(arc tan x) 2 dx
Vx2 +
"
(c)
lim
+
oo
x2
Solution, (a) At x^-=0 the integral
sin
equals zero;
it
is
easy to check the fulfilment of the remaining conditions that ensure
270
the legitimacy of
using the L'Hospital rule. Therefore
^ sin V".x dx
V^xdx
sin
= lim
lim
We
have an
L'Hospital
the
of
2
'
type. Use
the
2 ^
lim
= lim 2x 3xsin x
form
indeterminate
ê* dx
X*-
rule:
3x 2
x-+0
(c)
(*
dx-?*
lim
*-*
CD
<?*
00
e*
J
X->
6.3.15. Find the derivative
(a)
ê~ t2
dt+
e*
CO
lim
2-^ = 0.
of the following implicit functions:
tdt=0\
(b)
sin 2
lim
ê
dt+
sin/d*
= 0;
J
o
(c)
|/"3
2sin
ede+ ^cos/d/=0.
Solution, (a) Differentiate the

respect to x, putting y=y(x):
side
of
the
equation
-x 2
dy
sin"
J
_o
.0
Hence, solving
left
the
-' 2
^ + sin
* 2 2x
-
= 0.
equation with respect to j-
^^_2A;/? + ^
dx
sin 2
2
A:
we
get
with
Estimating an Integral. Integral as a Fund, of
6.3.
the
Differentiate
(c)
putting y
Its Limits
271
side of the equation with respect to x,
left
= y(x):
'
2 sin 2 z dz
^ cos
dy
/
dt
dx
= 0.
-0
X
Whence
/3 2 s
Find:
6.3.16.
inflection
2
i
(a)
V3 2 sin
^
+ cos y ^ = 0; dx
points of extremum
the function
the
on the graph
of
X
/
l)(f
cos y
and
the
points
of
2) df;
curvature of the line defined by the parametric equations:
(b)
= aVn
cos
(
%- dt,
o
.
y = ay
(the
Cornu
sir
sin
dt
-77-
spiral).
Solution,
(a)
The function
is
defined and continuously differenscale. Its derivative
tiate throughout the entire number

/;
= (*-l)(*-2)
x =
x = 2 and
2
when passing through

l,
equals zero at the points 1
2
the point x 1 it changes sign from minus to plus, whereas in the
neighbourhood of the point x 2 the sign remains unchanged. Conse1, and there is no
quently, there is a minimum at the point
extremum at the point x 2 2.
y
^=
rx = 3x
vanishes at the points x 1
lOx + 8
-~y* x 2
=2
and changes sign when pas-
sing through these points. Hence, these points are the abscissas of
the points of inflection,
(b)
We
have
x't
=ay
n cos
Ttf^
y\
= a yr n sin
Tit
2
,
272
hence,
^ cos 3 -g-
*/
*7
whence the curvature
K_
\y"\
__
Vnt
a
U
oo) by the integral
(y')
'
2
l
function
L(*),
defined
in
the
interval
(0,
an inverse of the function
is
Solution.
ex
Let us take the derivative
=7
(*>0).
Since the derivative is positive, the

and, hence, has an inverse function
x=L~
The derivative
of this
increases
(y).
equal to
is
__
Ty~L r{x)~ X
whence
y^--L(x)
inverse function
dx
function
'
follows (see Problem 3.1.10) that
it
x = Cey.
To
find C,
substitute x
Since
l.
= 0,
L(1)
i.e.
y\ Xssl
then
1
which proves our
=C^-C,
assertion:
x=L'
6.3.18.
Given the graph
of
(y)=ey.
the function
y=f(x)
(Fig.
62),
find
the shape of the graph of the antiderivative I='^f(t)dt.

o
tive;
On
the
interval [0,
a], the given
consequently, the antiderivative increases.
Solution.
function is posithe interval
On
6.3.
0,
the derivative of the given function
yj
curve
= / (x)
of the given function

is
On
concave.
is
convex, the point
is
the interval
being
point
of
derivative
the
curve
negative; consequently, the
*^y
hence, the
positive;
is
273
The
inflection.
= / (x)
inter-
is a
val [a, 2a] is considered in a similar way. The point x 1
point of minimum, since the derivative I'(x)=f(x) changes its
sign from minus to plus; the point x 2
a is a point of maximum,
since the sign of the derivative changes from plus to minus.
3a
Fig. 62
2a.
Fig. 63
The antiderivative
a periodic function with period 2a,

is
I (x)
the areas lying above and below the x-axis are mutually
cancelled over intervals of length 2a. Taking all this into account,
we can sketch the graph of the antiderivative (see Fig. 63).
since
6.3.19.
a
the polynomial P (x) of the least degree that has

equal to 6 at x=l, and a minimum equal to 2 at
Find
maximum
= 3.
Solution. The polynomial is an everywhere-differentiable function.

Therefore, the points of extremum can only be roots of the deriva-
Furthermore, the derivative of a polynomial
tive.
P\x) = a (x
Since at the point
x=
(x
a
1
polynomial.
and x 2 = 3
3) = a (x Ax + 3).
2
there must be P(l)
= 6,
we have
P(x)=l
1)
is
The polynomial of the least degree with roots

has the form a(x
l)(x
3). Hence,
P' {x)dx-\-&
= a^(x* 4x + 3)dx + 6 =
i
= a y 2* + llx )
1
(
2
The
a
coefficient
= 3.
is
determined from the condition
Hence,
P(x)
= x 6x + 9jc-|
3
2.
-!-
P(3)=2, whence
274
6.3.20. Find the polynomial P (x) of the least degree whose graph
points of inflection: (1,
1) and a point with
1), (1,
at which the curve is inclined to the axis of abscissas
abscissa
has three
at
an angle of 60.
Solution. Since the required function is a polynomial, the abscissas of the points of inflection can only be among the roots of the
second derivative. The polynomial of the least degree with roots
0,
1,
has the form ax(x 2
Consequently,
1).
P"(x)=a{x 3
Since at the point x
x).
the derivative P' (0)
= tan60 = j/3,
we
have
X
P'
(x)=P"(x)dx + V3 =
Then, since P(l)
l,
we
a^-^) + VZ.
get
= a(- + l)+V3(x-l)+l.
P(x)=^P'(x)dx+\
1
The
coefficient
/>(_!)
1,
Jrom
^(T/a-i)
the last remaining condition
determined
is
whence a
H ence,
"
]/ 3 ~"
P(x)-
Taking
6.3.21.
definite integral,
(3a:
advantage
prove that
of
the
Ojc
3
)
+ x J/3.
mean-value theorem
for
the
(a)
3< \ Vq + x*dx<
10,
o
JT
(b)
]/
+ ysin 2 *d*<^
|,
2Jt
/
(C)
?n
13
dx
P
J 10 3 cos x
|
2jt
*
Using
6.3.22.
V +x
1
dx
the
< -Xp-
Schwarz-Bunyakovsky
Make
inequality, prove that
sure that the application of the
value theorem yields a rougher estimate.
mean-
275
6.4. Changing the Variable in a Definite Integral
6.3.23.
of

x2
(a)
= ^lntdt(x>0);
F(x)
(b)
F(x)
= y.
_2_
Find the derivative
6.3.24.
functions represented paramet-
of
rically:
In
(a)
= ^dz,
j
e z dz\
j
5
2
sin
(b)
x=
C
\
VT
arc sin zdz,
6.3.25. Find the points
(a)
F(x)
)e
(l
2
t
of
C sin\
z2
dz.
extremum
of
)dt;
X2
(b)
/7
W =f!!=gid/.
+
J
e<
Changing the Variable
^=
In
a Definite Integral
the following conditions:

defined in [a, p]
and has in this interval a continuous derivative q/(/);
y(t)
(2) with / varying on [a, P] the values of the function x
do not leave the limits of [a, b]\
If
(1)
a function
q)(/)
is
cp(/)
satisfies
a continuous single-valued function
(3)
q)(a)=a and y($)
= b,
formula for changing the variable (or substitution) in the

definite integral is valid for any function f (x) which is continuous
then
the
on the interval
[a
b]:
b
lf(x)dx=\f[<p(t)] y'(t)dt.
a
y(t) the inverse substitution

the substitution x
frequently used. In this case the limits of integration
a and p are determined directly from the equalities a ^(a) and
x|;(fr).
In practice, the substitution is usually performed with
p
the aid of monotonic, continuously differentiate functions. The
change in the limits of integration is conveniently expressed in
Instead
= yp(x)
of
is
276
the tabular form:
6.4.1.
Compute the
Make
Solution.
^T-^^C-y.
the
\ \x*dx.
= 2sin/,
# = (/) = 2 sin
substitution
function
sa ^ s fi es a "
[""IT' "t]
integral
The
3~
ê
on
(p
the
that
interval
conditions of the theorem on changing
the variable in a definite integral, since
is
it
continuously differen-
monotonic and
tiable,
<p(-t) = -^. <p(t) = ^ 3

And
so,
= 2 cos
= 2 sin
a:
cos/>0
since
assuming
je
V ^ x* = 2
dt\
Tl
on the interval
Jl
cos
= 2 cos
/,
3"
~3~J
Thus,
J
s
dx = 4
cos 2
"
tdt=2
JT
Jl
"a
+ cos20d/=
(l
=2
lsin2<]y = ^ + )/3.
[/ +
iL
3
6.4.2.
Compute
Solution.
Make
p 1/^2
the integral
the substitution
= 2 sec/;
d* = 2^df;
cos
2
*l
ji
On
the interval
0,
fore the substitution
~J
is
the function 2 sec
valid.
is
monotonic, there-
277
Hence,
~4
J^sec 2
_/
16 sec 4
^ sin/
^cos 2
/^
H
3
=4i sin
si
6.4.3.
Compute the
cos tdt
=j2
s ' n3
^
o
Vz
*
32
integrals:
VI
dx
x*Vtf=^dx;
(a)
(b)
^=
6.4.4.
f
J
(a)7
v
Compute
"8
6 5
the integrals:
dx
*f
sin x-\- sin ,2 *
(b)
7
v
+ cos x
'
Solution, (a) Apply the substitution

sinje
cos x dx
=
= dt\
/;
ji
~2~
The
all
inverse function x
= arc sin t[Q <
-y
< <
for
satisfies
1)
conditions of the theorem on changing the variable. Hence,
cos
/
6 5 sin
xdx
x-\- sin 2
Make
"
:ln-
3
2
_4_
'
(b)
6- 5/-j-/
the
jc
substitution
= 2arctanf,
= tan-^X2
dx
2dt
=
l
+ t*'
ji
~2
which
is
valid due to monotonicity of the function tan 4"
on
the
278
interval
+ cos.v
2+
2dt
J 2
\+t*
/
j/3
j/3
J/3
Compute
the integral
= -7=- arc tan -=

6.4.5.
df
9 f
dx
2
Solution.
Make
tan
''arc
cos 2 x-\-b 2 sin 2
U arc tan 0^ =
^3
71
'
3 1^3
b>0).
(o>0,
a:
the substitution
tan#
/,
dx
dt,
Hence,
<4
dx
cos 2 x-\-b 2 sin x
f
J cP
dt
+ bH ~ b*J
\
_
~
dt
a2
= b a arc tana = ab
-r arc tan
a
If
#,=
6=1,
then
'
ab
arc
tan
a
cides with the result of the

integral
\o
= arc tan
1
substitution
ji
,
which exactly coin-
= 6=1
jt
dx
I
6.4.6.
Compute
[*
the integrals:
dx
dx;
(b)
f-
J X l^l
(0
dx.
+ ln *
ji
dx
a 1 cos 2 x-j-fr 2 sin 2 #
'
"
into the initial
279
the Variable in a Definite Integral
Changing
6.4.
.1
Compute
6.4.7.
/=\
the integral
cos i x
sum
this integral to the
Reduce
Solution.
x sin x
dx
two
of
integrals:
ji
3T
~2~
To
the integral
x sin x
'
-j-cos 2 x
dx
apply the substitution
= n
dx = d/,
x
/,
ji
ji
Then
JI
Q sin
(ji
' 2
l+cos 2 (Jt-0
r (n
t)
/)
sin
1-j-cos 2
1
'
d/
/
smt
1-f-cos 2
/"*
sin
+ cos
df.
/
Hence
.
Since the
=/i
first
/ s
_ C x sin x
- J + cos x^
sin
71
and the third integrals

we have
of the variable of integration,
n
)
+ cos
/ rf/
+ cos
f*
differ
sin
+ cos
only in the notation
280
To
integral apply the substitution
this
du
= cos
= sin
t
dt,
ji
The
Jl'
1+M a
indefinite
integral
x sin x
r*
/Vote.
du
du
t1
not
is
COS X
-j-
expressed
in
elementary functions. But the given definite integral, as we have

shown, can be computed with the aid of an artificial method.
6.4.8.

\n(\+x)
1-f-x
Solution.
Make
dx.
the substitution
dx
= tan/,
-=
dt
cos 2
Jl
Hence,
Jl
In
(1+ tan/)
sec 2
Transform the sum
sec 2
<tf
= Jln(l +tan/)^.
+ tan/:
/2~sin
+ tan = tan
/
-f-

jt
~T
/
tan
/ =
-|
cos
we obtain
n_
n_
- j lln2d/ + Jlnsin(/ + -J-)df Jlncos/<//--
(I
T
= 1/1112 T + jlnsin(/ + -5-)d/ Jlncos/d/ =
4
Jt
JT
T
= -y ln2 + jlnsin^/ +
dt
In cos
dt
ln2
/2
Now
us
let
I^=I
show that
To
281
end apply the substitution
this
dt
= dz
jt
JT
T
to
the
integral
/2
In cos
dt.
Then
/2
= ^ In cos
ji
In sin
j"
^- + 2^
lnsin
dz
=I
t.
Therefore
/=T ln2
Note that
this problem,
in
indefinite integral
well as in the
as
^~~jz^r ^ x
no * expressed
ls
preceding one, the

in
elementary fun-
ctions.
6.4.9. Prove that for any given integral with finite limits a and b
one can always choose the linear substitution x = pt
q (p, q constants) so as to transform this integral into a new one with limits
and 1.
We
pt
Solution.
notice that the substitution x
q satisfies
explicitly the conditions of the theorem on changing the variable.
Since
we have
must equal zero at x = a and / must equal unity

for p and q the following system of equations
= p-0 + q,
b = p.\+q,
a
whence
= b a,
b
= a.
Hence,
l
lf(x)dx = (b a)$f [(b a) + a] dt.

t
at
=b
282
6.4.10.
Compute
sum
the
two integrals
of
_2_
-5
$e<* +5
2
>
.(-*)' dx.
dx+3
each of the given integrals into an

preceding problem).
To this end apply the substitution x =
t
4 to the first inte-
Solution. Let
transform
us
and
integral with limits

gral.
Then dx =
dt
(see the
-5
l i==
e ( x+
and
dx=-le<-
^ dt
2
=-
-4
Apply the substitution x

dx =
= -^-\-~-
the
to
second
2
1
>
dt
integral.
Then
and
_2_
o
3
=3$
/2
2 \
e*\
~)
dx
\ev-^dt.
Hence
=-
+
Note that neither
of the
je
'-
1)2
dt+
integrals
= 0.
and $ ^*
e u+5)2
evaluated separately in elementary functions.

6.4.11. Prove that the integral
p sin 2kx
\
i
equals zero
if
is
Make
Solution.
an
dX
sin y
integer.
the substitution
=
dx = dt,
x
tc
t
1
/,
n
Jt
Then
at
k an integral number
we
get:
Ji
P sin 2kx
sin
a:
P sin
~"
2fe
(ji
sin(Jt
/)
/)
^_
P sin 2&/
sin/
rfx
is
283
Since the definite integral does not depend on notation of the variable of integration, we have
/
Compute
6.4.12.
= /,
whence
= 0.
the integral
dx
VT-
s\nt (the given function is

Solution. Apply the substitution x
cost dt. The new limits of integration t 1 and
not monotonic), dx
t 2 are
found from the equa-
y = sin
i
tions
We may
=y
y~3
/;
=y
put
other
but
= sin
also be chosen,
and
t2
may
values
instance,
for
2jt
'
3
Fig.
In both cases the variable

x
s\nt runs throughout the
64
^3
entire interval'
2
monotonic both
on
|_<r>
show that the
Let us
Indeed,
Fig.
(see
the
64),
function sin/ being
J
2jt
and
tJ
results of the
5ji
~6~
two integrations
will coincide.
dx
r
a:
1^1
r
J
c s
sin
di
cos
r
,1
sin
= lntan-
tan
-In
tan
In
12
On
the other hand, taking into consideration that cost
on the interval
j^-y;
-yj
we obtain
is
/V^3
negative
284
2n
dx
*
i
xVlx
5jt
cos
cos
sin
dt
t)
dt
__
sin/
5jt
2jx
tan
= In
-In
tan
2-f
ln
tan^
Note.
Do
not take
=^
interval
|y
the
limits of
the interval
6.4.13. Prove
-yj
since,
with
= sin
varying oo
t
lie
beyond
'
L(x)
function
the
that
=y
the values of the function x
the
/a
^"3
^"3
on the
defined
interval
(0,
oo) by the integral
(x)
= possesses
J
the following properties:
L(x l x2 )
= L(x + L(x
l)
2 ),
L^j=L(Xl )-L(x
Solution.
By
2 ).
the additivity property
X,
Let us change the variable in the second integral

z
=x z
dt = x dz
t
1
y
Then
L(x,x 2 )
^=
= j +
Putting
here x 1 x 2
=x
3]
x2
L(x l ) + L(x 2 ).
= x
x
3
we obtain
L(x 3 )^L(Xl )
+ L^,
i.e.
L(^)=L(x )-L( Xl
3
).
It
Changing
6.4.
L\x
also easy to obtain the other corollary
is
any integral
and
and
m
)=
n
L(x)
for
n.
Indeed, for positive
L{x
285
and n
=^mL\x n
from the relations
this follows
L(x)=nL(x n
negative exponent, from
for a
L(1)
= 0,
L(x- l )
Now, taking advantage
of
ction of the upper limit,
Note. As
= L()=L(l)-L(x) = -L(x).
known, L(x)
is
the continuity of the integral as a funget the general property L(x a )

aL(x).
we
= \nx.
Here we have obtained the prinfrom its determi-
cipal properties of the logarithm proceeding only
nation with the aid of the integral.

3
Transform the integral ^(x
6.4.14.
{x
2fdx
by
the
substitution
2f--^t.
A
Solution.
interval
function x
has
not
formal application of the substitution throughout the

would lead to the wrong result, since the inverse
3]
[0,
= y(t)
two branches: x = 2
attain values x > 2, the
rect
we have
i.e.
x 2 -=2
[/" t\
result
= 2Y~i>
the function x
+ Y The former branch canvalues x < 2. To obtain a cor-
double-valued: x
is
latter
t.
to break up the given integral in the following
way:
3
(x
2)
dx
= J (x 2)
dx
+ J (x 2)
dx,
and
to put
second.
= 2Y
Then we
in the
first
and x
integral,
=2+V
in
the
get
/2
=j(^-2)Mx=j/ -^ =i-Ji/rd/=i.
2
r
2
Hence, /
= 8
= 3,
1
-(-
which
is
a correct
result.
It
can be easily
286
verified
by directly computing the
{x-2)* dx
Compute the
6.4.15.
integral:
initial
(x-2f
= i+T= 3
integrals:
Jt
4
Jt
4
,
(e )
+ cos x
+ sin2*
C sin #
=j
dx
>
a
(f)
/=jV ]/ j^-d*. a>0;

b
2a
(h)/ =
/ = ^2ax-x*dx;
(g)
j fr
6.4.16, Applying a suitable change of the
variable, find the fol-
lowing definite integrals:

dx
dx
.1
^+1+^+1)3
J;
+ / x
2
'
V(a* + b*)/2
(c
).fmf^)
(d)
yV a )(&
fc
it
is
equal to -j
=
+
d#
2-
-2
a;
-7T
2
)
)/2
6.4.17. Consider the integral
that
.f
V'(3a*
_^
It
is
easy
to
Indeed,
arc tan
-2~~
Jl
[t-(-t)
conclude
On
Changing
6.4.
287
making the substitution #--=y, we have
the other hand,
X
,
d*
dt
2
1
2
2
dx
arc tan 2t
+l
'
This result
obviously wrong, since the integrand
is
1
2
_JX
+* >
s
and,
0,
consequently, the definite integral of this function cannot be equal
^-
number
to a negative
Find the mistake.
6.4.18. Consider the integral

to
tut ion tan -^
/=
dx
Making& the
2 cos x
J 5
substi-
we have
2ji
dx
2n
P
2<ft
5-2 cos*
j
(1+<1))
5-2
0.
The result is obviously wrong, since the integrand is positive,

and, consequently, the integral of this function cannot be equal to
zero. Find the mistake.
6.4.19.
Make
change
sure that a formal
the
of
variable
_2
leads
to
wrong
the
result
in
the
integral
dx.
Find
the
-2
mistake and explain

6.4.20. Is
it
it.
possible
to
make
the substitution
x=sec/
in
the
integral /
J/V+l
dx?
o
i
6.4.21.
jc
= sin*.
for /?
Given the integral
dx.
Make
Is
it
possible to take the
numbers n and
the
substitution
as the
limits
288
6.4.22. Prove the equality

a
+ f(-x)]dx
f(x)dx=l[f(x)
-a
any continuous function
for
f (x).
2ji
f(x)cosxdx by
6.4.23. Transform the definite integral
the sub-
stitution sin^
6.5. Simplification of Integrals Based on the

Properties of Symmetry of Integrands
1.
If
the function
f (x)
even on
is
a,
a],
then
= 2^f(x)dx.
f(x)dx
-a
2.
the function
If
f (x)
odd on
is
a,
then
a],
f(x)dx--=0.
-a
3.
the function
If
f (x)
periodic with period 7\ then
is
+ nT
f{x)dx^
where
/i
is
/ (*)
a+ nT
an integer.
i
6.5.1.
Compute
the integral
|*|d#.
l
Solution. Since the integrand
/(a:)
= |a:|
is
an even
function,
we
have
i
^\x\dx =
\
)
6.5.2.
Compute the
i
i
\x\dx = 2^ xdx = x
integral
7
a:
sin #
-7
Solution. Since the integrand

the integral equals zero.
is
odd, we conclude at once
that
289
6.5. Simplification of Integrals
6.5.3. Evaluate the integrals

ji
(a)
cosnxdx;
J /(*)
jr
jt
(b)
^ / (x) sin
nxdx,
-71
if:
(1) f (x)
is
an even function;
f(x)
(2)
is
an odd function.
6.5.4. Calculate the
integral
^4
+ 2* +
2
dx.
t
sin
Compute the
6.5.5.
Therefore
and lower
jt)
= cos
ji)
+ sin
jt,
(x
:/(*).
"
+ ^)
cos 4 x-f sin 4
a:
number n from the upper
limits:
37
sin
cos 4
a:
2a:
-4-
sin 4 x
sin
cos 4
a:
_2
2a:
+ sin
tan
2
J cos x
(1
xdx
+tan 4
a:)
JT
Make
the substitution
X
t
= tan
dt
a:,
ji
'
cos 2 x
JT
r
J
cos 2
tan x dx
#0
J \+t*''
4" tan 4 x)
2t dt
arc tan
JT
Solution.
It
is
cos xf (x 2 )dx
sufficient
cos(
to
x)f
=2
cos xf (x 2 dx.
)
show that the integrand

[(
since
sin 2a
possible to subtract the
is
it
(#4- n)
a:
a periodic function with period
is
sin 2 (x-\4
2a:
cos 4 x-\- sin 4
The integrand
Solution.
/(*
integral
x) 2 \
= cosxf (x
2
).
is
even:
290
Compute the
6.5.7.
2s 7
~~
C
J
integral
3* >^
+
+2
6
10a: 5
7a;
a;
+ +
2a: 2---r^-ri
x
1
-K~2
Solution.
V~2
2x7
3a;
0x b
7x*
+2
a;
2a;
+x+
dX
~~
-V~2
r
2xi\0xb 7x*+X j
*2
3a; 2
aX_t"
+2
- 4) +
^+2
(a;
-K~2
-K~2
V~2
[3(^-2x )+ 1?iT ]^ =
= +2
_ 4^3 +
arc t an
x
|/"
K~2
v-2
|o
= _ 16
"
2 l/"2
Tn calculating we expanded the given integral into the sum of

two integrals so as to obtain an odd integrand in the first integral
and an even integrand in the second.
6.5.8.
Compute
the integral
2
cos*
In
1
Solution.
The function
+X
q>(x) = lny^
f(x)
x dx.
= cosx
is
even. Let us prove that the
function
cp
is
odd:
<_*) = in {= _ In ({f )-
= -In {f - _ W
Thus, the integrand is the product of an even function by an odd

one, i.e. an odd function, therefore
cos*
ln\^dx
X = 0.
1
"
6.5.9.
Prove the validity
of the following equalities:
(a)
x s s'm d xdx -=0;
Integrals
6.5. Simplification of
(b)
e cosx dx
ji
291
= 2 ê cosx dx\
o
"T
~T
ji
(c)
sinrnxcostt^djc
s'mxf (cosx)dx
= 0.
(m and n natural numbers);
JT
Q
(d)
-a

h
^f(x)dx^^f(a + b
a
Solution. In the right-hand integral
x^=a + b
dx=^
/,
dt
x) dx.
Then we obtain
make
the substitution
baa
j f
a
(a
+ bx) dx=lf(t)dt^lf(t)dt = \f (x) dx.
Note. The relation established between the integrals can be explained geometrically.
The graph of the function f(x), considered on the interval [a, b]
is symmetrical to that of the
function f(a
b
x)
considered on
+
x = ^-^-.
the
same
point
which
A
is
interval, about the straight line
Indeed,
if
the
on the x-axis and has the abscissa x, then the point A\

symmetrical to it about the indicated straight line, has
lies
the abscissa x'
=a + b x.
+b x)] = f(x).
Therefore,
(a
+ b x') =
[a
+ b (a+
But symmetrical figures have equal areas which are

expressed by definite integrals. And so, the proved equality is an
equality of areas of two symmetrical curvilinear trapezoids.
\f{x)g{t
x)dx=\g(x)f(t x)dx.
292
Solution.
then
Apply the substitution
x=z in the right-hand integral;
we have
o
-lg(t-z)f(z)dz~lf(z)g(t- z) dz.
Jl
Jl
sin
xdx=^
cos m
xdx and apply
J
o
obtained result in computing the following integrals:

JX
Jl
#dx and
cos a
On
Solution.
sin 2 **!*:,
Problem 6.5.10 we have
the basis of
71
Jl
sin"
xdx
Hence,
sin
(y
cosmxdx.
J
in particular,
71
71
sin 2
/^=^
xdx=^
add these
cos 2 xdx;
integrals:
7l_
71
2/
hence, /
(sin 2
+ cos
jc
x)
dx =
dx =
~\
= -j

2
ji
f (sin
jc)
dx = 2
(sin x) dx.
Solution. Since
(sin x)
^ /
/ (sin x)
jj
dx
+^
(sinx) dx,
the
it
sufficient
is
6.5.
Simplification of Integrals
293
to prove that
ji
ji
f(s'mx)dx=
(sin x) dx.
_jx_
In the left
make
integral
x=n
the substitution
/,
71
dx= dt,
JT
T
n
Then
JT
f(s\nx)dx =
^ f [sin (n
t)]
dt
sin
*=J
/ ( sin
x) dx

n
ji
^ xf
Solution. In the
left
(s\n x)
dx = ^J
integral
make
/ (sin
dx.
the substitution
x=n
a:)
t,
dx= dt,
JT
ji
Then we obtain
a:/
(sin
x)dx =
(ji
{[
[sin
(ji
/)]d/ =
Jt
JT
Jt
= 5"/ (sin/)* S'/ (smt)dt.

Whence
%\xf (s\x\x)dx= n
which
is
f(sin x)dx,
equivalent to the given equality.
294
6.5.15. Using the equality
s\n[n +
j]x
= + cos^-|-cos2a;+
j
-x-
im-
-j-cosnx,
prove that
^H- "^") x
sin
ji
^
x
sin
6.5.16. Prove that

-\-b 2 sin
2.x:
q>(x)
if
=ya +a
ôsx + b 1 sin
x+a cos2x+
2
then
2ji
= Jta
cp (jc)
+an cos nx + bn sin fix,
2ji
(a)
dx n.
(b)
<P
(x)
cos kx dx
= na k
2ji
(c)
(p
kxdx = nb k
(x) sin
(k=l,
2,
tt).
Integration by Parts. Reduction Formulas
and
If
t;
are functions of x
and have continuous derivatives,
then
b
(#) u'
(a:)
dx
&
= u (x) v (x)
or,
more
(x) u' (x)
dx
briefly,
b
ûdv = uv^ ^vdu.

a
a
I
6.6.1.
Compute the
integral
^xe x dx.
o
x=
du =
ex
u,
dx
v
dx\
dv\
= ex
>
x and v
quite legitimate, since the functions u
continuous and have continuous derivatives on the interval
Using the formula for integration by parts, we obtain
which
is
xe x dx
= xe x
ex
dx = e
ex
= ex
are
[0,
1].
6.6.2.
6.6.
Compute the
integral
I=
\ e
ax sin
295
bxdx.
= e x dx;
v = e x
= s'mbx,
du = b cos bx dx,
dv
Since the functions u
= smbx,
= eax
together with their deri-
vatives are continuous on the interval [0,

tegration by parts is applicable:
ax smbx
/=
e
a
a J
ax cos bx
dx
= a
Now
let
us integrate
the formula for in-
jt],
[ e ax cos
J
by parts the integral
= cos bx,
du = b sin bx dx,
/t
bx dx
- L.
1
Put
= eax dx,
v = e ax
a
dv
Then
ax cos bx
e
a
b
,
f
\
ax s\n
bxdx
e~
\\
b*
a J
a2
G T +l)
Hence
a?
b{eT +\)
+ b*
In particular, at a
= b=
we
b{e
get
ê x s'mxdx =
-j(e n +1).
T +\)
a2
b*_
a2
296
Compute
6.6.3.
the
^\n 3 xdx.
integral
jt
Compute
6.6.4.
Solution.
First
^s'mV x
the integral
make
dx.
the substitution
Vx=t,
x = t\
dx = 2t dt
ji
ji
Whence
.n
sin J/* dx:
=2
sin
dt.
Integrate by parts the latter integral.
Put
t
= u;
du =
sin tdt
v
dt\
= dw,
= cost.
Then
sin tdt
Compute
6.6.5.
=2
the integral
171
~z
+)
/=
cos
dt
sinH
=2.
lo
^-^y==^-
dx.
6.6.6.
Compute
the integral
6.6.7.
Compute
the integral
In
x 2 s\nxdx.
=^(a
2
)
where n
dx>
is
a na-
tural
number.
The integral can be computed by expanding the integrand

according to the formula of the Newton binomial, but it
involves cumbersome calculations. It is simpler to deduce a formula
for reducing the integral / to the integral I n _ l To this end let
Solution.
(a 2
expand the
us
6.6.
integral I n in the following
way:
a
(a 2
a;
and integrate the
2 )"" 1
(a
(a 2
by
n~x
x(a 2
a:
)"" 1
xdx
parts:
xdx = dv,
= ^-(a
x
2n
1
dx = a 2 l n _ x
integral
latter
= x;
du = dx\
in
We
297
'
(n=0).
obtain
= *i n -i +
ix
-*r -~k I ^ ~ x2
|
Y'
dx = a2/ -
~i
7 -
Whence
/
l
This formula
is
valid
=aU
any
at
2n
I
2/1+1 '"-I*
n other than
real
and
~.
In particular, at natural n, taking into account that

a
Io
= l dx = a>
o
we
get
2n (2/1-2) (2/1-4)
*~~ U
(2/i+
1)
(2/i
1) (2/1
3)
6-4-2
.
aw + 1
5-3
(2/z)H
(2/1+1)!!'
where
=2-4-6
(2/i)!!
(2/i+l)!!
1-3-5 ... (2/1+1).
result of the preceding
Using the
6.6.8.
... (2/i),
problem obtain the
lowing formula:
where
"I-
-r
are binomial coefficients.
Solution. Consider the integral
2/1
(2/2+
'
1)!!
fol-
298
Expanding the integrand by the formula of the Newton binomial

to 1, we get:
and integrating within the limits from
i
In
\(\x*) n dx =
o
i
= J(1 C} x + C
2
~T~
*4
- C*x + ...+(
7
~T
6.6.9.
Compute
2/7
^3
3^5
(-1)"
" "
2n+l
proof.
the integral
// w
(m
C nn x 2n ) dx =
^2
^1
which completes the
n
1 )
m
==5 sin^jcrfA;^^ cos xdx
a natural number).
Solution.
The substitution
=
cosjcd.x: = d/,
sin x
f,
31
"2
reduces the second integral to the integral
Hm =
considered
in
(1 sin 2 *)
cosxdx=\{\t*)
Problem 6.6.7 with a=^\ and n
the reduction formula
m
is
valid here, since
(m=^0, m^=
1)
dt
Therefore,

If
6.6.
299
an odd number, the obtained reduction formula reduces
is
ti m to
2
cos#djc=
1,
therefore
(m-l)ll
*
If
Hm
is
ml!
an even number then the reduction formula transforms
into
2
therefore
(m 1)
6.6.10.
Compute the
ji
!!
integral
ji
= ^xsm m xdx
o
(ra
a natural
number).
Solution. Taking advantage of the results of Problems 6.5.14

we get
and
6.5.13,
oo
ji
ji
ji
m xdx =
m
/ = xsm
j sm xdx = n
which, taking into consideration the result

(ji
-2
ji
'
(m 1)!!
L
L
-7^fT -
rr
mil
xdx,
Problem 6.6.9, gives
of
lf
s\n m
is
15
even
'
odd.
6.6.11.
Compute the
integral
/n
x m (\n x) n dx\
m>
0,
is
natural number.
^= x m (\n x) n
f (x)
can be made continuous on the interval
Solution. First of all note that, though the integrand
has no meaning at #
it
300
1]
[0,
any
for
m>
> 0,
and n
lim x m (\nx) n
X-+
by virtue
of
Hence,
0, n
in
m>
it
u =(\nx) n
,
\nx)
follows that the integral l n exists at

we integrate by parts, putting
it
To compute
du
Indeed,
3.2.4.
particular,
> 0.
\x
lim
^=0.
f (0)
X-+ +
+Q
Problem
by putting
= x m dx,
xm +
a =
m+
dv
n(\nx) n - 1
ax,
Hence,
i
The formula obtained reduces /
In particular, with a na-
to I n _ v
tural n, taking into account that

i
we
get
"
= (-!)" (m+l)" +
!
'
Compute the
6.6.12.
integral / Wt
xw
x)
( 1
dx,
where
and n are non-negative
integers.
Let us put
Solution.
( l
n
)
= a;
du= n(l x)
dx
n~l
dx;
= dv;
v=
Then
The obtained formula

is
a positive
times,
/
we
is
then,
valid for all n
applying
this
>
and
0,
formula
1.
If
successively
get
m+
integer,
/
1
i
l)
m + i.-i""( /0 +l)(m
==
+ 2)
'
~~
(n I). .[n (n \)]

(m+l)(m + 2)...(m + /i)
m+n
'
*
6.7.
301
But
l
xm + n + l
m+n dx:
u0 =\x
f
m+n+
'
/i
+n+
I)
m+
Hence,
. n
(
The obtained
result,
m+
J)
3-2-
2)
..(m
/i)
(m
'
non-negative integer, can be written
form
in the
_ m\n\
~ (m+n+
m
6.6.13.
Compute
"
1)!
the integrals:
(a)
l) (/i
m + 2).
with
(/i
/i
V x dx\
arc tan
\)e~ x dx\
^(x
(b)
~3~
i
.
\c)
(e)
C
j
Xdx
iiH^'
r>
(d)
+x
J*ln(l
)dx\
(f)
a:
arc tan
ln(l
a: g(a:;
+ tanx)dx;
o
ji
16
(g) ^ sin
arc tan (sin x)dx\
2a:
(h)
arc tan j/" V^xldx.
6.6.14. Prove that

i
^(arccosArJ^dArÂi^y
(/t
1)
(arc cos
a;)"
~2
dA;
(n>
1).
6.6.15. Prove that if

lowing formula is valid
f" (x) is
continuous on
[a, &],
then the
fol-
*r
(x)
= [bf (b)-f(b)] - [af (a)-f (a)].
6.7.
1.
Trapezoidal
formula.
parts by points x k
apply the formula
b
/ (jc)dx
Divide the interval
[I / (*
-^
b
where h =
= a-\~kh,
)
+/
[a,
= 0,
b]
1,
into n equal
and
n,
+ /(*_,) + y f (*)]
302
The
error
in this formula
estimated as follows:
is
|R|<^,
where
M=
a
sup
\f
(assuming that the second derivative is bounded).

2. Simpson's formula.
Divide the interval [a,
parts by points
xk
= a + kh
^f(x)dx^ -^.{f(x
<)
Assuming that
is
where
in )
(*, - 1)]
{x) exists
and
+2[f(x t
is
into
b]
2n equal
an d apply the formula
+ f(x + 4[f(x + f(x
+f
iv
^ = ~^
(x)\
)+...
+ f (* +...+f (x
4)
bounded, the error
in this
2n _,)]}.
formula
estimated in the following way:
Approximate the
6.7.1.
formula
at
dx
integral
I=\y^r
using the trapezoidal
10.
Solution. Let us tabulate the values of the integrand, the ordinates y {

10) being calculated within four de0, 1,
/ (x ) (i
cimal places.
yi=
+*i
TTT
Xi
M= TT7
+Xi
0.0000
1.0000
1.0000
0.6000
1.6000
0.6250
0.1000
1.1000
0.9091
0.7000
1.7000
0.5882
0.2000
1.2000
0.8333
0.8000
1.8000
0.5556
0.3000
1.3000
0.7692
0.9000
1.9000
0.5263
0.4000
1.4000
0.7143
1.0000
2.0000
0.5000
0.5000
1.5000
0.6667
Using the trapezoidal formula, we obtain

,
dx
/=3T+7~Tol
1.0000+0.5000
n qoqq
0.9091+0.8333
+
+ Aftnn1
.
+ 0.7692 + 0.7143 + 0.6667 + 0.6250 + 0.5882 + 0.5556 +

+ 0.5263 ) = 1 6.9377 = 0.6937 0.6938.
We
Estimate the error in the result obtained.
0<jc<1,
Since
number 2
as
then |f (x)|<2.
and estimate the
have
Consequently,
f" (x)
= ^_^
we may take
the
error:
ll<72^ = 6^0<
We
303
6.7.
0017
calculated the ordinates accurate to four decimal places, and
Q
the round-off error does not exceed
Q5
Q,Q
precisely,
numbers^
exact
= 0.000045,
Q5
(l
+9xl) = 0.00005
the ordinates y
since
and
^more
are
*/ 10
Thus, the total error due to using the trapezoidal
formula and rounding
the ordinates does not exceed 0.0018.

integral by the Newtonobtain
off
Note that when computing the given

Leibniz formula
we
dx
l+JC
ln(l+x)
'
= In 2^0.69315.
Thus, the error in the result obtained does not exceed 0.0007,
a result accurate to three decimal places.
i.
e.
we have obtained
1.5
Evaluate
6.7.2.
by
Simpson's formula the
integral
C
\
e'
lx
^-dx
0.5
accurate to four decimal places.
To give
Solution.
we
racy,
fiv
(A;
find /
iv
(a;).
2n which ensures the required accu-
a value of
Successively differentiating f(x)
(0.0001a;*
0.004a; + 0.1
3
2a;
e-^-,
we
2.4x + 24) = ^g-
get
1 *,
the polynomial in parentheses. On the interval

function cp (a;) =e- lx increases and therefore reaches
lb
1.2. The upper estimate
eits greatest value at x =1.5: (p (1.5)
b
of the absolute value of the polynomial P (x) divided by x can be
separate
terms.
of
its
sum
moduli
The
greatest
of
obtained as the
value of each summand is attained at a:=0.5, therefore
P (x)
where
[0.5,
1.5]
\P(X)
is
the
0.0001
0.004
0.12
x2
*3
<
2.4
24
x*
xb
< 0.0002 + 0.0 6 + 0.96 + 38.4 + 768 < 808.

1
And
so,
iv
|/
be taken as
(a;)|
Mv
<
1.2x808
<
1000. Hence, the number 1000
may
304
We have to compute the integral accurate to four decimal places.

To ensure such accuracy it is necessary that the sum of errors of
the method, operations and final rounding off should not exceed
0.0001. For this purpose we choose a value of 2n (which will determine the step of integration h) so that the inequality
|i?|<{
is
-0.0001
= 5- 10"
satisfied.
Solving the inequality

l
xl 000
180
(2/2)
<5xl0"
we obtain
2n
Let us take 2n
A more
= 20;
>
19.
then the step of integration h will be equal to
accurate calculation shows that at 2n
|Z?|<3.5xl0-
= 20
5
.
we
calculate y t within five decimal places, i. e. with an error

5
then the error of the final rounding off will
not exceeding 10"
6
Thus, the total error will be less
also be not greater than 10~
If
than
4.5xl0" 5
Now
< 0.0001.
compile a table
of values of the function
lues of x from 0.5 to 1.5 with the step h

are carried out within five decimal places.
xi
OAxi
y=^~
= 0.05.
e o.
IX,
f r
ê
va '
The calculations
yi
0.50
0.050
1.05127
2. 10254
0.55
0.055
1.05654
1.92098
0.60
0.060
1.06184
1.76973
0.65
0.065
1.06716
1.64178
0.70
0.070
1.07251
1.53216
0.75
0.075
1.07788
1.43717
0.80
0.080
1.08329
1.35411
0.85
0.085
1.08872
1.28085
0.90
0.090
1.09417
1.21574
1.15754
0.95
0.095
1.09966
10
1.00
0.100
1.10517
1.10517
11
1.05
0.105
1.11071
1.05782
6.7.
305
e 0.lXi
%i
0. l*j
12
1.10
0.110
1.11628
1.01480
13
1.15
0.115
1.12187
0.97554
14
1.20
0.120
1.12750
0.93958
15
1.25
0.125
1.13315
0.90652
16
1.30
0.130
13883
0.87602
17
.00
0. loo
14454
f\
18
1.40
0.140
1.15027
0.82162
19
1.45
0.145
1.15604
0.79727
20
1.50
0.150
1.16183
0.77455
For pictorialness sake we

following calculation chart:
x\
use
at
1
i
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
the
y\
OA
U.o47ol
*70
tabular data to compile
= and
= 20
at
an odd
at an
even
the
2.10254
1.92098
1.76973
1.64178
1.53216
1.43717
1.35411
1.28085
1.21574
1.15754
1.10517
1.00
1.05
1.10
1.15
1.20
1.25
1.30
1.35
1.40
1.45
1.50
1.05782
1.01480
0.97554
0.93958
0.90652
0.87602
0.84781
0.82162
0.79727
0.77455
2.87709
Sums
12.02328
10.62893
Using Simpson's formula, we get

I
.5
^^^^(2.87709 + 4x
12.02328
0.5
+ 2x 10.62893)==^.
72.22807-
1.2038.
306
6.7.3. The river is 26

sive depths of the river
0.9
0.3
1.7
wide. The table below shows the succes-
measured across
10
3.4
2.8
2.1
12
its
14
3.3 3.0
section at steps of 2 m:
18
16
3.5 2.9
Here x denotes the distance from one bank and y

metres). Knowing that the
1.3 m/sec, determine the flowrate per second
depth
ing
(in
20
22
24
26
1.7
1.2
0.8
0.6
the correspondrate of flow is

of the water in the
y
mean
river.
By
Solution.
tion
formula
the trapezoidal
the area
of the cross-sec-
26
= J#dx2 y (0.3 + 0.6) + 0.9+
1.7
+ 2.1+2.8 + 3.4 +
+ 3.3 + 3.0 + 3.5 + 2.9 +
1.7+1.2 + 0.8
55.5 (m 2 ).
Hence,
Q = 55.5 x
1.3
72
(m 3 /sec).
impossible to estimate the error accurately in this case. Some

methods of estimation enable us to indicate approximately
2
hence, the
the order of the error. The error in 5 is about 3
3
/sec.
error in Q is about 4
It
is
indirect
Compute
6.7.4.
the following integrals:
^y?-dx
(a)
accurate
to three
decimal places, using Simpson's
j
n
4
formula;
i
(b)
ê-* dx accurate
to three decimal places,
by
the trapezoidal
formula.
6.7.5.
By Simpson's
formula, approximate the integral

1
.36
1.05
/ (*)
Ax*

if
the integrand
307
defined by the following table:
is
1.05
1.10
1.15
1.20
1.25
1.30
1.35
2.36
2.50
2.74
3.04
3.46
3.98
4.6
fix)
Additional Problems
6.8.
Additional Problems
6.8.
6.8.1.
Given the function
at
0<*<1,
l<x<2,
at
2<x<3.
lx
f(x) =
at
(2 xf
Check directly that the function

X
F(x)
is
and that its derivative

and is equal to f(x).
interior point
6.8.2.
[0, 3]
interval exists
of this
Show
f(x)
on the
6.8.3.
Can one
on the interval
6.8.4.
line
x In x
interval
assert that
b]
[a,
then
if
at
at
x=\
is
function is absolutely integrable

integrable on this interval?
tangent to the graph of the function
point
x=a
forms an angle -j with
angle
the point x
at
the
axis
of
(x)
J f"
dx
= b.
if
f" {x)
is
6.8.5.
Prove that
(x)
dx
= E(x) {E M ~ + E (x) [x E (x)].

{)
/ (x) at
the
and
an
abscissas
Evaluate
each
1].
[0,
it
r\
=\
^
integrable
at
the function
that
is
= \f(t)dt
Ch
308
The Definite Integral
VI.
ji
dx
f*
Given the
6.8.6.
integral
te
1+
=-
COS 2 X
Make
sure
that
the fun-
ct ions
fc
(xy
}^2cosx
= 7r=-arc cos
1
'
Vr + cos
z?
and r 29
i
m = -7=^
>^2
/
tan ^
tan^
j.
arc
1^2
are antiderivatives for the integrand. Is it possible to use both antiderivatives for computing the definite integral by the NewtonLeibniz formula? If not, which of the antiderivatives can be used?
For
6.8.7.
f (x)
magnitude y = y
filled?
at x
=x
At what value
6.8.8.
Show
(Cauchy's problem).
of
the equality
is
ê 2x dx=e 2 ^(b
a) ful-
that
Investigate
6.8.9.
an antiderivative which attains the given
find such
function
the
defined by the
definite
integral
6.8.10.
Show
that the inequalities

1
0.692
<
are valid.
6.8.1L With the aid
<)
show that
af the
inequality
inequality,
1.096
6.8.13.
are given
Assume
^x
(q^Lx^L
\<^dx<$
smx^x ^-(xÔ) and theSchwarz-
6.8.12. Using the inequality
Bunyakovsky
x^s'm x^
show
<
that
V xs\nxdx<
1.111.
that integrable functions p x (x), p 2 (x) p 3 (x), p A (x)

[a, b], the function p (x) is non-negative,
on the interval
and the functions p 2
6.8.
(x),
p3
Ps
309
Additional Problems
(x),
satisfy the
{x)
p4
(x)<Pt (x)<P
inequality
(*)
Prove that
p3
(x)
(x)
dx^\p
(x)
dx^
(x)
px
(x) pi (x) dx.

I p,
a
6.8.14. Let the function f (x) be positive
on the
interval
[a,
b].
Prove that the expression

h
reaches
the
only
value
least
f (x)
if
constant on this interval.
is
6.8.15. Prove that

ji
farctanx^l
^
/
is
2 Jf sin
6.8.16. Prove that one of the antiderivatives of an even function

an odd function, and any antiderivative of an odd function is
an even function.
6.8.17.
Prove that
if
f (x)
period 7\ then the integral
is
a continuous periodic function with
a+T
/=
depend on
f(x)dx does not
a.
v(x) and their derivatives

6.8.18. Prove that if u = u(x), v
through order n are continuous on the interval [a, b], then
b
$
a
UV {n)
dx=[uV Kn -
1)
U V
,
{n
-2
>+.
+(l) n - 1 U in -
l)
v]
\a
+
b
+ ( 1)"
u {n >vdx.
Chapter
7
APPLICATIONS
OF THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL
7.1.
Computing the Limits of Sums with
the Aid of Definite Integrals

to compute the limit of a sum when the
increases unlimitedly. In some cases such limits can be found with the aid of the definite integral if it is possible to transform the given sum into an integral sum.
It
is
number
often
necessary
summands
of
2
1
For instance, considering

division of the interval [0,
for
the
points
into
1]
each continuous function f(x)
7.1.1.
n equal parts
as points of
length
of
A*=
we have
Compute
n
jt
UI1J
im
n
-*
ji
sin
2ji
h sin
(n
v
+ sin
,

n
1)}
Jil
.
Co
Solution. The numbers in brackets

s\nx at the points
function f{x)
values of the
represent the
2ji
ji
subdividing the interval

Therefore,
will
be
interval
[0,
ter
we add
if
the
ji]
[0,
{n
intorc equal parts of
summand sin^ =
sum for the function
the
integral
1)ji
length
to our
\x = ^.
sum, the
f(x) = s\nx
ji].
definition, the limit of such an integral sum as n > oo

sin x from
to n:
definite integral of the function / (x)
By
ji
n f
sin
lim n
n
\
lat-
on the
is
the
\1
sin
2ji
4-
sin
1
'
(nl)n.
n
hsin
1
nn\
n
7\
=j
o
sin
xdx =
cos
a:
2.

7.1.2.
Computing
7.1.
Compute the
lim ( r
+
'
V~4n 2 -2 2
sum
Solution. Transform the

1
311
limit
V~4n 2 -l
Sums
the Limits of
in parentheses in the following
way:
.+-=1
r
\ 4n i -
'W- V -(4)'
+ ..-+
The
sum
obtained
on the interval
Y==^
The
the
is
limit of this
of this function
lim ( r
sum
to
.-
for
the
subdivided
1]
[0,
as
from
sum
integral
oo
is
equal
to
into
the
function
f (x)
n equal parts.
definite integral
1:
=1
7.1.3.
lim JL
AZ
-* CD
= arc sin
-77
+/^+/HT5+/5T5+---
+ /-+3fcr,]
expression in the following way:
given
The obtained sum
il
Compute
Solution. Transform the
011
H l+
ê
the
is
interval
^^
[0,
=
J
sum
integral
3];
therefore,
V T^
the
function
/ (x)
by definition,
+ /--+s5j=d) -
dx = ^(l
for
x)~
Y dx = 2VT+x = 42 = 2.
312
Ch. VII. Applications of the Definite Integral
Using the definite
7.1.4.
(C)
lim
compute the following
integral,
limits:
^V*+V}:.+V'n.
^(l + cosg + cosg + ...+coseLzi)
(d)K ra
7.1.5.
Compute
4= limi/n!
the limit
n-.cc
Solution. Let us take logarithms

In
= lim In
The expression
J^JiL ^
in brackets
Consequently,
li
In
is
In #dA;
In
n + ln n +
7.2.
+
1
In
for the
integral
and lim
n->-cc
sum
the integral
= (A;ln x x)
= g"
1
.
Finding Average Values of a Function
The average value
of
/ (x)
over the interval
[a,
b]
is
the
number
li=~f(x)dx.
%
root
j
The square
[/ (x)]
b __ a j
of the average value of the
square ol the function is called the root mean square (rms)

function f (x) over [a, b].
7.2.1.
Find the average value
the interval
Solution.
[0,
jli
the function
of
1].
In this
case
j/
c
xax =
o~~
of
f(x)=i/ x
the
over
7.2. Finding Average Values
Find the average values
7.2.2.
= sin
(x)
(b)
/(*)=?qrr
over
j^b =
^
a
2
[0.
2 ]-
function
f (x)
of all
consists
= 2y = 2 V~x
finding the average value of
in
vertical chords of the
a^x^2a.
over the interval
The problem
Solution.
the
of the functions:
Determine the average length
hyperbola
313
Function
x over [0, 2n]\
(a)
7.2.3.
of a
over the interval
[a,
2a]:
2a
1
C b
a
2b
'
K^^-f
a2
ln(*
Vxâ^ =b[2\^3-\n(2 + V3)].
7.2 .4. Find the average ordinate of the sinusoid

the interval [0, ji].
= sinx
over
Solution:
ji
u
^
=
jt
[ sin
xdx
jt
- 0.637.
- cos x
ji
ji
Rewrite the obtained result
\i-
Using the geometric
= 2
in the following
meaning
ji
C
\
way:
sin
of the
x dx.
definite
integral,
that the area of the rectangle

with the altitude
&
ii
^
we can say
and the base
ji
equals the area of a figure bounded by a half-wave of the sinusoid y=smx,

and by the #-axis.
ji
Oîx^n,
Find
7.2.5.
circle
x2
7.2.6.
+y =
2
average
the
length of all positive ordinates of the
1.
Show
that the average value of the function f (x)> contithe interval [a, b], is the limit of the arithmetic mean
values of this function taken over equal intervals of the
nuous on
of
the
argument
x.
Solution. Subdivide the interval
points x ( â-\-i
- (/=0,
1,
2,
[a,
b]
into n equal parts by the
n).
Applications of the Definite Integral
Ch. VII.
314
Form
n points
mean
the arithmetic
of division x
/(*o)
x ly
of the values of the
xn _
..,
+ /(*i)+-..
Vf/r)
This
mean may be
function f(x) at
represented in the following form:

n~
Vn= ^f(X
l
i)
Ax i>
where
AX:-
The
sum
latter
the
is
sum
integral
for the function f(x),
the-
refore
n
V>n = ~a Hm
l
lim
(*d Ax ~b~â
\ f
x )dx
\l,
which completes the solution.

7.2.7.
to
10
the average value of pressure (p m ) varying from 2

the pressure p and the volume v are related as follows:
Find
atm
if
_3_
pv
160.
Solution. As p varies from 2 to 10 atm, v traverses the interval
[4j/4, 4 j/T00];
hence
j/7oo
pm =
Jf
4(j/l00-j/4)
160u"
'
do
3
4
320
/4
3
4(^/100-^4)
J/ 4
3-
4.32 atm.
^20(^/10+^/2)
7.2.8. In hydraulics there is Bazin's formula expressing the velocity v of water flowing in a wide rectangular channel as a function
of the depth h at which the point under consideration is situated
below the open surface,

v
= v -20V HL (A)
2
,
the velocity on the open surface,

is the depth of
is
the channel, L its slope.
Find the average velocity v m of flow in the cross-section of the
where v
channel.
We
Solution.
7.2.
315
Finding Average Values of a Function
have
Determine the average value of the electromotive force

over one period, i.e. over the time from =0 to t
T if
electromotive force is computed by the formula
7.2.9.
Em
the value
sin-^-
duration of the period in seconds, the amplitude

value) of the electromotive force corresponding to
T is the
maximum
where
(the
=0.257. The
2nt
fraction
called the phase.
is
Solution.
e *=t)
s,n
*=ra
- cos "f-Jo
=0
Thus, the
average value of the electromotive force over one pe-
riod equals zero.

7.2.10. Each of the two vertical poles OA and CD is equipped
with an electric lamp of luminous intensity i fixed at a height h.
The distance between the poles is d. Find the average illumination
of the straight line OC connecting the bases of the poles.
7.2.11. Find the average value of the square of the electromotive

force
(E 2 ) m
the
over
from
interval
to
=T
~2
see Prob-
lem 7.2.9).
Solution. Since
E =E
sin ~y~
we have
{
j ô J
2nt
sin'
dt=rEl
C
\
- Q0S
Y^-dt^
T
t-
4jt
7.2.12.
[0,
oo),
If
then
a
its
on an
function f (x) is defined

average value will be
b
\i= lim
~
\
f(x)dx
-T- Sin
4nt
-TfT-
infinite
~ _ o
~ 2
'
o"
interval
316
Ch. VII.
this limit exists. Find the average power consumption of an

if
alternating-current circuit if the current intensity / and voltage u
are expressed by the following formulas, respectively:
=/
u=u
/
cos
(cot
cos
(cot
+ a);
+a+
cp),
where cp is the constant phase shift of the voltage as compared

with the current intensity (the parameters co and a will not enter
into the expression for the average power).
Solution.
The average power consumption

T
wm =
lim
C/ cos((o/-f a) u cos
(cot
+a
-\-
w) dt
Taking into consideration that
= y [cos (a + P) + cos (a P)]
cos a cos P
we
will get
wm =
lim
Iim
|ô.
Hence,
it
+ 2a +
[cos (2a>/
sin(2cor
+ 2a + cp)-sin
why
clear
is
+ cos
cp)
so
2a
cp]
dt
+ +
cp)
cos
much importance
is
^|
attached to the
quantity coscp in electrical engineering.

7.2.13. Find the average value
indicated intervals:
(a)
(b)
(c)
f(x)=2x 2 +
/(*)=- 7
over
over
f
'
2x + 3
f(x) =
7.2.14.
A body
[0,
23
3*
res a velocity v l
that
fa lling
of
the function
f (x)
over the
1];
over
= \^2gs^
jli
[0, 2].
to the ground from a state

on covering a vertical path
the average velocity v m over this path
is
of rest acqui-
s=s v Show
equal to -y-
7.2.15. The cross-section of the trough has the form of a parabolic segment with a base a and depth h. Find the average depth
of the trough.
7.2.16. Find the average value
over time interval from
to
l m of
(see
alternating current intensity
Problem
7.2.12).
317
7.3. Computing Areas in Rectangular Coordinates
Prove that
7.2.17.
ellipse p:
8 COS
eccentricity,
p=\
where
a,
are the semi-axes and e
is
(p
equal to
is
average value of the focal radius of an
the
b.
the segment AB of length a a point P is taken at a

distance x from the end-point A. Show that the average value of
the areas of the rectangles constructed on the segments AP and
On
7.2.18.
a2
PB
equal to
is
-g-
7.2.19. Find the average value of the function

f(1 X ')=
'
over the interval

to
~,
is
the
yj. Check
^0,
value
cos2 *
sin 2 #
+ 4 cos
directly that this average, equal
of the function
f (x)
for a certain
x=
lying
within the indicated interval.
Computing Areas
7.3.
Rectangular Coordinates
figure is bounded by the straight lines x=a, x =

and the curves y=y 1 {x) y=y 2 {x), provided y 1 {x)^
(a^x^b), then its area is computed by the formula
plane
If
in
= b(a<b)
^y
2 (
x)
s=
In certain cases
the
x = b) can degenerate
left
into
[ftW- yi
boundary
a
point
(x)] dx.
x=a
of
(or the right boundary

intersection of the curves
(a)
Fig. 65
=y
and y
y 2 (x). Then a and b are found as the abscissas
points of intersection of the indicated curves (Fig. 65, a, b).
7.3.1. Compute the area of the figure bounded by the straight
2x , y
2xx2 (Fig. 66).
2 and the curves y
lines x
0, x
(x)
of the
318
= 2x x
Solution. Since the maximum of the function r/

tained at the point x=l and is equal to 1, and
x
on the interval [0, 2], we have
is
at-
the function
y=2 ^l
s-ii 2 "-< 2 *-*>i-i:-("-?)i:-^-f

o
7.3.2.
x=
Compute
the area of the
2y\ x=l 3y 2
(Fig.
figure
bounded by the parabolas
67).
Fig. 66
Fig. 67
Solution. Solving the system of equations
find
y2
x = 2y 2
x =l3y\
the ordinates of the points of intersection of the curves y x

Since 1
then we have
2y 2 for
3y 2
S=
= 1,
[(l-m-(-W)]dy=2(y-^)\l = l
Find the area of the

between the
parabola x 2 =\y and the witch
7.3.3.
figure contained
of
Agnesi y
= -p-^
(see
Fig.
^y
U = J-
68).
Solution. Find the abscissas of the points A and C of

intersection of the curves. For
this purpose eliminate y
from
<Zf
-z
Fig. 68
Computing Areas
7.3.
in
319
the system of equations
y=
x2
whence
a:
The
#2
+4
As
of
equation are
this
the
points
from
seen
is
+ 4x 32=0.
or x*
4
roots
real
= 2.
the
figure,
x2
A.
xt =
and
on the interval
+4
[
2, 2]. (It is also possible to ascertain this by directly computing
the values of these functions at any point inside the interval, for
instance, at
jc
= 0.)
Consequently,
2
dx
+4
7.3.4.
= x +l
2
= ^4 arc tan-|-
Find the area of the

and the straight line x
\2J
-V
bounded by the parabola
figure
+ y = 3.
7.3.5. Compute the area of the figure which lies in the first qua2
drant inside the circle x2
3a2 and is bounded by the paraboy
las
x2
= 2ay
and y 2
+ =
= 2ax(a > 0)
(Fig.
69).
Solution. Find the abscissa of the poA of intersection of the parabola

2
2
2
circle
x2
y -3a
y =2ax and the
Eliminating y from the system of equations
int
we obtain x2
= 2ax,
+ 2ax 3a = 0,
y
whence we
Fig. 69
get the only positive root: x A

a. Analogously, we find the abscissa of the point
+ =
2
x2
3a2 and the parabola
y
Thus, the sought-for area is equal to
circle
x2
of
= 2ay\
intersection of the
r
xD
= a\
aVl
Sr=
[y*(x)yi(x)]dx
J
where y x
(x)
=^
= \V2,ax
r
V 3a
for
0<x<a,
for
a<xâV2.
2^.
320
Ch. VII.
By the
additivity property of the integral
aV2
V
2
2a
it
3
6a
s-
^~2
3a
a2
+
1
\^
x + arc sin -f7t

6a Jo
a |^3
2
^~2
6^2
3a 2
arcsm |A
1
arcsin f=
drLMn
}A
3
Here we make use

arc sin
of
arcsin
a\
-tt
the trigonometric formula:
arc sin p = arc sin (a K p Vla

2
(aP
> 0)
transforming
for
arcsin
= arcsin ^
|/^y arcsin
= arcsin y
7.3.6.
Compute
V3 V3
the area of the figure lying in the first quadrant

and bounded by the curves y 2
4x
2
x2
5.
\y and x2
y
Compute the
7.3.7.
figure
x+l,
(Fig.
-7
70).
Solution.
y=f(x)-.
x+
cos
near trapezoid
5=
is
interval
if
1 <x<0,
a:
if
0<x<-|
y
1,
The area
of the curvili-
equal to
f(x)dx= ^ {x+ l)dx + ^cosxdx =
7.3.8.
The function
continuous on the
+ sinx
Find the area of the segment of the curve y l

2 is the chord determining the segment.
the line x
the
area of
bounded by the lines y =

y = cosx and the A:-axis
Tt/2
Fig. 70
is
+ =
= x ~x
6
if
Computing Areas
7.3.
in
321
2
x 2 (x- -1) it follows that
equality
y
In other words, the
or
either x
2
2
consists
x3
domain of definition of the implicit function y
and the interval [1, oo). In computing the area
of the point x
the isolated point (0, 0) does not play any role, therefore, the
From the
* (;e 1)>0, therefore
Solution.
interval of integration
Passing over
to
that the segment
is
is
2]
[1,
(see
Fig. 71).
representation
below by the curve y
= xVxl.
Hence,
S_ J
Make
= .xVx 1, we see
= xVx and
y
bounded abov e by the curve y
explicit
[x\fjT^l
(x\fl^l)]dx = 2lx)/'x\dx.
the substitution
X
x l-/
dx=2t
2
,
dt,
1
Then
1
S = 4j(/'+l)/<tf
7.3.9.
= 4[ + f);-M5.
Determine the area

by two branches
= x 3 and the straight
bounded
(y x) 2
of the figure
of
the
line
curve
x=l.
Fig. 71
Solution. Note first of all that y, as an
function of x, is defined only for
xÔ; the left side of the equation is always non-negative.
implicit
Now
the equations of two branches of the curve y = x xVx,

we
x + xVx^x xV x, and
Since xÔ, we have
y =x+x V
find
x.
therefore
S=^(x + xV~xx +xV~x)dx = 2 *V~x dx7.3.10.
Compute the
y*=x(x-\) 2
area
enclosed
by
the
loop
of
the
curve
Solution. The domain of definition of the implicit function y is

oo. Since the equation of the curve contathe interval
ins y to the second power, the curve is symmetrical about the
0^jc< +
Ch
322
VII.
The positive branch y
x-axis.
X)
_V
\x-
(x)
given by the equation
is
- y-{x _
<j
The common points of the symmetrical branches y

= y (x) must lie on the x-axis. But y (x) = *
and at x 2 = 1.
at x l =
l
Consequently,
and y
the
loop
is
>
l)f
formed by the curves y
= Y x(lx), 0<*<1
(see
Fig.
72),
and y 2
(x)
\
{x)
=
_
only
= \f x(\ x)
the area enclosed
being
S=2jV*(l x)dx = 2 ^x x
2
Find
7.3.11.
y*
the
area
enclosed
by
the
)dx = ^.
loop
of
curve
the
= {x-\)(x-2)K
2
y =x(x-1)
Fig.
Find
7.3.12.
y= x
Fig.73
72
the area of the figure

the line tangent to
2x + 3,
bounded by
it
at
the parabola
the point /W(2, 5)
and the y-axls.

Solution. The equation of the tangent at the point M(2 5)
5
6(x 2) or y = 7 >x. Since the branches
has the form y
of the parabola are directed downward, the parabola lies below the
6a:> x2 2x 3 on the interval [0,2] (Fig. 73).
tangent, i. e.
+ =
7
Hence,
2
S= j*[7 6x ( x 2x +
l
3)]
dx = J(x2
4x + 4)dx = -|
7.3.
Computing Areas
in
323
y=x
2
2x+2,
7.3.13. Find the area bounded by the parabola
the line tangent to it at the point 7W(3, 5) and the axis of ordinates.
We
7.3.14.
take on the ellipse
+ -1
(a>b)
M(x,
y) lying in the first quadrant.

that the sector of the ellipse bounded
axis and the focal radius drawn to the point
a point
Show
by
So =
ab
-77-
arc cos
With the aid of this result

area of the entire ellipse.
xa
its
semi-major
has an area
deduce a formula
computing the
for
y
1
Solution.
Sqmao
M(x,y)
Fig. 75
Fig.
74
We
have (Fig.
âom#+ S MABM
a
74):
S^ 0MB y
Smabm = ydx = V~=T* dt

X
= ~[t
|/^=7~2 + 2 arc sin
= [-xVtf^Z+cP (y- arc sin

Since
arc sin a = arc cosa

>MABM
2a
-x
,
1
we obtain
Va x + a
2
arc cos
~
j
Hence
Sqmao
$ao mb + Smabm + ~y arc cos
324
At x = 0, the sector becomes a quarter
4 êllipse
9
A
--arccos0
"
and consequently, S ellipse = nab. At

^circle
of the ellipse,
ab
ab
n
=
y=T
a = b we get the
ab
i.e.
area of a circle
bounded
7.3.15. Find the area
and the straight
line
by
the parabolas y
= 4x #=g2
= 2.
Solution. In this case it is advisable to integrate with respect

to y and take advantage of the symmetry of the figure (see Fig. 75).
Therefore, solving the equations of the parabolas for x, we have:
x=
By symmetry
of
the
figure
about
S 0AB0
equal to the doubled area
the (/-axis the area sought
S = 2S 0AB0 = 2
is
V~y-\ V~y ) dy= 5 J Vy dy = ^p-
j (3
From an arbitrary point M(x, y) of the curve y x m

perpendiculars
and ML(x>0) are dropped onto the
coordinate axes. What part of the area of the rectangle ON
does
the area
(Fig. 76) constitute?
7.3.16.
MN
> 0)
(m
ML
ONMO
Fig. 77
7.3.17. Prove that the areas S

5X
x-axis and half-waves of the curve y
,
geometric progression with the
S2 53
,
bounded by the
form a
= e~ x s\n$x, x^0
common ratio q = e P.
Solution. The curve of Fig. 77 intersects

at the points where sinpx=0, whence
the
Ox
Xn
nil
u,
/-v
l,
q
z,
...
positive
semi-axis
Computing Areas
7.3.
in
325
The function y = e" ax
sin fix is positive in the intervals (x 2ki x 2k+1 )

and negative in (x 2k+l x2k+2 ) i.e. the sign of the function in the
1)". Therefore
interval (xn xn+1 ) coincides with that of the number (
y
>
(n+
Sn =
(n+
1) jt
\dx={\) n
l)jt
e- x s\nfixdx.
nn
3
But the indefinite integral

e~ ax sin
fix
dx
is
=a
equal to
a
+fl
a ^
+ P cos P*) + ^-
Consequently,
(n+
[^^(asinpx + pcosPx)
:
tP
1) ji
13
[g-a(+l)/pp (_l)+i_gaJV3p (1)"]
* 2
+P
Hence
-a(/z +
I )
jt/3

7.3.18. Find the areas enclosed between the circle x 2
+4(/ 11=0 and

Solution.
Rewriting
(x-l)
y
the parabola
+ (*/+2)
the
2
we
=_t6,
= -{x-\f-2 V 3 + 2.
the centre of the

the point C(l,
2)
and the radius of the circle equals
The axis of the parabola coin4.
cides with the straight linex=l
and its vertex lies at the point
fl(l,
2,
at
lies
-2J/T)
(Fig. 78).
The area S ABDFA of the smaller

figure is found by the formula
u
SaBDFA
(*/par
i/circle)
- 2x+
equations of the curves,
Consequently,
circle
+y
y= x + 2x+l2\/ ~3.
r
dXf
Fig. 78
have:
326
where xA and x D are determined from the system

( + 2) = 16,_
=
-(x-\)
-2V3 +4,
y+
xD = 3.
1,
equations
(*-l) +
whence x A
of
Hence,
3
Sabdfa
t(-^
+ 2x + - 2,/T + 2 + VT6-(*-l)*)]
1
>
~V
16 (at 1)* +
= [-j + x* + (3-2V3) x + x
+ y arc sin ~1J = 8 |/T + 2 J/"T2 + 16 arc sin 1 =
*
32
.
,
The area
of the second figure is easy to determine.

Note. The computation of the integral can be simplified by using
the shift x
1
2 and taking advantage of the evenness of the
integrand.
r/
7.3.19. Compute the area

6
1
x2 and the #-axis.
7.3.20.
Compute
bounded by the curves y =
x=^y
7.3.23.
4 (y 2 ~~x 2 )
7.3.24.
by the curve y 2 =(\
Compute the
area
enclosed
by
area
of
the
and the straight
Compute the
loop
of
the
2
)
curve
area
of
the
line
the
bounded by the curve

x-\-y=l.
figure
figure
enclosed by the curve
2
).
Compute the
+ x y = 0.
2
the
== 0.
Compute
= x (l x
7.3.26.
x3
the hyper-
enclosed
+]/' y
7.3.25.
cut off by
area
= 8.
Compute the
Yx
2
=\
+x
4)
+l.
7.3.21. Compute the area of the portions

2
2
from the ellipse x 2
bola x 1
3y
4y
7.3.22.
the area enclosed between the parabolas
x = y2
(x
area
enclosed
by
the
loop
of the
curve
7.3.27. Compute the area bounded by the axis of ordinates and

2
the curve x
y).
y (l
Compute the
area bounded by the curve y

x*
2x 3
the axis of abscissas and two ordinates corresponding to
the points of minimum of the function y(x).
7.3.28.
+ # + 3,
2
7.4. Areas with Parametrically Represented Boundaries
7.4.
327
Computing Areas with Parametrically Represented
Boundaries
If
the boundary of a figure
the
of
figure
= -^y(t)x'(t)dt;
represented by parametric equations
= x(t),
Art
then the area

mulas:
is
y=y(t)
is
by one
evaluated
S=
S=x(t)y'(t)dt;
a
of the
three for
| J (xy' -yx') dt,

a
where a and
P are the values of the parameter / corresponding

respectively to the beginning and the end of the traversal of the
contour in the positive direction (the figure remains on the left).
Compute the
7.4.1.
area enclosed by the ellipse
x = acos/,
Solution. Here
xy'
convenient
is
it
(0^t^2n).
y=bs'mt
~yx'=a cos txb cos /
compute
to
first
+ b sin
= ab.
x a sin t
Hence
2,1
=yj
2ji
x y'
yx')dt = -j^
abdt
= nab.
o
2
Find the area enclosed by the astroid
7.4.2.
_2_
T
(^)
+("f)
=1-
Solution. Let us write the equation of the astroid in parametric

asin 3 /,
Here it is also convea cos 3 /, */
form: a;
nient to evaluate first
xy'
yx'
=a
(cos 3
0^/^2k.
3 sin 2
cos
+ sin
3 cos 2
sin
=
= 3a
t)
cos 2 /sin 2
/.
Hence,
2ji
2jt
S = -i
(xy'yx')dt=ja*
7.4.3.
cycloid x
Find
the
area
= a(t sin/),
Solution.
sin 2 2tdt
= \a
n.
of
the
region
= a(l cos/)
bounded by an arc
and the #-axis.
of
the
Here the contour consists of an arc of the cycloid

a segment of the #-axis (0^x^2na). Let us
(0</<2ji) and
apply the formula
S = ^yx'dt.
328
Since on the segment of the x-axis we have r/ = 0, it only remains to compute the integral (taking into account the direction
of a boundary traversal):
2ji
(I cos*)a(l cost)dt=a
(1 cos t) 2 dt =
2n
=a
2cos/
+ 4"0+ cos2 ')]
dt
= 3na
2
.
7.4.4.
jc
Compute the
= asin/,
area
of
the
region
enclosed
by the curve
= bs\n2t.
Solution. When constructing the curve one should bear in mind

that it is symmetrical about the axes of coordinates. Indeed, if we
t
for t the variable x remains unchanged, while y
substitute ji
only changes its sign; consequently, the curve is symmetrical about
for / the variable y remains
t
the ;t-axis. When substituting n
unchanged, and x only changes its sign, which means that the
curve is symmetrical about the y-axis.
x=asint
Fig. 79
Furthermore, since
common
period
2jt,
the
it
is
functions
sufficient
bsm2t have a
a sin/; y
x
to confine ourselves to the fol-
lowing interval of variation of the parameter: 0^.t^l2n.

From the equations of the curve it readily follows that the variables x and y simultaneously retain non-negative values only
when
the parameter
varies
on the
interval
u
'
0</<y we
-2
therefore at
obtain the portion of the curve situated in the
first
quadrant. The curve is shown in Fig. 79.

As is seen from the figure, it is sufficient to evaluate the area
enclosed by one loop of the curve corresponding to the variation
7.4. Areas with Parametrically Represented Boundaries

of the
parameter
5=2
oo
J
from
to
n and then to double the
ji
ji
yx' dt
7.4.5.
=2
329
result
ji
^ b sin 2t
x a cos / dt
= \ab ^ cos
smt
dt
Find the area
of the
by the
enclosed
region
loop of the
curve
0=4(6-0-
%=4(6-0;
Solution. Locate the points of self-intersection of the curve. Both

functions x(t) and y(t) are defined throughout the entire number
oo
scale
t <oo.
At the point of self-intersection the values of the abscissa (and
ordinate) coincide at different values of the parameter. Since
<
x=
y(/
3)
2
,
to take
tion y
(t)
of the
parameter
the abscissas coincide at
= 3
on one and the same value
^=
= 0,
point
M(x,
and
t
at
the
t2
point
we have x(t x )
>
(0,
changes from
(the figure
remains on the
of the
3t x
= -^left).
= x(t^) = 0,
and
0) is the only point of selfto 6, the points of the curve

/
varies from
to 3, the
the first quadrant. As

y) describes the lower part
in
indicated interval x(t) and y(t)
must
= 3.
increase,
tion x(t) begins to decrease, while y (t)

gure 80 shows the traversal of the curve
ing
same values
Fig. 81
i.e.
When
intersection.
are found
the
Fig. 80
Thus, at
= y(t 2 )
at
For the func-
iid^(3^X) = -^^(3 + X)
the equality
/,
be fulfilled for X=^=0, whence X
y(t l )
1 'k.
loop,
since
in the
and then the func-
keeps increasing. Ficorresponding to increas-
still
330
In computing the area

nient to use the formula
enclosed by the
loop sought
(6-0Ûl
Find the area
by the
enclosed
is
conve-
27
'
24
7.4.6.
it
loop of the curve: x
2
\
= tJCompute
7.4.7.
a cos
(1
+cos
the
/);
by
enclosed
cos /).
area
= as\n
(1
the
cardioid:
Solution. Since a;(/) and */(/) are periodic functions, it is suffito consider the interval [
ji, ji]. The curve is symmetrical
t for / the value of the
about the x-axis, since on substituting
variable x remains unchanged, while y only changes its sign, and
cient
i/>0
As
1
varies from
/
changes from
to
and
1,
the
decreases from x
to
u= _ 1
= 0. We
ji.
the function u
jt
can show
= cost
= au (1 + u) =a
=
to x\
= 2a
The curve
shown
is
traversal as
its
in
t
(û -f
y)
ordinate y increases on the
the
that
decreases from
and then increases
and decreases on the interval
interval
tion of
to
abscissa
first
a:|
to
as
/
^y</^Ji^.
Fig. 81, the arrow indicating the direcincreases.
Consequently,
ji
S=
ji
(xy'
yx') dt = a
+ cos
( 1
t)
dt
= j na\
-JT
7.4.8.
Compute
cos/, y
7.4.9.
Compute
(a)
x=t \,
(b)
x = 2t
(c)
x=t
7.4.10.
2
;
area
region
enclosed
by
the
curve
t;
= 2t P\
2
y=L (3 - n
= b sin
Compute
x
the
of
1.
the areas enclosed by the loops of the curves:
Compute
x = a cos/; y
7.4.11.
the
= bs\n
the area
cos 2 /.
of
the
by the curve
region enclosed
the area
= cos
/;
enclosed by
y~
^-sin
/;
the evolute
c
=a*b
of
2
.
the ellipse
7.5.
The Area
Polar Coordinates
in
331
7.5. The Area of a Curvilinear Sector in Polar

Coordinates
In polar coordinates the area of a sector bounded by the curve

and the rays q) x
and (p 2
P is expressed by the integral
= p(cp)
=a
S = -j jp 2
7.5.1.
Find the area
of the region situated
bounded by the
a and x = a.
y=x
and
(<P)d<P-
parabola
= 4ax
in the
and
the
quadrant
first
straight
lines
Solution. Let us introduce a polar system of coordinates by

placing the pole at the focus F of the parabola and directing the
polar
axis
the positive
direction
in
along the #-axis. Then the equation of
parabola
the
be p^
will
coscp
whe-
p is the parameter of the parabola.

In this case p
2a, and the focus F has
the coordinates (a, 0). Hence, the equation of the parabola will acquire the
re
form
=i
zzz^z
cos cp
lines
will
straight
cp
(Fig. 82).
and
,
'
those
become
cp
the
of
and
Therefore,
Jl
4a 2
SpARP
FABF
"
(f COS(p) 2
dcp
= 2d
dcp
4sin^"
JT
Changing the variable:

Z
cot tt
= z,
2 sin 2 (cp/2)
dz,
ji/4 cot (k/8)
k/2
we obtain
cot (Jt/8)
S FABF = a*
or,
(i
+z .) dz=aBfl .(cot-J + lcoti-l-l)
taking into account that cot
>FABF
~=
4*
"t^fj"/
sin (jx/4)
= 2fl"(l+y^2
= +K 2
1
332
Compute
7.5.2.
the area of the region enclosed by
= l+cos(p;
= acosq).
(a) the cardioid p
(b) the
curve p
7.5.3. Find the area of the regions bounded by the curve

a and situated outside
2acos3(p and the arcs of the circle p
p
the circle.
function
Solution. Since the
= 2acos3q)
r = -y
2ji
has a period
the radius vector describes three equal loops of the curve as q) van and jx. Permissible values for q) are those at
between
ries
which cos3(p^0, whence
_ +
^ <(p<
Consequently, one of the loops
and
= 0i lf 2
{k
described as
is
and the other two loops as

5ji
-g-
ively (Fig.
belonging
the
cp
a
is
it
7ji
-g-
and
3ji
and
respect-
83). Cutting out the parts,

to the circle p=a, we get
whose area
figure
arly,
between
varies
q)
varies between
and between
...)
equal
is
the
to
sought. Cletriple area
Smlnm*
Let us find the polar coordinates of
the points of intersection
and N.
For this purpose solve the equation
2a cos
3cp
= a,
(k=0)
~q"
is
specified
As
is
&MLNM
by the polar angle
q) x
=y
y only
and
Fig. 83
e cos 3(p
i .
the
roots
Between
and
are found. Thus, the point

,
and the point
M by
q) 2
=y
seen from the figure,
~ SoMLNO
ÔMNO
~
JT/9
JT/9
=|
4a 2 cos 2 3(pdq)
7.5.4. Compute the

p=3|/"2 acoscp and p
Solution.
The
first
a2
dcp
a2
^+ iLij
-Jt/9
-!t/9
through the pole p
area
circle
= 0,
of
the
figure
bounded
by
the
circle
= 3asincp.
lies
in the right
touching the vertical
half-plane and
line.
The second
passes
circle
The Area
7.5.
in Polar Coordinates
333
in the upper half-plane and passes through the pole

touching the horizontal line. Consequently, the pole is a point
of intersection of the circles. The other point of intersection of the
situated
is
= 0,
circles
is
found from the equation 3|/2 acoscp
B (arc tan 1^2
a|/6). As
is
= 3a sin
q),
whence
seen from Fig. 84, the sought-for area
V3'
Fig. 85
Fig. 84
is
and
sum
equal to the
the areas of the circular
cf
segments_CMBO
OCBO
arc
BAO
the
first
The
adjoining each other along the ray (p=arctan^2
by the end-point of the polar radius p of
is described
.
arctan}/2
circle for
and the arc

second
of the
polar radius p
end-point of the
ârctan^2
<(p^y,
OCB
circle for
by the
O^cp^
Therefore
cos 2
J
arc tan
cp
dq>
=4 a2 (t arctan ^ 2
>
arc tan
S 0CB0 -=Y a2
sin 2 q)dq)
= -|-a
ârc tan|/2
^p)
Hence,
Soaho + Socbo
= 2.25a
(ji arc tan
]/YVT).
7.5.5. Find the area of the figure cut out by the circle p
from the cardioid p = l-f-cos(p (Fig. 85).
Solution. Let
ves.
To
us
whence
find the points of
first
this end solve the
<Pi
=y
>
^2
=n
cp,
q),
sin
cp
intersection of these cur-
system
= |/~3 sin
p == + cos
p
= ]f3
O^cp^rc,
334
The sought-for area is the sum of two areas: one is a circular

segment, the other a segment of the cardioid; the segments adjoin
each other along the ray
<P
=y
The
BAO
arc
described by the
is
end-point of the polar radius p of the cardioid as the polar angle
changes from
to
ji,
and the arc
OGB
by
the end-point of
cp
the
O^cp^y.
polar radius p of the circle for
Therefore
= -I
3 sin 2
cp
dcp
+-I
J
(1
+ cos
cp)
dcp
= 4(<P-^)|f + |(cp + 2sincp + f
sin 2<f
= T (lt
7.5.6.
Find
the
= a(l coscp)
area
and the
of
the
circle p
bounded
figure
by
]/T).
the
cardioid
= a.
7.5.7. Find the area of the region enclosed by the loop

y*
3axy.
folium of Dtscartes x 9
Solution. Let
us
the
of
pass over tj polar coordinates using the usual

psincp. Then
.
formulas x
p cosq), #
the equation of the curve is:
3
3
p (cos
cp
+ sin
cp)
= 3ap
sin
cp
cos
cp,
or
3a sin
cos 3
cp
cos
(p
+ sin
cp
cp
3a sin
and
and secondly, p
The
at
cp
2cp)
that,
3ji
oo as
latter
cp
means
and
that
folium of Descartes has an asymptote, whose equation y =

a can be found in the usual way in rectangular coordinates.
x
Consequently, the loop of the folium of Descartes is described
the
as
equation
cp
cp
this
at
firstly,
Fig. 86
from
follows
It
2cp
+ cos(p) (2 sin
(sincp
cp
(see
changes
Fig, 86).
from
to
and
is
situated
in
the
first
quadrant
Area
$ 7.5. The
Thus, the sought-for area
C 9a 2 cos 2
Taking advantage
the
of
les
loop
^from
cp
cp
(\
= ~,
to
cp
sin 2
+ sin
335
cp
cp) 2
symmetry about the
curve's
the
about the ray
i.e.
(cos 3
of
Polar Coordinates
equal to
is
>OAO
y = x,
in
we can compute the

an(J then double
P=-j)
bisector
area of
it.
half
This enab-
us to apply the substitution
tan
cp
= 2,
dcp
cos 2
(p
which gives
4
ôao
Still
cos 2
~* y "
(cos 3
cp
sin 2
cp+sin 3
cp
2a(p
_ qya
~""
cp)
'
tfz
Jd + z
3 2
)
new substitution
z
+ = v,
3z dz = da,
2
leads to the
integral
dv
Compute
7.5.8.
the
area
of
3
2
a2
the region enclosed by one loop
of
the curves:
(a)
p=acos2cp;
(b)
p=<2sin2(p.
Compute the
7.5.9.
area enclosed by the portion of the

lying inside the circle p=acoscp.
=a (1 cos
7.5.10. Compute the area

=osin(pcos 2 (p, a > 0.
=a cos
7.5.11.
cp)
Compute
3
(|
(a
> 0).
the
area
of
the
region
enclosed by
of
the
region
enclosed
cardioid
the curve
by the curve
336
Compute the area
7.5.12.
= yL=^
of the portion
bounded by the
of the figure
flying inside the circle
Bernoulli's lemniscate
=aVcos 2cp.
7.5.13. Passing over to polar coordinates, compute
2 3
the region enclosed by the curve (x 2
Aa 2 x 2 y 2
y )
the area of
7.5.14. Passing over to polar coordinates, evaluate the

2
y*
the region enclosed by the curve x*
a 2 (x 2
y ).
7.6.
Computing
The volume
the
of a solid
area of
Volume of a Solid
is
expressed by the integral

b
V = \S{x)dx
a
where S(x)
is the area of the section of the solid by a plane

perpendicular to the x-axis at the point with abscissa x\ a and b are
the left and right boundaries of variation of x. The function S(x)
is
supposed to be known and continuously changing as x varies
between a and b.
The volume V x of a solid generated by revolution about the
x-axis of the curvilinear trapezoid bounded by the curve y
f(x)
(f(x)^0) the x-axis and the straight lines x a and x b (a<b)
is expressed by the integral
Vx
ji
\y
dx.
The volume Vx of a solid obtained by revolving about the x-axis

bounded by the curves y = y 1 (x) and y = y 2 (x) [0
y x (x)
<
the figure
^^W]
an d the straight
lines
x=a
=b
is
<
expressed by the
integral
V x = n\{y\y\)dx.
a
is
represented parametrically or in polar coordinates,
the appropriate change of the variable should be made in the above
formulas.
If
the curve
7.6.1.
Find the volume
of the ellipsoid
7.6. Computing the Volume of a Solid
Solution.
an
The section
the
of
337
by the plane # = const
ellipsoid
is
ellipse (Fig. 87)
+
y
with semi-axes b
cy
Hence
the
area
of
the
section (see Problem 7.4.1)
r i^
S(x)=TLbJ/
Therefore the volume
V = ^ nbc
^ = nbc[\
xc
of the ellipsoid
and we have Inhere
is
^ dx = nbc x x
3 a2
In the particular case a
=b=c
-a
7.6.2.
x2
Compute
+y +z =
2
7.6.3.
the
at right
common
Solution.
(Fig.
88).
abc.
the ellipsoid turns into a sphere,
the volume of the solid spherical segment of two

2 and x
3 from the sphere
the planes x
16.
The axes
intersect
4
o
Fig. 88
by
out
cut
= 4 na*
Fig. 87
bases
(a:
of
two
angles.
identical cylinders with bases of radius a

of the solid constituting
Find the volume
portion of the two cylinders.
Take the axes of the cylinders to be the y- and e-axis

The solid OABCD constitutes one-eighth of the sought-
for solid.
Let
us
cut
this solid
a distance x from
0.
In
by
the
plane perpendicular to the #-axis at

we get a square EFKL with
section
Ch. VII. Applications
333
side
EF =
Va
2
2
,
therefore
of
5 (x)
the Definite Integral
=a x
2
and V
=8
(a
dx
**)
of
all chords (parallel to one and the same direction)
radius R symmetrical parabolic segments of the same
altitude h are constructed. The planes of the segments are perpendicular to the plane of the circle.
Find the volume of the solid thus obtained (Fig. 89).
7.6.4.
On
circle
of
Fig. 89
Fig.
Solution. First compute the area of the parabolic segment with

base a and altitude h. If we arrange the axes of coordinates as
indicated in Fig. 90, then the equation of the parabola will be
h.
y = ax 2
Determine the parameter a. Substituting the coordinates
point
0^,
b(Jj,
equation
we
get
the parabola
of
a_
a= ^;
= aj-M, whence
y=-a^x' + h> and
1
is
the
of
the
hence the
desired
area
o_
S = 2 ydx
= 2^^x +h}dx=jah.
2
Now find the volume of the solid. If the axes of coordinates are
arranged as indicated in Fig. 89, then in the section of the solid
by a plane perpendicular to the x-axis at the point with abscissa x
we obtain
a parabolic
= 2/ R x
2
2
.
segment
area
S^~ah
where
= 2y =
Hence,
R
S(x)
of
= j\^W^ handV=[S(x)dx^jh^W^ dx = ^
2
-R
nhR\
The plane
7.6.5.
the fixed
Computing
7.6.
diameter
of
the
moving
Volume
339
of a Solid
triangle remains perpendicular lo

the base of the triangle
vertex lies on a straight line pa-
of a circle of radius a:
of the circle, and its

the fixed diameter at a distance h from the plane of the
circle.
Find the volume of the solid generated by the movement
of this triangle from one end of the diameter to the other.
7.6.6. Compute the volume of the solid generated by revolving
about the x-axis the area bounded by the axes of coordinates and
_L
_L
_L
2
the parabola x 2 -\-y 2
is
chord
rallel
to
=a
'
Solution. Let us find the points of intersection of the curve and

the axes of coordinates: at x
x
a. Thus, we
a, at y
y
have the interval of integration [0, a],
From
we
the equation of the parabola
get
y=
\a
- -Y
x
2
there-
fore
a
=n
y dx
=n
_1_
\a
_1
dx
=n
â2
4a
Aa
_3_
2
_1_
+ 6ax-
+x jdx= ^ na*.
2
7.6.7. The figure bounded by an arc of the sinusoid y

s\nx
the axis of ordinates and the straight line
\
revolves about
the y-ax\s (Fig. 91).
y
y^
>
1/2
Fig. 92
Fie. 91
Compute
Solution.
interval [0,
the volume
The
1].
of the solid
inverse function x
of revolution thus generated.
= arcsinj/
is
Therefore
V=
2
j\^ x dy
= n^ (arc sin y)
dy.
considered on the
340
smy = t.
Apply the substitution arc
Hence
y
= sin
dy = cost dt,
t
*/
n/2
And
V = jt
so,
cost dt. Integrating by parts, we get
y=n
n2 &)
4
Compute the volume
of the solid generated by revolving

the figure bounded by the parabola */
2
0.25x 2
and the straight line 5x
14
0.
8^/
7.6.8.
about the
.xr-axis
+ =
ABCA
The solid is obtained by revolving the area

92) about the #-axis. To find the abscissas of the points
and B solve the system of equations:
Solution.
(Fig.
= -x + 2,
2
5x8y+H== 0.
Whence x
i4
x B =2. In our case y x
=y;
= (5/8)jc + 7/4.
(x)
=^ +2
2
and y 2
(x)
Hence,
,
lra(T*+ 7 )
-(T + 2 )']^'
891
JC,
280
Jl.
1/2
7.6.9.
about the
y*.
8x
Compute
(/-axis
Solution
It
is
the volume of the solid generated by revolving

the figure bounded by the parabolas y
x 2 and
obvious that x 2
from the origin
(y)
= \^y^x
(y)
= ^-
on the
in-
the coordinates to the point of intersection of the parabolas (Fig. 93). Let us find the ordinates of the
points of intersection of the parabolas by excluding x from the sy-
terval
stem
of
of
equations
y
{ y
We
obtain y 1
= 0,
#2 =
4.
= x\
= 8x.
Hence,
V=n
J [y
fj) dy=* 24
jt.
Compute the volume of the solid torus. The torus is a

generated by revolving a circle of radius a about an axis
lying in its plane at a distance b from the centre (bâ). (A tire,
for example, has the form of the torus.)
7.6.10.
solid
7.6.
Computing
the
Volume
of a Solid
341
7.6.11. Compute the volume of the solid obtained by revolving

about the x-axis the figure bounded by two branches of the curve
(yx) 2 = x 3 and the straight line x=l.
Find the
7.6.12.
volume
of
the
solid
= 2a the figure bounded

line x = a (Fig. 94).
about the line y
and the straight
generated by revolving
by the parabola y 2 = 4ax
a
-2a
C\ B
-x
-x
0'
Fig. 93
Fig. 94
we transfer the origin of coordinates into the point

retaining the direction of the axes, then in the new
system of coordinates the equation
of the parabola will be
Solution.
2a)
O'(0,
If
(y'
2a)
= 4ax.
Hence y 2 = 2a + \Z~4ax (for the curve OAB), and y 1 = 2a

]^4ax (for
the curve OCD). The sought-for vo-
lume
is
equal to
V = n(yl yl)dx = n[(2a +

o
+2^) ~ (2a 2 V^f] dx = f na\

2
Fig. 95
7.6.13. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about

the x-axis the figure enclosed by the astroid: x
a cos 3 1\ y
as\n 3 t.
Solution. The sought-for volume V is equal to double the volume
obtained by revolving the figure

'
OAB
= 2n ^ y
(Fig. 95). Therefore,
dx.
342
Change the variable

x = a cos 3 /,
dx =
3a cos 2
= a sin
t
/
sin
dt,
jx/2
Hence,
V = 2n^
a 2 sin 6
/ (
3a cos
ts'mt) dt
it
IT
= 6jxa
J
-
Using
the
integrals,
t,
from
formula
we
c
sin 7 /d/
Problem 6.6.9
sin 9
dt
computing the above
for
get
o
/ 6
32
2 \

sin/), y
cos/) about the
a(t
arc of the cycloid x
a(l
one
Ar-axis
7.6.15.
Compute the volume
of the solid
obtained by revolving
= a (1 +cos
about the polar axis the cardioid p
cp)
shown
in Fig. 81.
Solution. The sought-for volume represents the difference between

and OKLO
the volumes generated by revolving the figures
about the x-axis (which is the polar axis at the same time).
As in the preceding problem, let us pass over to the parametric
representation of the curve with the polar angle cp as the parameter:
MNKLO
p cos = a cos
= p sin =a sin
cp
(p
cp
(p
( 1
(1
+ cos
+ coscp).
cp),
equals 2a (the value

obvious that the abscissa of the point
cp=0), the abscissa of the point K being the minimum of
a(\ +cos cp)cosq).
the function x
It
is
of
x at
Let us find this
minimum:
dx
^ = a sin
At
^=0
we obtain
<p,
=0;
xM
= 2a
(p 2
cp
(1
+2 coscp) =0,
at
(p 2
ji.
= |n,
xK
Computing
7.6.
Volume
the
Hence, the sought-for volume
343
a Solid
of
equal to
is
2a
V z=n ^ y\dx
y\ dx.
tc
Changing the variable x = acosq)(l
+ coscp),
X
( 1
get
*
1
= a + cos
sin
=
dx
a sin (1 +2 cos
2
r/
we
a/4
q),
(p)
cp) dcp,
cp
2jx/3
>
a/4
2n/3
2a
ji
Thus,
o
V=
ji
a2
(1
+cosqp) 2 sin 2
qp
a sin
cp
+ 2 coscp)] dcp
(1
jt
a2
(l
+coscp) 2 sin 2
(p
a sin
(p
(1
+ 2 cos
(p)] d(p
==
= jia
sin 3
q)
(1
+coscp) 2
+ 2cosq))d(p =
(l
o
i
= jia
+w) 2
(l
+2u)du
= ^ na
= cosqp).
(w
7.6.16.
(a)
nes
the
Compute the volume

hyperboloid
1
of
of
the solid bounded by:
+ ^r ^ =
one sheet
an d
the
pla-
and z=l;
2=4
(b) the parabolic cylinder

a\
and the plane x
2
*/
the
planes
of
coordinates
(c)
the elliptic
paraboloid
= ^ +^
and the plane
=k
(k
>
0).
7.6.17. A wedge is cut off from a right circular cylinder of radius

a by a plane passing through the diameter of the cylinder base and
inclined at an angle a to the base. Find the volume of the wedge.
7.6.18.
the figure
(a)
(b)
Compute the volume
of
the
bounded by the following
xy = 4,
y = 2x
x=
\,
x'\ y =
= 4,
solid
generated
lines:
about the x-axis;

*/
about the #-axis;
by revolving
344
3
y = x y = 0, x=2 about the (/-axis;
=
s\nx (one wave), y =
(d) y
about the #-axis;
2
2
(e) x
about the (/-axis;
# = 4,
a) 2 = ax x = 0, y = 2a about the x-axis.
(0 (y
(c)
y=2
y
7.6.19. Find the volume of the solid

ax ~7*
about the x-axis.
curve yu 2
1
obtained by
revolving the

the #-axis the figure bounded by the lines y^s'wiX and
about
y
= 2 x.

about the x-axis the curvilinear trapezoid bounded by the catenary
= ^-(ê
=c
(c>
-\-e
= acosh-^
and the straight
lines
xt
=c
x2
0).

cosxand
about the #-axis the figure bounded by the cosine line (/
the
parabola
7.6.23.
about the
the
y^^*
2
-
Compute
the volume of the solid generated by revolving

2
and
#-axis the figure bounded by the circle x 2
y
+ =l
parabola
= ^x.
=
=
x 3 take two points A and B, whose

7.6.24. On the curve y
2 respectively.
and b
1
abscissas are
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the curvilinear trapezoid aABb about the #-axis.
a=
acost\ y
7.6.25. An arc of the evolute of the ellipse x
situated in the first quadrant revolves about the x-axis
Find the volume of the solid thus generated.
7.6.26.
Compute
the
volume
of the solid
= bs\nt
generated by revolving
the region enclosed by the loop of the curve x
= at
2
>
= a[t
^j
about the #-axis.

7.6.27. Compute the volumes of the solids generated by revolv2 2
2
a 2 (x 2
the region enclosed by the lemniscate (x 2
y )
)
about the x- and (/-axes.
ing

acos 2 cp about the polar axis.
the region enclosed by the curve p
7.7. Arc Length of a Plane Curve in Rectang. Coord's
345
7.7. The Arc Length of a Plane Curve in Rectangular

Coordinates
If
a plane curve is given by the equation y
y(x) and the
derivative y' (x) is continuous, then the length of an arc of this
curve is expressed by the integral
l=lVl+y'
dx
where a and b are the abscissas
Compute
7.7.1.
(0,
and
0)
8) (Fig.
(4,
the arc of the

the points
length of
the
parabola y 2
semicubical
=x
end-points of the given arc.
of the
between
96).
The function y(x) is defined for

Since the given points lie in the first qu-
Solution.
xÔ.
adrant, y
=x
_3_
2
3
= ~Vx
Hence,
and l/l+*/' 2
j/ 1+-
Consequently,
Fig. 96
3
=A (10 KTo-i).
7.7.2.
=x
Compute
the
length
by the straight
7.7.3.
Compute the
line
Solution. Since y'
arc
cut
from the curve
off
= -g.
arc length
the points with the abscissas
the
of
of
x=0,
= tan x,
y=\ncos>x between
the curve
x=^.
then |/l
+ y' = \f\ -f tan x = sec x.

2
Hence,
n
4
3n
= lntan-g
.
'
sec
J
7.7.4.
x1
=a
to
Compute
x2
=b
(b
xdx= In tan
+\
= In Jx
e
the
> a).
arc
length
of
the
curve
from
|
346
Find the arc length
7.7.5.
y=l
the points with the ordinates
Solution. Here
variable; then
it
the curve
of
convenient
is
and y
x=-^y 2 y
between
= 2.
adopt y as
to
\ny
independent
the
'
*'-U-w
^ T+ 7 1
and
/(T^+i7=^+i-
Hence,
2
= J ^jqpî dy = I (i y + 4) dy =T + T ln 2
_2_
Find the length
7.7.6.
the astroid x
of
_2_
_2_
+y =a
As is known, the astroid is symmetrical about the axes

of coordinates and the bisectors of the coordinate angles. Therefore,
sufficient to compute the arc length of the astroid between
it is
the bisector y = x and the x-axis and multiply the result by 8.
Solution.
In the
at
first
=\a
quadrant y
T
~3 ~\
3
x
and y
at
= a, y=x
Further,
'
a ^-jc T
-|) x~^~ = x~~* [aJ-x^)
'
and
Consequently,
/
a
c
=8
)
a
2
jVo/e.
the
first
If
we compute
_J_
.L
Jx =
6a.
3/
/f
the
arc
length
of
an astroid situated
quadrant, we get the integral

a
i
x
dx
whose integrand increases
infinitely as
().
in
Arc Length
7.7.
Plane Curve in Rectang. Coord's
of a
347
OABCO
7.7.7. Compute the length of the path

consisting of por2
tions of the curves y 2
2x 3 and x 2
20 (Fig. 97).
y
Solution.
It
sufficient
is
symmetry
since by
+ =
of the
compute the
to
figure
arc lengths
and
about the
x-axis
Solving the system of equations
+ y = 20,
2
x2
y
we
the point
find
Find
= 2x\
4).
(2,
fa. Here
J/2*,
V\+y'*= )/ i+ J*.
Hence,
2
Since on the circle of radius ^20 /;

*ab xs
responding to the central angle arc ta
tan 2,
*' ie
en th
of
an arc cor-
Finally
(b)
*/
= A(ioi/TO l)+4/5
Compute
= y
(a)
= ]/20arc tan 2.
we have
I
7.7.8.
XB
arc tan 2.
the arc length of the curve:
cut off by the x-axis;
= ln(2cosx)
between the adjacent points
of intersection
with
the x-axis.
2
2
between the adjacent
(c) 3y =x(x
l)
with the j-axis (half the loop length).
7.7.9.
Compute the
y
points
arc length of the curve
= Ux V~#-\ In (x + KF=T)]
between
and x
= a+l.
of
intersection
348
7.7.10. Find the arc length of the path consisting of portions of

the curves x2
(y+\y and y 4.
7.8. The Arc Length of a Curve Represented

Parametrically
is given by the equations in the parametric form x = x(t),

and the derivatives x' (t), y' (t) are continuous on the interval [t lt t 2 ], then the arc length of the curve is expressed by the
If
a curve
= y(t)
integral
= [Vx
,2
+ y'
{t)
{t)dt,
t x and t 2 are the values of the parameter

t 2 ).
the end-points of the arc (t 1
where
corresponding to
<
7.8.1.
Compute
the
= a(cos/ + /sinO.
length
arc
involute of a circle x
the
of
= a(sini tcost)
from
Solution. Differentiating with respect to
= at cos
x\
whence Vx'
+ y' = at.
2
t=2n.
to
we obtain
/,
= at sin
y't
t,
t,
Hence,
2jt
at dt
2n
=2an
2
.
7.8.2.
Find the length

x
7.8.3.
one arc
= a(t sin
Compute the
Solution.
of
t),
length of
of the cycloid:
= a(l cos/).
the astroid: x = acos
y
Differentiating with respect to
= asm*t.
we obtain
t,
= 3a cos ts'mt;
y' = 3a sin
cost.
2
x't
Hence
J/"*;*
Since
the
+ ^; = \f9a
sin 2
cos 2
= 3a
sin
cos
= ^2
sin 2t
|.
|sin2/| has a period
function
2
/
= 4xy jsin2/df
=6a.
Note.
If
we
forget that
the root and put
Yx
-\-
y' 2
we have
to take the arithmetic value of
= 3asmt cos
we
shall obtain the
wrong
Arc Length
7.8.
of a
Curve
Rep res' d Parametric ally
349
since
result,
2ji
= ySin
sin/cos/d/
Compute
7.8.4.
length
the
-0.
x=V3t
loop of the curve
the
of
2ji
y = t-t*.
Solution. Let
x(t)
us
the
find
and y(t) are defined
limits
for
all
2
,
Both functions
Since the function
integration.
of
values of
x= V 3/ ^0,
2
the curve lies in the right half-plane. Since with a

change in sign of the parameter
x(t) remains unchanged, while
y(t) changes sign, the curve is symmetrical about the #-axis. Furth-
ermore,
function
the
takes
x(t)
on one and the same value not

more than twice. Hence, it follows
that the points
of the
at
curve
of
self-intersection
on the
lie
x-axis, i.e.,
(Fig. 98).
y=
The direction in which the mo-
ving point
(x, y) runs along the
oo to oo
curve as / changes from
is
Fig.
98
indicated by the arrows.
But y
at
= 0,
= 1.
Since x
(t 2 )
=x
(t 3 )
= J^3,
the point
point of self-intersection of the curve. Conse-1 and / =1.

quently, we must integrate within the limits t 2
8
Differentiating the parametric equations of the curve with respect
(^3, 0)
to
f,
we
is
the
get x't
only
= 2V~3t,
y't=\3t\ whence
Consequently,
i(l+3t*)dt
7.8.5.
Compute
between the points

7.8.6.
Compute
= 4.
t
the
of
arc
length
of
the curve #=-g-
= 2 -j
t*
intersection with the axes of coordinates.
the arc length of the ellipse
^ + ^=1.
Solution. Let us pass over to the parametric representation of the

ellipse
x=acost,
= bs'mt
Differentiating with respect to
xt
= a sin
t\
O^t ^ 2n.
we obtain
y't
= b cos
t.
350
the Definite Integral
o)
whence
Vx + y' = Va
2
where
sin 2
+b
cos 2
= a V\e
cos 2
e is the eccentrici-ty of the ellipse,
= a = -V a*a b*
c
Thus
2ji
l
The
= a \V 1
zos 2 tdt
cos 2 tdt
integral
= Aa[\f\ e
is
cos 2
df.
not taken in elementary func-
tions;
/
the
called
is
it
= Y x,
we reduce
integral of the second kind. Putting
elliptic
the integral to the standard form:

ji
ji
T
\
V\
e cos
/d/ = $ Kl
sin 2
xdT=(e),
E (e) is the notation for the so-called complete elliptic integral of the second kind.
Consequently, for the arc length ot an ellipse the formula
/
4a(e) holds good.
sina and to use the tables of vaIt is usual practice to put e
lues for the function
where
E
For instance,
if
(a)
=E
(arc sin e)
10 and 6
= 6,
=E
(e).
then
r Q0
V l0^ 6 = A0.8Q = sin 53.
8 =-
Using the table
we
find
7.8.7.
= 40
of values of elliptic integrals of the
(53)
Compute
= 40xl.2776 51.1.
the arc length of the curve
</=y(' 2 -3)
between the points of intersection with the x-axis.

7.8.8.
Find the arc length

x=a
of the cardioid:
(2 cos
cos 2t),
y = a(2s\n sin 2t).

t
second kind,
7.9. Arc Length
Find the length
7.8.9.
the closed curve
of
= 4 \^2as\nt;
351
a Curve in Polar Coordinates
of
= asm2t.
7.8.10. Find the arc length of the evolute of the ellipse
= cos
Compute
7.8.11.
^-sin
/,
y = (2
/,
On
7.8.12.
and
7.9.
cycloid
the
the
=a
2
.
+ 2/ cos/,
+ 2/ sin/
)cos/
= a (/ sin
length
coordinates, then
the
arc length
= a(\ cos/)
find the
arc of the cycloid in
first
Polar Coordinates
in
by
given
is
/);
the
of
The Arc Length of a Curve

smooth curve
If
ji.
point which divides

the ratio 1 :3.
/,
x=(t 2 2)sin/
between
of
the equation p
p((p) in polar
the curve is expressed by the
integral:
*pi
where
cp
and
7.9.1.
Find
medes p
= aq).
(cp,
changes from
first
of
the
polar
angle
rp
at
the end-
cp 2 ).
the
of
first
turn of the spiral

Therefore
turn of the spiral ot Archi-
is
formed as the polai angle
to 2n.
2ji
2ji
=\
<
length
the
The
Solution.
cp
values
are the
cp 2
points of the arc
\fa y
+a
dy = a\ Vy +
2
dcp
=a
[n
|/"4ji
-f
1 In (2n +
Find the length of the logarithmic

a certain point (p
(p ) and a moving point
7.9.2.
spiral
(p,
p=ae m v
cp).
between
352
Solution. In this case (no matter which of the magnitudes, p or

is greater!)
p
,
<p
<Po
= a|/l + m
e '*dq)
=a
the length of the logarithmic spiral

increment of the polar radius of the arc.
Find
7.9.3.
the
length
arc
cardioid
the
of
Po
proportional
is
i.e.
V +m
IP
2
.
Ap|,
to the
= a(l+coscp)
(a>0, 0<q)<2ji).
p^=
Solution. Here
asincp,
VV^+V^- K2a (l+cos

= 2a cos W^J
2
(p)
- K4a
_ 2a
>
Hence, by virtue
cos 2 (cp/2)
C os (cp/2),
jx
< < 2k.

cp
symmetry
of
2jt
= 2a
cos
|
d(p
= 4a ^ cos
dcp
Find the length of the lemniscate

the right-hand vertex corresponding to cp
7.9.4.
polar angle
Solution.
(p
If
<~
= 2a 2 cos2cp between
and any point with a
0<(p<~,
p
= 8a.
then cos2q)>0. Therefore
= a j/*2 cos 2cp;
pjp
V2
sin 2(p
j^cos
s in
t
2cp \
cos2(p 7
2cp
/"2
]^ C os2(p
Hence,
V 2sin
1
The
It
can
latter
be
integral
is
reduced to a
did of special tables.
cp
called the elliptic integral of the first kind.

form convenient for computing with the
Arc Length
7.9.
7.9.5.
Find the arc length
7.9.6.
Compute
p = asec ^q)
y^
Solution.
K*P
p^
between
is
on the interval
^(p
and
= asec^q) y^
+ p; = sec((p-y)
cp
=y
tan
=a
sec 2 ^ q)
j*
2
2
]/ l+tan ((p-f )=asec ((p-f
function sec(q)
in the
-^-j
omitted,
is
this function
[o.f
V3
4
^
dq)
length
the
of
a.
closed
p = asin y.
4
Solution. Since
the function p
r
even, the given curve
is
= asin
a period 4jx,
symmetrical about
the polar axis. Since the function sin 4
Fig. 99
has
during half the period from
increases from
its
line
p=asln
Find the
7.9.7.
curve
of
of the straight
positive.)
is
(p
segment
the
of
353
= asin y.
curve p
of the
length
the
(The sign of the modulus

since
a Curve in Polar Coordinates
of
and
to a,
symmetry
(Fig.
to
will describe half
2n the polar radius

the
curve
by virtue
- a sin
99).
Further, p^--=asin 3 (q)/4)cos(q)/4) and
Kp + P^ = Va? sin
2
if
(cp/4)
+a
sin 6 (cp/4) cos 2 (cp/4)
(cp/4),
0<(p<2jT.
Hence,
'271
= 2a
JT/2
sin
(cp/4) d(p
= 8a
7.9.8.
and p
3
j sin /d/
= ya
((p
= 4f).
Find the length
of the
curve
(p
= y(p+l/p)
between
= 4.
Solution.
d/
The
differential of the arc dl
= Kp + p; dq) = Kp
a
d(p
+ dp =
is
equal to
2
|/
(-^) ^ 1*.
p=2
354
From
the equation of the curve
we
find
^=y
^2")
Hence,
4( -^) + ldP=j
1
V|(p -2+^ +
2
Find the length
7.9.9.
3
=t
^=y
and
7.9.11.
Compute the
7.10.
t0
p(p=l between
spiral
the length of the closed curve p

arc
= 2a(sinq) + cos(p).
curve
length of the
1+ c 0S(p
rom
^^y-
Area of Surface of Revolution
The area
the arc
hyperbolic
Compute
the
7.9.10.
<Pi
of
4)dp
= 3 + ^.
^
;-.(/Kf*=i(f+'"'
<Pi
of the surface generated
of
the
curve
by revolving about
= y(x) (a^x^b)
is
the x-axis
expressed by the
integral
b
P = 2n\y
VT+V dx.
2
It
is
more convenient
where
to write this integral in the form
P = 2n
^
L
ydl
the differential of the arc length.

coordinates,
is represented parametrically or in polar
then it is sufficient to change the variable in the above formula,
expressing appropriately the differential of the arc length (see 7.8
If
and
dl
is
a curve
7.9).
7.10.1. Find
the
2
_2_
area
of
the
surface
formed
by revolving the
_2_
3
a 3 about the #-axis.
astroid x 3
y
Solution. Differentiating the equation of the astroid
fx
+4*/
whence
y'=- y-
y'
= 0,
we
get
7.10. Area of Surface of Revolution
Vl+y'* =
Then,
Since
3
X"
the
355
astroid
is
sym-
\x\
metrical about the (/-axis, in computing the area of the surface we

may first assume
and then double the result. In other words,
the desired area P is equal to
x^0
P = 2x2n
Make
yV\ +
y' 2
dx = 4n
a3
the substitution
a3
x =t\
3
4" x
a3
dx = 2tdt,
a
y_
Then
P=\2na
l/3
fl
12
t*dt=^n<&
J
o
7.10.2. Find the area of the surface generated

the x-axis a closed contour
formed
2
A;
and x y 2 (Fig. 100).
by the curves #
Solution. It is easy to check that the 1
given parabolas intersect at the points
The sought-for area
1).
(0, 0) and B (1,
P P 1 P 2 where the area P x is formed
by revolving the arc OCB and P 2 by revolving the arc OAB.
Compute the area P v From the equation
by revolving about
OABCO
x = y2
we
get
= V*
and
#'
= ^y=f.
Fig.
Hence,
i
P = 2nV~x }/~
1
4
+ dx = 2n [ ^ *+
^=
4(4* +
Now compute
100
the area
P 2 We
.
P 2 = 2n
have
x2
y~x
Vl + Ax
!)"
y'
,
dx.
= 2x
|(5K5-1).
and
356
The substitution # = ysinh, dx = ~ cosh

Arsinh
P^JI
dt gives
sinh 2 /cosh 2 /d/
= ^^sinh4^
Arsinh
= 9-TL -3> ln
Thus,
p=p 1+ p =
(5
1^5-0^
+ ^).
+ _qgL _^ Jtln(2+|/-5 ^
)
Compute
7.10.3.
by revolving:
the area of the surface generated

2
the portion of the curve y
(a)
= 3
(b)
line
about the
cut off by the
straight
line
(/-axis;
the portion of the curve

about the x-axis.
x=2
X
= -^,
= 4 + x,
cut
by
off
the straight
Find the surface area
7.10.4.
of the ellipsoid
(a>b).
the ellipse -^--j--p-=l about the #-axis

Solution. Solving
for
0, we get
the
equation of
formed by revolving
the
ellipse
with respect to y
y^
b
Va* x 2
'
Hence
-a
where the quantity

ellipse.
When
+a
~b
e= j/ a
=~
is
the
eccentricity
of
the
the eccentricity e tends to zero and

t
arc sin e
lim
e - o
I,
since the ellipse turns into a circle, in the limit

area of the sphere:
P = 4jia
a
.
we
get the surface
7 JO. Area
of
357
Surface of Revolution
7.10.5. Compute the area of the surface

the ellipse 4x2Jry 2
4 about the (/-axis.
by
obtained
revolving
7.10.6.
An
arc of the catenary
= ~{e a +e" a ) = a cosh
whose end-points have abscissas
and
x, respectively, revolves
about
the x-axis.
Show
P and
that the surface area
the volume
generated are related by the formula

Solution. Since y'
hence,
= sinh
we have V\
of the solid
thus
2V
P=
+ y' = cosh
2
Therefore
7.10.7. Find the area of the surface obtained by revolving a loop
= y(3a y)
curve 9ax 2
about the (/-axis.

described by a moving point as y changes
to 3a. Differentiate with respect to y both sides of the
from
equation of the curve:
of the
The loop
Solution.
whence
is
= (3a y)
a
^ ~y a~y
8axx'
xx'
2y(3ay) = 3(3a y)(a y)

Using the formula
for
computing the
area of the surface of a solid of revolution about the (/-axis,
P = 2n j xV~l+x' 2 dy=2n j
Vx + (xx')
2
dy =
3a
3a
y )dy = 3na
2
7.10.8.
Compute
the curve 8y 2
7.10.9.
=x
we have
2
.
area of the surface generated by revolving

x* about the x-axis.
the
Compute the
area
of
generated
surface
about the x-axis an arc of the curve x
2
\
y=-^(t
by revolving
3)
the points of intersection of the curve and the x-axis.
between
358
Solution. Putting y
= 0,
and
= K3,
and, hence,
the curve intersects
with the x-axis at two points: (0, 0) and (3, 0). When the parameter t changes sign, the sign of the function (x)t remains unchanged, and the function y (t) changes
y,
its sign, which means that the curve
1
is
symmetrical
about the #-axis
m
^=
and
jc
= 3.
2>3
find
Whence
(Fig.
find the area of the surface
it
to confine
ourselves to
the lower portion of the curve OnB
that corresponds to the variation
the parameter between
of
and
sufficient
is
Fig.
+ 1^3.
101
Differentiating with respect
we find
y = t*-l
to
-.2t;
and the
2t3
that
101).
To
X
-1
follows
it
ty
linear element
dl
= Vx? + y? dt
(l
)dt.
Hence,
P = 2n\\y(t)\Vx' 2 + y'
t
dt
VT
vT
= 2n$
(t*3)(l
j
i"
+ )dt = ^-n
\
L "
I 1
(t*
2t* 3t)dt=3n.
7.10.10. Compute the surface area of the torus generated by revolving the circle x 2
(y b) 2 r 2 (0 r b) about the *-axis.
Solution. Let us represent the equation of the circle in parametric
form: x
rzost\ y = b
rs'mt.
Hence
x't
The
< <
desired area
= r sin
t\
y't=r cos
t.
is
2JT
P-2jiJ
(b
+ r sin
t)
)/*(
r sin
tf
+ (r cos tf dt =
= 2nr\
7.10.11.
Compute
he
are a
of
the
(b
+ r sin
surface formed
t)
dt
= 4n
br.
by revolving
the lemniscate p
a}/cos2q) about the polar axis.
Solution. Real values for p are obtained for cos2(p>0,
X^^^T^^
3
-j-ft^
ty^-j n
ri ght-hand
branch
of
the
(the left-hand branch of the
lemniscate),
lemniscate).
i.
e.
or
for
for
7.10. Area of Surface
The
d/
linear
element
359
Revolution
of
of the lemniscate
is
equal to
^l
= Kp + p^dcp= if a cos2y+( a
Y dip =,"|Acos2(p/
cos
|^cos2(p
2
'
2(p
psincp=asin(p}/cos2q).
Besides, #
The sought-for surface area P is equal to double the area of the
surface generated
by revolving the right-hand branch. Therefore

4
P = 2 x 2n
= 4o
f y dl
^^^P^ =
2a (2
- j/2
).
cos 2cp
7.10.12. Compute the area of the surface formed by revolving

2
2
2
about the straight line x
y = a the quarter of the circle x
y =a
between A (a, 0) and B (0, a).
(x, y),
from the moving point
Solution. Find the distance
2
2
a:
to
straight
x
a
the
line
lying on the circle x 2
y
y
MN =
since
the
for
MN
+ =
+ =
\x+ ya 2 x 2 a\
:+ Va? x* c
V2
V2
points
the
of
circle
that
lie
in
the
first
quadrant
x-\-yâ. Further,
dl
= yi + y'2 dx= if + (
i
Ydx=-^=
Hence,
P=
'
2n
x+ Va* x
2 -
a dx
V^ x
V~2
V2na [- V'c
7.10.13.
the surface
Compute
formed
x2
+ x aarcsin-
= (*-*)
the
area of
revolving
lemniscate p
by
=
one branch of the
r cos2q> about the straight line
=a\
_
it
From the triangle OMN

we find the distance MN
Solution.
(Fig. 102)
of
an
arbitrary
axis of revolution
point
q)
=x
MN = p sin
of
the
Fig.
right-hand
102
branch
(p^
=a|/cos2cpsin
qp^
from
the
360
then
j1
dl
a dw
r
V cos 2cp
Jl/4
P = 2n j aKcos2q5
Therefore
sin
q>)
y=?= = 2na
2
.
-Jt/4
Compute
7.10.14.
area
the
of
formed by revolving
surface
the
about the x-ax\s the arc of the curve #
= xy
between x
=2
and
= 2.
Compute the
7.10.15.
one half-wave
of the
area of the surface generated by revolving

s\nx about the x-axis.
curve y
Compute
the area of the surface generated by revolving

4ay between the points
the arc of the parabola x 2
3a.
of intersection of the curve and the straight line y
7.10.16.
about the
(/-axis
7.10.17. Find the area cf the surface formed by revolving about

e'sin/; y^^cost between
the ;t-axis the arc of the curve x
*=0
and
*=y
Compute
7.10.18.
the area
of the
surface obtained by revolving
the points of
its
the arc of
the curve x
= -^-\
t
about the #-axis
=4
^
t
between
intersection with the axes of coordinates.
7.10.19. Compute the area of the surface generated by revolving

2asinq) about the polar axis.
the curve p
Compute
7.10.20.
the
area
of
the surface
formed
by revolving
about the x-axis the cardioid
x
y
= a (2 cos cos 2t),

= a(2s'mt sin 2t).
7.11.
Geometrical Applications of the Definite Integral
7.11.1. Given: the cycloid (Fig.
x = a{t sin
t)\
103)
yâ(l cos/);
0< ^ 2n.
/
Compute:
(a) the areas of the surfaces formed by revolving the arc OBA
about the x- and (/-axes;
(b) the volumes of the solids generated by revolving the figure OB AO
about the */-axis and the axis BC\
(c) the area
of the surface generated by revolving the arc BA
about the axis BC\
volume
(d) the
ODBEABO
the solid generated by revolving the figure

touching the figure at the
tangent line
of
DE
about the
vertex B\
(e) the area of the surface formed by
revolving the arc of the cycloid [see
item
361
Integral
7.11. Geometrical Applic's of the Definite
jj
(d)J.
Solution, (a) When

the jc-axis the arc
face of area
revolving about
generates a sur-
OBA
c
103
Fig.
231
P x = 2n
dl
= 2n j
( 1
cos
t)
y dt =
2a sin
8a
When
revolving about
'ji
sin 3
OB A
(/-axis the arc
the
64jta 3
y dt
generates a sur-
face of area
TT
Py = 2n
xdl
+ 4to
= 4na
(t
sin
t)
sin
y dt +
sin0sinyd/ = 4jia
sin
(/
siny dt
16jt 2
2
.
Jl
(b)
When
revolving about
the y-axis the
figure
OBAO
generates
volume
a solid of
oo
2a
Vy
= n^
2a
(x\
x\)dy = n
where x = x 1
2a
jc|
rf^
Jt
x2
dj/,
x2 (y) is
(y) is the equation of the curve BA, and x
the equation of the curve OB.
Making the substitution y a(l
cos/), take into consideration
that for the first integral t varies between 2k and ji, and for the
and n. Consequently,
second integral between
TT
Vy = n
Jt
a2
(t
sin
t)
asm tdt n
a2
sin
t)
sin tdt
(t
asm tdt =
2jt
= na
(/
sin
t)
2n
-
= jia
J
_2t
For computing
the figure
OBAO
sin/d/
t{\ cos2t)dt+
2jt
the
volume
3
$ sin /d/
=6ji 3 a 3
2ji
of
about the axis
the
BC
it
solid obtained
is
convenient
by revolving
first
to trans-
362
the origin into the point C, which

tions in the new system of coordinates
fer
= a(t n sin
x'
y'
t)\
yields the following equa-
= a(l cos/).
Taking into account only the arc BA, we get

2a
V=n
jt,
x'
dy' = na
^ (t
sin
ji
t)
\ (z
+ sin z)
sin
sin z dz
dt.
2ji
Putting
n =
we obtain
z>
JT
V = na
\(z
+ sin z)
na
zdz
sin
=^
(c)
Making
we
the above-indicated shift of the origin,
= 2a sin y
dl
dt
(9jx*
16).
get
= 2a sin y dt.
Therefore
2a
P= ^2nxdl = 4na
2 j*
sin/) sin y dt =
(/
jt
2n
ji
= 4na
(z+
sin z) cos
J*
y dz = 4 (^2n
(d) Transferring the origin into

direction of the r/-axis, we get
x'
Putting
n =
= a(t
changing from
sin
/),
B and
point
=a (1 +cos
changing the
/).
we have
z,
x'
ji
the
= a (z + sin 2),
ji
to
ji
for
y'
=a
the arc
( 1
cos
OB A.
2),
Hence
ji
V=n
a3
{l cos z) 2 (\
+ cos z) dz = ri a
l
3
.
-ji
ji
ji
(e)
P = 2n
J
-jt
ydl
= 4na
j (1 cosz)cosyd2
=y
jta
2
.
-ji
the volume of the solid bounded by the surfaces

and x2 + y 2 = 2x.
Solution. The first surface is a parabolic cylinder with generata:) in the
rices parallel to the r/-axis and the directrix z 2 = 8(2
plane xOz, and the second is a circular cylinder with generatrices
7.11.2. Find
Z2
= 8(2 x)
7.11. Geometrical Applies

parallel to the z-axis
and the
directrix
+ y = 2x
2
x2
363
Integral
of the Definite
in the plane xOy.

2
The volume V
computed by the formula V
is
=^
S(x)dx. S(x)
re-
presents the area of a triangle whose base

tude to 2z\
S(x)
= 2yx2z = 4 V2xx
is
equal to 2y and
alti-
1/8(2*).
Hence,
2
V=
Vx
x) 8
(2
2
(
x)
dx = 4
\/"8
$ (2
*) Vx
= 4/8 (|2 J/*
dx
=
256
--?-!/**)
:
'
15
7.11.3. Prove that if the figure S is bounded by a simple convex contour and is situated between the ordinates y x and y 2 (Fig. 104),
then the volume of the solid ge.y
nerated
by revolving this figure
about the #-axis can be expressed
by the formula
t
b/
y*
V = 2n
&
^
yh dy
yt
where
h=x
x
=x
left
{y)x
(y) 9
being the equation of the

1 (y)
portion of the contour and
Si
x = x2
(y) that of the right portion.

Solution. Let the generating figure S be bounded by
a simple
Fig.
104
convex contour and contained between the ordinates y t and y 2

Subdivide the interval [y ly y 2 ] into parts and pass through the
.
points of division straight lines parallel to the axis of revolution,

thus cutting the figure 5 into horizontal strips. Single out one
strip and replace it by the rectangle ABCD, whose lower base is
equal to the chord
h specified by the ordinate y its altitude
AB being equal to Ay. The solid generated by revolving the rectangle
about the #-axis is a hollow cylinder whose volume may
be approximately taken for the element of volume
AD =
ABCD
AV
n (y + Ay) h ny h = 2nyAyh + nh (Ay)

2
2
.
Rejecting the infinitesimal of the second order with respect to Ay,

we get the principal part or the differential of volume
dV
Knowing
= 2n yh dy.
the differential of the
volume, we get the volume proper
364
through integration:
= 2n
Thus, we obtain one more
yhdy.
formula
computing the volume
for
of
the solid of revolution.
2x 2 -\-3,
7.11.4. The planar region bounded by the parabola y
revolves about the
and
the *-axis and the verticals
(/-axis. Compute the volume of the solid of revolution thus generated.
Solution. Divide the area of the figure into elementary strips by
straight lines parallel to the (/-axis. The volume AV of the elemen-
x=0
x=\
tary cylinder generated by revolving one strip
AV = n (x+ Ax)
where Ax
is
is
nx y = 2n xy Ax + ny (Ax)
2
2
y
the width of the strip.
Neglecting the infinitesimal of the second order with respect to Ax,
we
volume
get the differential of the desired
dV = 2n xydx.
Hence
i
V=
2n xydx
= 2n
+ 3) dx = 4n.
x (2x2
7.11.5.
Compute the area
portion of
of the
x2
-f-
=t
ax
the cylinder surface

situated inside the
sphere
x2
+ y + z =a
2
2
.
Solution. The generatrices of the

cylinder are parallel to the 2-axis,
the
serving
^
a
circle
shows
as
a
jY+y
^
directrix
quarter
=^
105
the sought(Fig.
for surface).
Subdivide the
circle
shown
in
portion of the
Fig. 105 into
small arcs AL The generatrices

passing through the points of division cut the cylinder surface
y
Fig.
of
105
into
higher order are neglected,
strips.
the area of the strip
If
infinitesimals
ABCD
of
is
equal to
point
D, then
CD- AL
If
and cp
and
= acoscp
the
are
CD
]/
a2
polar
coordinates
p = asinq),
2
and
of
A/
the
= a.A(p,
whence we
7.11. Geometrical Applies

find the
element
of the Definite
365
Integral
of area:
dP
=a
sin cpdcp.
Hence,
P=4
a 2 sin
cp
dcp ==
4a 2
7.11.6. Find the area of the surface cut off from a right circular
cylinder by a plane passing through the diameter of the base and
inclined at an angle of 45 to
the base.
Solution. Let the cylinder axis
be the e-axis, and the given diaC/
meter the x-axis. Then the equation of the cylindrical surface
q
2
2
will be x
y =a\ and that of
the plane forming an angle of 45
with the coordinate

will be y = z.
The area
row
strip
the
of
ABCD
xOy
plane
y^^^?^
infinitely nar-
Fig.
(see Fig. 106) will
106
be dP
zdl (accurate to infinitesimals of a higher order), where dl is the
tary arc of the circumference of the base.
Introducing polar coordinates, we get
z
Hence dP
=a
= y = a sin
s\nq)dq)
dl
(p;
the
length of
elemen-
= a dqp.
and
jt
P = a2
7.11.7.
The axes
of
sect at right angles.
ting the part
sin
qp
=a
dy
2
[
cos
cp]*
= 2a
2
.
two circular cylinders with equal bases
inter-
Compute the
common
surface area of the solid constituto both cylinders.
Compute the volume of the solid generated by revolving

the y-axis the figure bounded by the parabola x 2
1, the
axis of abscissas and the straight lines
and x=l.
7.11.8.
= y
about
x~0
7.11.9. Find
the area
Ax 2 + 2Bxy+Cy 2
l(8
of the
= AC
>
ellipse
0;
given
C> 0).
by
Solution. Solving the equation with respect to y,
_ Bx VCdx
where the values
of
1
.
we
_ Bx+ VC bx*
x must satisfy the inequality
C 6jk 2 >0.
the
get
equation
366
we obtain
Consequently, the sought-for area
/?
the limits of integration:
is
equal to
Vt
C_
7.11.10. Find the areas of the figures bounded by the curves represented parametrically:
(a)
x=2t t
= 2t
3
;
7.11.11. Find the areas of the figures bounded by the curves given
in polar coordinates:
(a)
= asin3(p
(b) p
(c)
cos
(a
three-leaved rose);
cp
= 3sinq)
and
= K3cosq).
IP riirvp
7.11.12. Find the arc length of the
curve
by the straight line x =

7.11.13. Find the length
(0,
7.11.14.
Al,
2
0);
Compute
= 4^ (2 x)
cut off
1.
of the arc
OA
of
the curve
where
/y 2
.In-i
a In
tained inside the parabola
= 2 (x l)
con-
= -^.
7.11.15. Prove that the length of the ellipse
x
is
= V^2sin/;
= cost
= s\nx.
parabola y = ^ x2
equal to the wavelength of the sinusoid

7.11.16. Prove
that
the arc of the
correspon-
O^xâ
has the same length as the arc of

ding to the interval
Pcp corresponding to the interval
the spiral p
O^pâ.
7.11.17. Find the ratio of the
curve
of
y=
which
is
-o-
* Wx
area
enclosed
by the loop
of the
to the area of a circle the circumference
equal to the length
of
the contour of this curve.
7.12. Computing Physical Quantities
7.11.18. Find the volume of the segment cut
paraboloid
cal
7.11.19.
boloid
an
ellipse
of the solid
and the planes

r
7.11.20. Find the

is
volume
the
^t + ^t 4-=
off
from the
ellipti-
by the plane x = a.
^+^ =x
Compute
367
volume
bounded by the hyper-
=c
and
cone whose base
of the right elliptical
with semi-axes a and
its
fr,
= />c.
altitude being equal to h.
7.11.21. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving

x+l;
about the x-axis the figure bounded by the straight lines y
2x+l and x 2.
y
Find
7.11.22.
volume
the
generated
of the solid
about the #-axis the figure bounded by the
2ay
the straight line
7.11.23. Find the
curve
= acos
q)
bx =
and the axis
volume
of the solid
by revolving
hyperbola
of
1,
abscissas.
generated by revolving the
about the polar axis.
7.11.24. Find the areas of the surfaces generated by revolving the

following curves:
(a)
= tan x ^0<jc<^-^
about the #-axis;
= x \f -^-(O^xO)
about
x + y 2rx =
y
(b)
(c)
about
the #-axis;
and
the x-axis between
h.
7.12. Computing Pressure, Work and Other Physical

Quantities by the Definite Integrals
I.
To compute
law,
which
an area
at
states
a
the
force
the
that
depth
specific
weight of the liquid.
II.
a variable force
this force
If
force
of
immersion h
of
X = f(x)
then the work of

by the integral
pressure
pressure
liquid
of
is
P = yhS
we
use
Pascal's
of a liquid
y
where y
P
is
on
the
acts in the direction of the *-axis,

interval [x lt x 2 ] is expressed
over an
x2
A=
III.
city v
The kinetic energy

is
defined as
^f(x) dx.
of a material
point of mass
and velo-
368
IV.
repulse each
charges
Electric
where e x and e 2 are the values

between them.
other
with a
force
the charges, and r
of
is
the distance
Note. When solving practical problems we assume that all the

data are expressed in one and the same system of units and omit
the dimensions of the corresponding quantities.
Compute
the force of pressure experienced by a vertical

and altitude h submerged base downwards in
water so that its vertex touches the surface of the water.
Solution. Introduce a system of coordinates as indicated in Fig. 107
and consider a horizontal strip of thickness dx located at an arbitrary depth x.
Assuming this strip to be a rectangle, find the differential of area
dx. From the similarity of the triangles
and ABC
dS
7.12.1.
triangle with base b
= MN
we have
BMN
= 4-,
-^
b
h
whence
MN = ^-h
and dS = ^dx>
h
Fig.
Fig.
107
108
The force of pressure experienced by this strip is equal to dP xdS

accurate to infinitesimals of higher order (taking into consideration
that the specific weight of water is unity). Consequently, the entire
force of water pressure experienced by the triangle is equal to
h
xdS = -^
P =
x*dx = -jbh*.
J
n
7.12.2. Find the force of pressure experienced by a semicircle of

radius R submerged vertically in a liquid so that its diameter is
flush with the liquid surface (the specific weight of the liquid is y).
dam
has the form of a trapezoid whose upper

lower one 50 m, and the altitude 20 m.
Find the force of water pressure experienced by the dam (Fig. 108).
Solution. The differential (dS) of area of the hatched figure is
MNdx. Taking into consideration the
approximately equal to dS
7.12.3.
base
is
70
vertical
long,
the
OML and OAE, we

MN = 20 x + 50 = 70 x.
similarity of the triangles
whence
ML = 20
xdx=(70 x)dx
and the
equal to
~=
find
x
;
2Q
MNx
Thus, dS =
water pressure
differential of the force of
is
dP = xdS = x (70 x) dx.
Integrating with respect to x from
P=
(70x
\
to 20,
x )dx=
work
7.12.4. Calculate the

of a
369
11
performed
we
get
333-
in
pumping
the water
out
semispherical boiler of radius R.
A rectangular vessel is filled with equal volumes of water

water is twice as heavy as oil. Show that the force of pressure of the mixture on the wall will
I
reduce by one fifth if the water is
replaced by oil.
Solution. Let h be the depth of
h_
the vessel and / the length of the
2
wall. Let us introduce a system of
7.12.5.
and
oil;
coordinates as shown in Fig. 109.

Since the oil is situated above the
water and occupies the upper half of
the vessel, the force of the oil pressure experienced by the upper half
of the wall is equal to
a
Fig.
1(
jl
2
The pressure
oil
column
h
,
at a
depth
A
2
of height
>y
and that
is
of
made up
the
of the pressure of the
water
column
of
height
and therefore
dP.=
h
2
Xy+U-
Consequently, the force

the wall is
of
of
ldx=[ x
~)idx.
pressure of the mixture on the lower half
370
The entire pressure
of the Definite Integral
mixture on the wall
of the
PP 4P
r-^
- 4+ fi
+i6 - m
lh 2
i6
If the vessel were filled only with

the same wall would be
oil,
is
equal to
'
the force of pressure
on
IK1
=4.f xl dx = -r
Hence,
= i-P.
P P = l:lh*
16
5
7.12.6. The electric charge E concentrated at the origin of coordinates repulses the charge e from the point (a, 0) to the point (ft, 0).
Find the work A of the repulsive force F.
Solution. The differential of the work of the force over displaceeE
ment dx
is
=F dx = -^-dx.
dA
Hence
As
b*
oo
work A tends
the
eE
to
7.12.7. Calculate the work performed in launching a rocket of

P from the ground vertically upwards to a height h.
Solution. Let us denote the force of attraction of the rocket by
the Earth by F, the mass of the rocket by
Ri and the mass of
weight
by
the Earth
mE
According to Newton's law
=k
X'
where x
Earth.
is
the distance
between
km Rm E =K>
Putting
S et
being the radius of the Earth. At
the weight of the rocket P,
and F
(x)
i.e.
and the centre
the rocket
we
F x
(
x=R
F(R)
= -^>
the force
= P = -^2y
Thus, the differential of the work
dA = F(x) dx
is
= ^-dx.
of the
+
F (R)
whence
will be
K = PR*
371
we obtain
Integrating,
R+h
R+fi
PRh
The
limit lim
h
(h)
lim
h
> <n
PR
is
equal to the work performed
l~
by the rocket engine to achieve complete escape of the rocket from

the Earth's gravity field (the Earth's motion is neglected).
7.12.8. Calculate the work that has to be done to stop an iron
sphere of radius R rotating about its diameter with an angular velocity
(0.
The amount of required work is equal to the kinetic

the sphere. To calculate this energy divide the sphere
into concentric hollow cylinders of thickness dx; the velocity of the
points of such a cylinder of radius x is cox.
Solution.
energy
of
volume of such a cylinder is dV = 4nx]^R 2

x2 dx
the element of mass dM = ydV, where y is the density of iron, and
2
the differential of kinetic energy dK = 2nya) 2 x 3
x2 dx.
The element
of
VR
Hence,
R
K = 2nya
3
jx
VR x
2
AnyR*
dx =
co /?
Mco 2 /? 2
7.12.9. Calculate the kinetic energy of a disk of mass

and radius R rotating with an angular velocity co about an axis passing,
through its centre perpendicular to its plane.
7.12.10. Find the amount of heat released by an alternating

nusoidal current
I
2ji
si-
/ sin
T in a conductor with resistance R.

Solution. For direct current the amount of heat released during
a unit time is determined by the Joule-Lenz law
during a cycle
= 0.24 I
alternating current the

0.24 a (t)Rdt, whence
For
dQ
R.
differential
of
amount
of
heat
is
Q=0.24/? [l*dt.
In
this case
Q -0.24 RIl j
sin 2
{^t ^dt^
2jc
v
-0.12 RI
T_
'
2ji
0.12/? 77*.
372
Find
7.12.11.
vertical
the pressure of a liquid of specific weight d on a
with axes 2a and 2b whose centre
ellipse
is
submerged
in
h(h^b).
the liquid to a level
7.12.12. Find the pressure of a liquid of specific weight d on the

wall of a circular cylinder of base radius r and altitude h if the
cylinder is full of liquid.
7.12.13.
gravity in
the work performed to overcome the force of

the water out of a conical vessel with the vertex
the radius of the cone base is R and its altitude is H.
Calculate
pumping
downwards;
7.12.14.
if
Compute
the
work required
one kilogram
force of
is
to stretch a spring
required to stretch
it
by
by 6 cm,
cm.
7 J 3. Computing Static Moments and Moments of

Inertia. Determining Coordinates of the
Centre of Gravity
In all problems of this paragraph we will assume that the mass
distributed uniformly in a body (linear, two- and three-dimensional)
and that its density is equal to unity.
about
1. For
a plane curve L the static moments
x and
y
the x- and (/-axis are expressed by the formulas
is
M x = J y dl, M y = J x dl.
L
The moment
of
inertia
about the origin
/o=S(^ +
of coordinates
)d/.
L
If
the curve
given by the explicit equation y
is
= y(x) (a^x^b)
then dl has to be replaced by Vl+y' 2 dx in the above formulas.

x(t),
the curve L is given by the parametric equations x
If
y = y(t)(ti<:
U)> then dl should be replaced by
Vx' 2 + y' 2 dt
these formulas.
2. For the plane figure bounded by the curves y
y1
b
a, x
y 1 (x)^y 2 (x) and the straight lines x
static moments are expressed by the formulas
M *=\ \
The centre
dinates:
xc
=y
(x),
the
(yl
of gravity of a plane curve has the following coor-
Mv
=~
{x),
(a^x^b)
yl)dx; M y = x(y y )dx.
3.
in
yc
= j-x
where
is
the
length of the curve L.
7.13.
where S
=^Y>
373
Inertia
of
of gravity of a plane figure has the coordinates: x c
The centre
yc
Computing Static Moments and Moments
the area of the
is
7.13.1. Find the static
moment
a*
= -^-,
figure.
of the
upper portion of the ellipse
b*
about the #-axis.

Solution. For the ellipse
ydi
since y 2
=b
^-x
ydl
where
dx
and yy
r
]/
b2
= ~i x
^x + ^x
2
we have
dx
=^Va e x
2
Integrating from
we
to a,
the eccentricity of the ellipse, e
is
dx
find
Mx =
= Vy + (yy'ydx;
Vet 1
*
2
dx =
[ V e
^r
x 2 dx
-a
Z==:
~a{K
In
since
the
8 =
case
~
of a circle,
arc sin e
11.
and urn
e
7.13.2.
e.
i.
Find the moment
ar s n 8
^
~T
at a
= b,
we
=^ ^+
shall
have
arc sln p )
M x = 2a
2
,
of inertia of a rectangle
altitude h about its base.

Solution. Let us consider
out from the rectangle and
with base b and
width dy cut
base and situated at
a distance y from it. The mass of the strip is equal to its area
dS bdy, the distances from all its points to the base being equal
by 2 dy and
to y accurate to dy. Therefore, dl x
an elementary
parallel
to
strip of
the
Ix
by 2 dy
= -^-.
7.13.3. Find the moment of inertia of an arc of the circle x*

lying in the first quadrant about the #-axis.
+y =R
2
7.13.4. Calculate the moment of inertia about the #-axis of the

bounded by the parabola y 2 =--Aax and the straight line x- a.
2
Solution.
have dI x
x' dS, where dS is the area of a vertical
figure
We
strip situated
at
distance x from the y-ax\s (Fig.
dS = 2\y\dx = 2\/4axdx.
110):
Ch. VII
374
Hence,
a
Ix
=J
4x2
Vaxdx = 4V~a ^x T dx = -f a *b
In designing wooden girder bridges we often have to deal

logs flattened on two opposite sides. Figure 111 shows the
cross-section of such a log. Determine the
moment of inertia of this cross-section
about the horizontal centre line.
7.13.5.
with
- -z-^x
*~x
Fig.
110
Arrange the system
Solution.
Fig.
Ill
of coordinates
as
is
shown
in
the
accompanying drawing. Then

dI x
=y
dS = MN dy = 2xdy = 2
dS, where
VR y
2
dy.
Whence
h
lx
= l\
VW^
dy
= \\y
VW^
dy.
-h
Substituting
we
= Rs\nt;
lx
=R cos
dy
^=0;
dt;
= arc sin (h/R),
<;et
=4
Jy
arc sin
2
VR y
2
arc sin
= 4R*
dy
=4
R 2 sin
(h/R)
arc sin
sin 2
(h/R)
cos 2 /d/
=^
cos tR cos
dt
(h/R)
(1 cos4/)df
= ^ arc sin A + A (2h R VR h

2
When
about one of
we obtain
its
diameters:
the
moment
'
of
inertia
of
the
2
.
circle
7.13. Computing Static Moments and Moments
375
of Inertia
7.13.6. Find the moment of inertia about the *-axis of the figure
bounded by two parabolas with dimensions indicated in Fig. 112.
Solution. Arrange the system of coordinates as shown in Fig. 112
and write the equations of the parabolas.
The equation
parabola
of the left
is:
b2 (
y ^Ya[ X +2
the equation
right parabola, # 2
= ^(y
For the hatched

inertia
of
dI x
strip
the
of
moment
the
is
= y*dS = y*\MN\dy,
where
\MN = x
\
y =
f-
Hence,
6/2
/,=
b/ 2
y*(a-%tf)dy = 2
ab*
j>
i,2
-b/2
7.13.7. Find the static moments about the x- and (/-axis of the
arc of the parabola y 2
2x between x
2 (y>0).
and x
Find the
7.13.8.
moments about
static
the axes of coordinates
segment -^--|--|-=1 whose end-points
of the line
lie
on the coordi-
nate axes.
7.13.9.
Find
the curve y
the
= cosx
7.13.10. Find
bounded by the
between x
the
=x
moments
of
the #-axis of the arc of
and x,=-2
moment about
static
lines
7.13.11. Find the
moment about
static
the x-axis of the figure
r
\/
x.
inertia
the triangle bounded by the lines x
about the
x-
and
= 0, y = andy + -|-=
(/-axis of
1
(a>
0,
b>0).
7.13.12. Find the
base
if
equal to h.
its
is
AD
moment
of inertia of the trapezoid
AD = a, BC=b
and the altitude
of
ABCD
about
the trapezoid
7.13.13. Find the centre of gravity of the semicircle x 2 -\-y 2 --=a 2

situated above the x-ax\s.
Solution. Since the arc of the semicircle is symmetrical about the
(/-axis, the centre of gravity of the arc lies on the */-axis, i. e. x c
0.
Ch. VI I. Applications
376
To
find the ordinate y c
7.13.1:
M x 2a
2
;
of the Definite
Integral
take advantage of the result of Problem
therefore y c
Thus,
xc
= 0,
yc
= -.
7.13.14. Find the coordinates of the centre of gravity of the ca-
=y +
= cosh x
Solution. We have
between
tenary y
dl=\/
whence we
*/'
+ sinh
dx= V\
/I (0,
xrfx
and B(a, cosh a).
1)
= cosh xdx
find
^ d/
l
xdx = sinh a.
cosh
Then
a
M y =^xdl=^ x cosh x dx = x sinh x\ J sinh

a
= a sinh a cosh a +
Hence,
a sinh a
(cosh a = a-
cosh a-
1)
sinh a
sinh a
1.
= a tanh--
Analogously,
a
M x = ^ydl=
cosh
x dx =
y
( 1
+ cosh 2*) djc =

I
sinh 2x
sinh 2a
=t[ x +-tsinh 2a
TH
cosh a
4
2 sinh a
sinh a
7.13.15. Find the centre of gravity of the first arc of the cycloid:
2n).
cos /) (0
t
sin /), y
a(1
(t
Solution. The first arc of the cycloid is symmetrical about the
na, therefore the centre of gravity of the arc of
straight line x
na. Since the length
the cycloid lies on this straight line and x c
Sa we have
of the first arc of the cycloid l
=a
< <
2ji
2ji
ye
=-j ydl=--2a J
2
(1 cos t)smdt=-j
sin 3
~2
dt
=Ya
'
7.13.16. Determine the coordinates of the centre of gravity of the

2
portion of the arc of the astroid x

quadrant.
'
+y =a*
3
situated in the
first
of
377
Inertia
7.13.17. Find the Cartesian coordinates of the centre of gravity of

and y
n.
cosq)) between q)
the arc of the cardioid p=a(l
Solution. Let us represent the equation of the cardioid in parametric form:
x
y
= p cos = a + cos
= p sin = a (1 +cos
( 1
q)
q)
(p)
cos
sin
cp)
(p;
(p.
As the parameter qp varies between and ji the running point describes

the upper portion of the curve. Since the length of the entire cardioid equals 8a and
dl
=V
+ (y'^f
9/
d(p
^ d(p
2a cos
Problem
(see
we have
7.9.3),
JT
xc
= \ \y ^ ^Va
+ cos
asin W
2a
cos 4
<P)
^ a cos-|- dcp
y sin
-|-
dcp
= 4- a cos y
4
5
Analogously,
JT
yc=z
Ta \
L
xdl
=^cosq)(l + cos(p) 2acos^d(p =

n
ji
=aj
y=
Putting
we
cos
cp
cos
get (see
yd(p = a
^2cos 6
-|-
cos
dep.
Problem 6.6.9)
_JT_
T
yc
And
so,
= 2a
xc
(2
cos b
cos* t)dt =4ftg^ 2ay =
-^-a.
= y =^.
c
interesting to note that the centre of gravity of the aboveconsidered half of the arc of the cardioid lies on the bisector of
the first coordinate angle, though the arc itself is not symmetrical
It
is
about this bisector.

7.13.18. Find the centre of gravity of the figure bounded by the
2
2
36 and the circle x 2
9 and situated in the
9y
y
ellipse 4a: 2
first
quadrant (Fig. 113).
+ =
378
Solution. Let us
3
moments
calculate the static
first
3
dx
3
=y
x V~9
dx
= 3\
b
3
The area
radius 3
is
x2
dx =5.
quarter of
of
equal to
a circle of
and the area
of a
quarter of an ellipse with semi-axes a
and
b=2
equals
x
Fig.
113
of
the
9jx
figure
3jt
=3
3ji
,
therefore
under
the
area
consideration
is
3ji
Thus,
My
Mx _
20
~S"~
3n'
7.13.19. Find the centre of gravity of the figure bounded by the

_L
parabola
of
_L
_L
+y =a
and the axes
of coordinates.
7.13.20. Find the Cartesian coordinates of the centre of gravity

acos 3 q) (a
the figure enclosed by the curve p
0).
Solution. Since
in all cases, the given curve is traced
pÔ
when
q)
y to y
changes from
ction coscp
it
is
the area
S = 2xy j
By
virtue of evenness of the fun-
symmetrical about the polar axis and passes through
the origin of coordinates at
Compute
>
dy
= y.
the figure obtained:
of
=a
(p
iX3x5
6
2
Jcos (pd(p= a 2x4x6 X
ji
'32
Now arrange the axes of coordinates as

the parametric equations of the curve are
x p cos
(p
y = p sin
(p
= a cos
= a sin
shown
379
of Inertia
in Fig.
Then
114.
cp;
cp
cos 3 (p.
The centre of gravity of the figure lies on the x-axis, i.e. y c

by virtue of symmetry about the #-axis. Finally, determine x c
r*
ji
jt
xy ax
= ~- J
JL_
-y
cos 10
(5/32)jia 2
figure
by
bounded
sect at
The
(p
dtp
= ~-
(cos 10
coordinates
the
(Fig.
straight
12
line
21
ji
~~40
fl
"
115
centre of
2
y=x
d(p
(p)
1x3x5x7x9x11 \
2x4x6x8x10x12;
the
of
cos
gravity of
and
the
the
sinusoid
115).
straight line y
the points (0, 0)
bounded by these
cp
Fig.
the
= sinx (*>0)
Solution.
sin 2
114
7.13.21. Find
*/
(p
/ 1X3X5X7X9
^2x4x6x8x10
8fl 3
:
Fig.
=
\
and
lines
is
5=
^sin
= 2 x
,
jc
and the sine

1^
dx-
The
line y
area
of
= s\nx
inter-
the
figure
380
Hence,
yj( sin2 *-^*

4
d*
)
jt
^x(^sinx
J_
^-x^dx
ji
sin 2x
Xr
4
3jx2-
"6(4
ji)
12
3ji"
Jt
dx
(4-
3(4
ji)
12
ji
7.13.22. Prove the following theorems (Guldin's theorems).

Theorem 1. The area of a surface obtained by revolving an arc
of a plane curve about some axis lying in the plane of the curve and
not intersecting it is equal to the product of the length of the curve
by the circumference of the circle described by the centre of gravity
of the arc of the curve.
Theorem 2. The volume of a solid obtained by revolving a plane
figure about some axis lying in the plane of the figure and not
intersecting it is equal to the product of the area of this -figure by
the circumference of the circle described by the centre of gravity of
the figure.
Proof. (1)
Compare
the
revolution of the curve
formula
L about
for the area of the surface of

the x-axis (see 7.10)
P=2n\ ydl
}
with that
for the ordinate of
the centre of gravity of this curve
MX
f
Ai
y c = -f=T)ydi.
I
Hence we conclude that
P = 2n lyc =
where
l-2ny ct
the length of the revolving arc, and 2ny c is the length

radius y c9 i.e. the length of the circle described by
the centre of gravity when revolving about the x-axis.
/
is
of a circle of
(2)
Compare the formula
by revolving
for
the
volume
of
381
Inertia
of
solid
generated
plane figure about the x-axis (see 7.6)
-yl)
dx
with that for the ordinate of the centre of gravity of this figure
yc
b
x
= -j
Hence we conclude that
V=
ji
2S y c
=S
2 ny c
where S
is the area of the revolving figure, and 2ny c is the length

the circumference described by the centre of gravity when revolving about the x-axis.
of
7.13.23. Using the first Guldin theorem, find the centre of gravity of a semicircle of radius a.
Solution. Arrange the coordinate axes as shown in Fig. 116. By
If the semivirtue of symmetry
0. Now it remains to find y c
^=
circle revolves
about the *-axis, then
the surface P of the solid of revolution is equal to Ana 1

and the
na. Therefore, accorarc length l
ding to the first Guldin theorem,
,
Ana 2
= na
2ny c
yc
2.
-a
7.13.24. Using the second GulFig- 116

din theorem, find the coordinates
of the centre of
gravity of the
figure bounded
by the x-axis and one arc of the cycloid: r
=a (t sin/); y a ( 1 cos t).
Solution. By virtue of the symmetry of the figure about the
straight line x~na its centre of gravity lies on this straight line;
hence, x c
na.
The volume V obtained by revolving this figure about the x-axis
is
equal to 5n 2 a 3 (see Problem 7.6.14), the area S of the figure
being equal to 3na 2 (see Problem 7.4.3). Using the second Guldin
theorem, we get
_5a
5ji 2 a 3
V
~~ ~6
y ~~ 2nS
2jt-3jia 2
'
7.13.25. An equilateral triangle with side a revolves about an

axis parallel to the base and situated at a distance b
a from the base.
Find the volume of the solid of revolution.
>
382
Solution. There are two possible ways of arranging the triangle

with respect to the axis of revolution which are shown in Fig. 117,
a and
b.
The altitude
of
the
equilateral
aV 3
triangle
is
the area
h--
a 2 |/"3
The centre
intersection of the
gravity 0'
of
at a distance
cas.
Fig.
By
of b-
Q ^"3
point of
from the
in the second.
117
the second Guldin theorem
2na 2
V3
aY3_
b+
and
first
at the
a }A3
medians and
axis of revolution in the
situated
is
2na*V~3
a]/"3
a*bV3
2
a*bV3
ji
"*\
4
6
2
V
J
7.13.26. Find the centre of gravity of the arc of a circle of radius
subtending a central angle 2a.
7.13.27. Find
the
centre
the arc of the cosine line y
the straight
line #
of
gravity
= cosx
the
of
between
x=
figure
bounded by
y and x = ^
and
= y.
Find the coordinates of the centre of gravity of the

x4
by line y 2 = ax 3
7.13.29. Find the Cartesian coordinates of the centre of gravity
7.13.28.
figure enclosed
of
the arc
7.13.30.
its
sides.
of
the
logarithmic spiral p
= aev
from
(p,
= y to
(p 2
ji.
A regular hexagon with side a revolves about one of

Find the volume of the solid of revolution thus generated.
7.13.31. Using Guldin's

a semicircle of radius R.
theorem, find
the
centre
of
gravity of
383
Additional Problems
7.14.
7.14.1. Find the area of the portion of the figure bounded by

the curves y m
xn and y n
x m (m and n positive integers) situated
in the first quadrant. Consider the area of the entire figure depending on whether the numbers
and n are even or odd.
7.14.2.
(a)
Prove
that
the area
of the
curvilinear trapezoid
straight lines x
a,
b and parabola
x
=
=
bounded by the x-axis,
= Ax* Bx 2 + Cx + D can be computed using Chebyshev's formula
'
(a-\-b
a\
fa + b\
(b)
Prove that an analogous area
y = f(x)
for a
fa + b
parabola of the
a\~]
fifth
order
= Ax + Bx" + Cx + Dx + Ex + F
3
can be computed using the Gauss formula
S=
^[ ,(-/F?) + 8f(^) +
5
7.14.3. Show that the area of a figure bounded by any

dius vectors of the logarithmic spiral p
ae m and its arc
portional to the difference of the squares of these radii.
'+
two
is
ra-
pro-
7.14.4. Prove that if two solids contained between parallel planes P and Q possess the property that on being cut by any plane
R parallel to these planes equivalent figures are obtained in
their section, then the volumes of these solids are equal (Cavalien's principle).
(O^x^h)
7.14.5. Prove that if the function 5 (x)

expressing
the area of the section of a solid by a plane perpendicular to the
x-axis is a polynomial of a degree not higher than three, then the
volume
of
this
solid
is
equal
toV = ^ S (0) + 4S
^ +S
(h)
deduce formulas for computing the volume of

Using
a sphere, spherical segments of two and one bases, cone, frustrum
of a cone, ellipsoid, and paraboloid of revolution.
this formula,
7.14.6. Prove that the volume of a solid generated by revolving

(/-axis the figure
O^y^y(x), where y(x) is
a single-valued continuous function, is equal to
about the
a^x^b
V=
2ji
xy
(x) dx.
384
7.14.7. Prove that the volume of the solid formed by revolving,

about the polar axis, a figure Oâ^cp^fJ^rc, O^p^p(q)),
is equal to
2ji
V ==
r
l
((p)
sin q)d(p.
the arc length of the curve given by the pa-
7.14.8. Prove that
rametric equations
jc
y
is
equal to
= nOcos/ + nOsin*,
= f"(t)sint + f'(t)cost
[f (t)
+ f (t)]l\.
7.14.9. Find the
length of the curve represented parametri-
arc
cally
cos
^ dz,
= C
z
between the origin and
the
nearest
C sin z
\
dz
point from the
vertical tan-
gent line.
7.14.10. Deduce the formula for the arc length in polar coordinates proceeding from the definition without passing over from
Cartesian coordinates to polar ones.
Prove that the arc length l(x) of the catenary y

measured from the point (0, 1) is expressed by the forand find parametric equations of this line,
(#) =sinh a;
7.14.11.
= cosh x
mula
using the arc length as the parameter.

7.14.12. A flexible thread is suspended at the points A and B
located at one and the same height. The distance between the
points is AB =2fr, the deflection of the thread is /. Assuming the suspended thread to be a parabola, show that the length of the thread
at a sufficiently small
y.
7.14.13. Find the ratio of the
curve y
ference
is
x Vx
to the
area enclosed by the
area
of the circle,
loop of the
whose circum-
equal in length to the contour of the curve.
7.14.14. Compute the length of the arc formed by the intersection

parabolic cylinder
of the
and the
7.14.
cone
elliptic
between the origin and the point

7.14.15. Prove that
Ax
is
385
Additional Problems
M (x,
z).
the area of the ellipse
+ 2Bxy + Cy* + 2Dx + 2Ey + F =
(AC
B > 0)
2
equal to
where A
(ACB-
A B D
B C E
D E F
-=
7.14.16. Find: (a) the area S of the figure bounded by the hyy'1
perbola x 1
U the positive part of the x-axis and the radius
vector connecting the origin of coordinates and the point M(x, y)
lying on this hyperbola.
(b) The area of the circular sector Q bounded by the x-axls and
the radius drawn from the centre to the point
(x, y) lying on
y* 1. Prove that the coordinates of the points
the circle x 2
and N are expressed respectively through the areas S and Q by
the formulas
a;^
=cosh 2S,
7.14.17.
yM
= s'mh2S,
xN
= cos2Q, y N = s')n2Q.
Using Guldin's theorem, prove that the centre of grais one third of the altitude distant from its base.
vity of a triangle
7.14.18. Let be the abscissa of the centre of gravity of a curbounded by the continuous curve y f(x), the
x-axis and the straight lines x--^-a and x b. Prove the validity
of the following equality:
vilinear trapezoid
(ax
\
+ b)
f (x)
dx
- (a% + b)
\ f
(x)dx
(Vereshchagin's rule).
7.14.19. Let a curvilinear sector be bounded by two radius vecand a continuous curve p^/((p). Prove that the coordinates
of the centre of gravity of this sector are expressed by the following formulas:
tors
<p 2
<p 2
cos
(p
dcp
sin
cp
cp
3"
N-'
*P
dcp
Ch. VI /. Applications
386
of the Definite
Integral
7.14.20. Prove that the Cartesian coordinates of the centre of

gravity of an arc of the curve p
/((p) are expressed by the following formulas:
<p 2
pcoscp
|/"p 2
-|-
p"2
sin
^ p
rfqp
2i
;
=JBi-
cp
^~p 2
+ p'
cfcp
Chapter
8
IMPROPER INTEGRALS
8.1.
Let the function
be defined for
f (x)
all
xâ
and integrable on
any interval
Then
A],
[a,
integral of the function

+
noted by the symbol
f (x)
lim
in
(x)
\ f
dx
the interval
the improper
called
is
[a,
+00] and
is
de-
00
We
f(x)dx.
similarly define the
integrals
+00
^ f
(x)dx and
GO
(x)dx.
00
Thus,
+
GO
/ (x)
lim
A-> +
dx;
^f(x)dx\
lim
A-*-a> A
-oo
00
(x)
^ f
a
^f(x)dx=
+
f{x)dx=
-oo
lim
\f(x)dx+
A -~ A
lim
fl-*
[f(x)dx.
+ co
and are finite, the appropriate integotherwise, they are called divergent.
Comparison test. Let f (x) and g(x) be defined for all
and
If
(x)
(x) for
integrable on each interval [a, A],
If
the above limits
exist
rals are called convergent;
xâ
Aâ.
0^/
^g
00
f
all
xâ,
then from
convergence of
the
integral
g(x)dx
it
fol-
a
GO
CO
lows that the
integral
^f(x)dx
is
also
convergent, and ^((xjdx^.
388
<
Ch. VIII. Improper Integrals
g (x) dx; from divergence
of the
integral
^f(x)dx
it
follows that
a
OO
the integral
^g(x)dx
also divergent.
is
Special comparison
test.
If
>
infinitesimal of order X
as
as
oo
the function
compared with
-~
f(x)^0
is
an
then the integral
+ X
f(x)dx converges
for
>
and diverges
for
X^l.
Absolute
and conditional convergence.
Let
the
function f(x) be
00
defined for all
xâ.
If
the integral
/ (x)
dx converges, then the
a
00
integral
[f(x)dx
also converges and
is
called absolutely convergent.
In this case
00
CO
\f{x)dx <^\\f(x)\dx.
a
the
If
integral
f(x)dx converges, and
\f(x)\dx diverges, then
the integral
^f(x)dx
is
called conditionally convergent.
The change of the variable in an improper integral is based on

the following theorem.
Theorem. Let the function f (x) be defined and continuous for
xâ. If the function x y(t) defined on the interval
oo and oo), is monoto(a and P may also be improper numbers
has
a continuous derivative q/(/)^0 and limq) (t) = a,
nic,
a</<|3
t->
lim
t
>
cp
(t)
= +
a+O
then
o
oo
J
(
[f {x)dx= \f(y(t))v'
a
(t)dt.
Integration by parts involves no difficulties.

Evaluate the following improper integrals with infinite
limits or prove their divergence taking advantage of their defini8.1.1.
tion.
w]lW-x>
e2
W L+t +
-co
(c)J*sin*d*.
Solution, (a)
8.1.
By
389
definition,
jxln 3 *
e2
In 3
Jx
aI x
e2
2 In 2 *
=
(b)
By
lim
definition,
oo
+ 2x + 5
may
(instead of the point x

any other finite point of the #-axis
be taken as an intermediate limit of integration).
Compute each of the

above equality:
limits
standing
the right
in
side of the
= y arctan T + T
,
Jl
1*
o
,
'i
4- arc tan
ji
=T
arctan -2'
Hence,
+ 2* + 5
X
(c)
By
"
definition,
qo
^xs\nxdx=
o
Putting w
cfo
= sin xdx
lim
lim
+
[xs'mxdx.
00
and integrating by
A
^xsinxdx^
lim
14
a;cosa;|^
parts,
we
get
+ J cosArdA; j==
o
lim
j4 -+
But
the
last
limit
QO
a:
sin atâ; diverges.
does
not
exist.
A cos A + sin
^4).
CO
Consequently,
the
integral
390
8.1.2. Evaluate the following improper

limits on the basis of their definition:
with
integrals
infinite
dx
(O
x+x*
V" (4x
+l) 3
'
QO
dx
dx
(!
(e)
+ *)'
By
Solution, (a)
OD
x dx
x2
6x+10
(f)
definition
A
xdx
j.
>
(x 2
_l_
lim
/4
3)~
GO
1/2
-\I2
\
lim
->
y4
8.1.3.
GO
<4
-3
=
1
1.
Prove that the integrals of the form
e" px dx and
converge for any constant p

8.1.4. Test
>
g^dx
and diverge
for
/?
< 0.
the integral
00
dx
f
J
l+2x 2 + 3x 4
for convergence.
The integrand
Solution.
+ 2x + 3x
2
is
and
positive
j as
a;
oo.
is
an infinitesimal
Since 4
>
1,
of order
A,
=4
as
compared with
the integral converges according to the
special comparison test.

8.1.5. Test the integral
dx
x+sin 2
for convergence.
Solution.
tive for x
The integrand f(x)-
As jc* oo
as
x+sin 2 x
is
continuous
and posi-
1.
the
compared with
integral diverges.
function
;
f(x)
is
an infinitesimal
of order
according to the special comparison
X=l
test
the
8.1.
391
8.1.6. Test the following integrals for convergence:

co
cc
+ cosa:
3+arc
,n
sin
f arc tan x
V
.
j/
8.1.7. Test
the integral
(*+
1)
dx
for convergence.
Solution.
Determine
The integrand
continuous
is
and positive
order of smallness X with respect to
its
for
as
x^\.
oo;
since
1
x+ Vx+\
*2
the
order
+2
^+l
+ 1^ * +
1+2
l/_L.
According to the special comparison
of smallness
00
test
the integral
Hy
*+
diverges.
8.1.8. Test
the integral
GO
dx
r
J
Vx (x-\)(x-2)
for convergence.
Solution. Since the function
f(x)=
is
=~ x
_r_--
an infinitesimal
of order
= y3
with respect to
as
+oo,
according to the special comparison test the integral converges.

for convergence.
392
Solution.
Determine
The integrand
its
and positive
continuous
is
order of smallness with
= -TT
respect
to
x^2.
for
x + oo:
as
v-35
\/2
Since the second multiplier has the limit
have 1
= -^- <
1.
8.1.10. Test
as x
<*),
we
Consequently, the given integral diverges.
the integral
cosx
dx
for convergence.
Solution.
The integrand
'
is
cos- = 2sin 2
f(x)=
'
x^l.
positive and continuous for
Since 2 sin 2
y ~2 = -p-,
1
the given integral converges (by the special comparison
test).

i
"
n>0
dx.
In
for convergence.
Solution. Transform the integrand:
Since the function
f(x)<
is
an
infinitesimal
In other words,
lim
/(*)
as
x>,
According to
the special comparison test the given integral diverges.

8.1.12. Test
the integral
1
for convergence.
4 sin 2x
dx
then
8.1.
The function
Solution.
f(x)
^ sin 2x
numerator. Test the integral
in sign of the
4 sin 2x|
'[/
convergence.
Since
dx
4 sin
for
2a:
<^
5
COnV/erges, the integral

j
f
J
c h an 2es its sign together
TT^"
y x
x 3 -\-
with the change
393
Improper Integrals with Infinite Limiis
and
^-^^-dx
x*+y x
the
integral
converges as well (ac-
cording to the comparison test). Thus, the given integral converges

absolutely.
8.1.13. Prove that the Dirichlet
converges conditionally.
Solution. Let us represent
integral
given integral as the
the
sum
of
two
integrals:
C slnx
= \
dx=
.
The
first
is
dx+ \
C sinx
\
proper integral (since
of
integration by
lim
dx
J
parts to the second integral,
\
method
P sin*
x-> o
Applying the
we have
oo
smx
dx
= m
dx'-
\\
C cos x dx
IL
lim
A
-> co
But the improper integral
-^^dx
Jl
T
converges
71
2
co
and the
integral
P cos*
x*
converges.
absolutely,
since
394
the
Therefore,
^-^~dx
integral
converges.
Reasoning
way
in a similar
easy to prove that the integral
is
it
CO
c sx
dx
also
Now
converges.
prove
us
let
that
the
integral
n
2
J_5!2_LL
dx diverges. Indeed,
J
sin x
sin 2 x
cos 2x
2x
but the integral
PI cos2x
fdx
/I
pcos2x
CO
Jl
31
00
=4
4 - 1 In -1 j
lim In
It
ji
C cos 2x
<te
diverges, since
lim In
f*
A =oo, and
the integral
cos 2x
converges.
JX
T
8.1.14. Prove that the following integrals converge
00
Ot
^ s\n (x
(a)
2
)
dx;
00
cos
Solution, (a) Putting
(a; )
dx;
(b)
= K*,
we
jVin (x 2 )dx
= -^
us represent
2x cos
4
(jc )
dx.
find
00
00
Let
-y^dt.
^
o
the integral on the right side as the
sum
of
two
= 0.
Let
integrals:
V'
The
first
summand
is
proper integral, since
lim -î/- + o V t
8.1. Improper Integrals with Infinite Limits
apply
us
summand
second
the
to
method
the
395
integration by
of
parts, putting
u= jV U
sin
sin
cos
00
_L
= dv,
dt
CQS
dt
converges
integral
last
Jt/2
Jt/2
The
cos
dt.
jt/2
absolutely,
since
COS
^"^yr
f3/2
an ^
QO
the integral
We
converges.
^"^72
can prove analogously that the
Jl
T
QO
integral
cos(x 2 )dx
is
convergent. The integrals considered are cal-
FresneVs integrals. They are used
led
non
(b)
By
explaining the phenome-
in
diffraction,
light
of
x2
substitution
the
this
integral
reduced
is
to
the
QO
integral
2
Jcos(/ )d/. The
integral converges as
latter
has
just
been
proved.
Note. Fresnel's integrals show that an improper integral can conoo. The last
verge even when the integrand does not vanish as x
convergent integral considered in item (b) shows that an improper
integral can converge even if the integrand is not bounded. Indeed,
at
= l/nn
=h \/ tin,
(n
i.e.
=
is
it
1,
2,
integrand
the
...)
attains
values
the
unbounded.
8.1.15. Evaluate the improper integral

QO
?
J
Solution.
x=0
at
Make
dx
(l+* 2 )"'
n natural number.
the substitution x
/=0, x
+ 00
= tan
>
jt
as
quently, by the theorem on changing
t,
where
0^<y.
Then
and
x't^^^Q.
Conse-
variable in an improper
integral
jt
ji
~2~
2
oo
I(TWI xsec2M/= I
On changing
was computed
the
in
variable
we obtain
Problem 6.6.9.
cos2,,
"
2/d/
the proper
integral
which
396
Therefore,
dx
aX
+*
J<
=
>"
n/2
>
>
3)
1.3.5. ..(2/i
2.4.6. ..(2.-2)
^
*>
ji
'T-
L
,
Compute
8.1.16.
the integral
Apply the substitution
Solution.
*=l/f;
dx
If
= j-j-p^d*.
another integral
= (l/t
*2
l+* 4
//y
= 00,
)dt\
00
_? (^
J
added
is
the
to
)^
_?
l// 4
Make
substitution
the
H-O, 00
\/t
dz
(I
lim
2
)/"
-*
left
sides then
we
l/t
)dt
= dz.
Then,
as
Hence,
a
dz
lb
-00
= 0;
dt.
+ 00, z ++ oo.
00
1
= t l/t,
and as
and
right
r2 -f
f2
arc
tan^L-H
V2
CD
..
!=-
2^2
dZ
,4
lim
-+
arc
/
tan
JI
^2
Jl
Jl
8.1.17. Evaluate the following improper integrals:

X
00
2
(a)
l~Y^dx\
8.1.18.
(b)
Compute
e-* x 2m+1
dx.
the integral
accurate to two decimal places.

Solution. Represent the given
integral
in
the form of a
two integrals
x5
1
7v
+ * +l
2
sum
of
8.2.
Improper Integrals
Unbounded Functions
of
397
Compute
the former with the required accuracy, using Simpson's

formula, and estimate the latter. Since for
1
we have
x^
then
0<
/2
= ^x-T*dx = ^N-*'*.
N
N=
At
we
Computation
of the
-= <
L<^ X
get the estimate
0.0031.
integral
by Simpson's formula
step
for a
gives
5^0.2155,
and
for
step
-^-
= 0.5
S
Since the difference between

gives a more accurate value
=0.2079.
values
the
is
= 0.2079
0.0076, the integral I t

of the order
with an error
^L6 - 0.0005.
Consequently, the sought-for
/
integral
with an error not exceeding 0.004,
mal
approximately equal to
or
= 0.21
with
all
true deci-
places.
8.2.
If
Improper Integrals of Unbounded Functions
the function
b
f (x)
is
defined
0<e
if
left
of
the
we put
b-v
(x)dx= lim
(x)dx.
existent and finite, then the improper integral is

is called divergent.
it
the function f (x) is unbounded to the right from
said to be convergent. Otherwise
Analogously,
integrable on any
and unbounded to the
b
\
If
is
& 0.208
the point a, then

b
f (x)
dx=
lim
f(x)dx.
398
Finally,
the function
if
is
unbounded
interior point c of the interval

b
f {x)dx = $
an
the neighbourhood of
then, by definition,
in
6],
fa,
(x)dx
(x) dx.
J f
r
be continuous on the interval [a, b] except

If there exists a function F (x) continuous on [a, b] for which F' (x)
at a finite number
f (x) except
of points, then the Newton-Leibniz formula
Let the function
at a
finite
number
f (x)
of points.
]f(x)dx=F(b) F(a)
a
holds good.
Sometimes the function F
(x)
is
called a generalized ant [derivative
on the interval [a, b}.

For the functions defined and positive on the interval
convergence tests (comparison tests) analogous to the comparison
tests for improper integrals with infinite limits are valid.
Comparison test. Let the functions f (x) and g(x) be defined on
the interval
and integrable on each interval [a, b e],
< e <b a. If ^f(x)^g(x), then from the convergence of the
for the function
f (x)
a^x<b
a^x<b
\^g(x)dx follows the convergence
integral
^f(x)dx,
of the integral
a
h
and
^ f
(x)dx^^
g(x)dx;
from
divergence
the
the
of
integral
^f(x)dx
follows the divergence of the integral
^g(x)dx.
Special comparison test. If the function f(x)^0

and is an
infinitely
large
quantity of the order X as compared with jzr^ as
x>b 0,
then
a^x<b
is
defined
and
the integral
^f(x)dx converges
for
X<
and diverges
for
X^\.
In particular, the integral

b
dx
C
(b
<
xf
1
and diverges for %
1.
converges for X
Absolute and conditional convergence. Let the function f (x) be
defined on the interval a?Cx<b and integrable on each interval
8.2.
[a,
b e];
Improper Integrals
Unbounded Functions
of
from the convergence
then
the
of
integral
399
^\f(x)\dx
a
follows the convergence of
the
^f(x)dx.
integral
a
b
^f(x)dx
In this case the integral
called absolutely convergent.
is
a
b
But
^f(x)dx converges, and the
the integral
if
integral
^\f(x)\dx
a
diverges, then the integral ^ f(x)dx
is
called conditionally convergent.
a
b
Analogous
tests
are
valid for improper integrals
also
^f(x)dx,
a
where f(x)
is
unbounded
to the right
from the point
from the definition, evaluate

improper integrals (or prove their divergence):
Proceeding
8.2.1.
a.
the
following
dx
(a)
l4^T
(b)
I cos,-
3
(c )
f4 x-x>-3
FTT^f
+ ?/* 2
P* 3
dx
The integrand
Solution, (a)
neighbourhood
[1+e,
e]
of the point
since
it
is
jt
/ (x)
l.
=
x y
..
It
is
unbounded
is
in the
\wx
integrable on any interval
Therefore
f^==
xr/\nx
V
\-J*
lim
S-++Q J
1+8
xW\nx
V
lim
8^+0
(b)
The
integrand
of the point *
=y
3
/lH^|
e^+o [i
1
+-ej
|l
lim
!* /ln(l+e)
!(k)
and
3_
'
is
unbounded
integrable on any
in the
interval
neighbourhood
as
400
a continuous function. Therefore

-t
J cos*
dx
lim
e
Jf
^+
cos x
lim
W4 + ^1
tan
In
e-> + o
= Hm
b->
(
\ 1
In tan
+o
Hence, the given integral diverges.

(c)
x=
The integrand is unbounded in the neighbourhood

and x = 3. Therefore, by definition,
V~4x
x'
dx
dx
3 ~~ J
V~4x
dx
x2
of the points
VT?
-a;
2 we can take any other interior point of

{instead of the point x
the interval [1, 3]). Let us now compute each summand separately:
dx
lim
==
2)
lim arc sin
=
3
==
^-^-3
d*
tr
<?
lim
[0
arc sin (e
1)]
3-t
lim
6-.
-7=^==
r \-(x2)*
lim arc sin (x

8-.
2)
'
= ^[3^ sin (l-e)
-0]=f
Hence,
(d)
The
bourhood
interval of
integrand
of
the
f (x)
point
x=l, which
integration. Therefore,
2
is
an interior
by definition,
l
dx
unbounded
is
dx
i
JC
2
|
in the neigh-
point
of the
8.2. Improper Integrals
Evaluate each
separately.
_ Hm
dx
If
< x<2,
then
1,
lim [arc sin
(1
8- +
401
dx
lim arc sin x

8 -*
0^*<
If
-e
dx
summand
Unbounded Functions
of
e) -0] =~1
then
dx
J V^l
^2_!
_+
J
1
lim
j/- x 2
+e
lnU + K*
1)
8-> +
lim [ln(2
->
+ K3) ln(l + e +
+e) 2 -
l)]
= In
'2
j/"3
).
Hence,
= | + ln(2 + |/3).
(e)
sum
Represent the given integral as a
numerator by / x
ing each term of the
of
three items, divid-
3
,
dx
"
3/5
The
first
summand
a proper
is
evaluated by the Newton-
integral
Leibniz formula:
i
17'
lo
17'
The second and third summands are unbounded

point x
= 0.
to the right of the
Therefore,
i
dx
* 4/15
lim
x 11 / 15
_ !^
8-> +
analogously,
f-^L =
ii
tn
JL = m A ^2/6 __5_
~2
1
ii
402
Hence,
i
(f)
of
Represent
integrand
the
625
"187*
= T7 + T- 2 'Y =
dx
f(x)
the
in
form
of
sum
partial fractions;
1
/(*)
TU
Then
P
j
(1 x)(l
_ _
djc
x+2
a:
dx
= - jC
1
+x+x
+ - Jf
,
2
)
+2
c
Since
.
1-8
l-e
dx
lim
lim
I-*
8->
E _
In (1
x)
the given integral diverges. There is no need to compute the second

representing a proper integral.
Note. Evaluation of the improper integrals from Problem 8.2.1
(a to f) can be considerably simplified by using a generalized antiderivative and applying the Newton-Leibniz formula. For instance,
3 3 s
In 2 * is continuous on
in Problem 8.2.1 (a) the function F (x)
-^
summand
the interval
1
[1,
<xîe, and
e]
F'
and differentiate at each point of the

= f (x) on this interval. Therefore
dx
= \\/\tfx
_3
*
8.2.2. Proceeding from the definition, compute

improper integrals (or prove their divergence):
2/JT
('
(a)
interval
(x)
2x dx
(b)
fsinl.;
the
following
403
8.2. Improper Integrals of Unbounded Functions
8.2.3. Evaluate the following improper integrals:

3
-3
Solution, (a) Find the indefinite integral
TCT =
r
The function
J"
(9 arc sin
i-, ^9=^) + C.
= y^9 arc siny xK9 x

f(x) = y==== on the interval
2
(x)
derivative for
a generalized anti-
is
^j
since
3],
3,
it
is
continuous on this interval and F'(x)=f(x) at each point of the

interval (3, 3). Therefore, applying the Newton-Leibniz formula,
we
get
= Tr
-7=
x y 9
9 arc sin
=-r
x-
n.
-3
(b)
Transform the integrand

f
The
(x)=s
\/~*x==
indefinite integral
is
+* =
equal to
]/ |^dx^2arcsin|-l/4^7 + C.
2
j
The function f
(x)
=2 arc sin
-|-
]/~^
is
generalized antideri-
on the interval [0, 2], since it is continuous on

and F'(x)=--f(x) on the interval [0, 2).
Therefore, applying the Newton-Leibniz formula, we get
vative for
this
f (x)
interval
^/2^ dx== ^ 2arcsin ^_
/4ZI72
= + 2.
Jl
j| o
8.2.4. Test
the integral
1
dx
x
/x
-1
for convergence.
Solution. At the point x
the integrand goes to infinity. Both
i^
integrals
3*
f
*/ X
J X v
-\
and
3*
/X
J X y
diverge, since ^
-g-
>
1.
Gorisequent-
404
ly, the given integral diverges. If this were ignored, and the Newton-Leibniz formula formally applied to this integral, we would
obtain the wrong result:
1
dx
1:
And
this
because the integrand
is
8.2.5. Test
positive.
is
improper
following
the
(a)
6.
integrals
convergence:
for
j
\F==dx\
e*
Psin#-{-cos#
^
u\
b)
dx.
Solution,
The integrand
(a)
infinitely
is
cosx = J/2 sin ~ -J^p x

h=l
the integrand has the order
large
as x
as
compared with
as
+ + 0.
Since
(),
~.
According
to the special comparison test the given integral diverges.

(b) Rewrite the integrand in the following way:
r
/(*)=
sin #-|-cos x
5
l/\
This
h
to
to
function
-^r
as
integral
is
compared with y~^,
as
y\~x
as
large
infinitely
+x +x*
x+
the
since
order
its
1,
is
equal
multiplier tends
first
x >0.
Therefore, by the special comparison test, the given

converges.
8.2.6. Test the following improper integrals for convergence:
(a)
e5in
\
,_,
dx;
(b)
T
b
i
cos
(c)
J v/ x
a:
d#
sin
Solution, (a)
The
integrand
interval (0, 2) and is not

oo. Indeed, since
lim f(x)
(x)=
defined
In
n (l 4-
i/x?)
J,;
at
= 0.
is
positive in the
Let
us
show
e smx_i
_ s'mx~ x,
In (1
l/'x*)
as
x-*0,
that
8.2.
lim
Improper Integrals
Unbounded Functions
of
405
we have
v
.
*-+ o
hni
x
At the same time we have shown

that
an
/(a;) is
pared with
infinitely
in
j/16-x4
by
Consequently,
/(x)~y-L=
that
point x
of the
= 2 <
>
=2
0,
i.e.
com-
as
test,
large function
infinitely
the neighbourhood
as x
comparison
special
the
the
of
= oo.
large quantity of order k
given integral converges.

(b) Determine the order
lim .
- o ^/* 2
->
the
f (x)
with respect
to
T
^4^2 x'
this
end transform the expression

r
quantity
order
of
comparison
(c)
obvious
is
it
tt
= y<l
/ (x)
of the point
cos
+
k=-j <
as
CQS x
*2.
= 0.
smx
y sin x
.
a:
the function
jc>
as
f (x)
is
an
According
'
infinitely
large
to the special
the given integral converges.
test
the function
that
The integrand
bourhood
as
A,
1/2 x
y4+x*l/ 2 + x
j/l6-A: 4~
Hence
for f (x):
is
unbounded
Since
cos*
in
the
neigh-
i/*
/ (*) is
compared with
an
infinitely
large quantity of order
and, by the special comparison
test,
the integral converges.

8.2.7.
Investigate
the
following
improper
gence:
ex
(a)
.1
dx
,i
Tct
(b)
'
y u=ji?
j K
fe)
V
x l dx
^
x-sinx
/n
'
r in
J
gtanx_
1
integrals
for conver-
406
8.2.8. Prove that
the integral
f sin
<x<
dx
Vx
converges.
Solution. For
sin
Vx
But
the
C dx
y=
integral
converges,
therefore,
by the comparison
b
i
sin(i/*)
test,
integral
the
^x
conver g eS) an(j
a j sQ
consequently
the given integral converges absolutely.

8.2.9.
Prove the convergence
and evaluate
Solution.
=^
the integral
of
In sin
it.
Integrate by parts, putting u
lnsin xdx=x\ns\n x
lim
sin x
'
as *
at
1= =0; x
n/2
=j
at
t2
= ^.
tan x
/.
is
proper
Then dx =
we
substituting
dx.
2dt;
get:
Jl/4
JT/4
In sin xdA: = 2
On
= dv:
dx
integral
one. Consequently, the initial integral converges.

Now make the substitution x 2t in integral
C
J
ê
i^^ Q'
lim
1,
tan x
= \n(s\nx),
COS X j
dx=
x -
Since
xdx
lnsin2^=2
(In 2
+ In sin + In cos f)df =

JT/4
JT/4
= 2Hn2f +
lnsin/<
lncos/df
JT/4
= yln2 + 2
jt/4
lnsin /df
In cos /d/.
In
the
Improper Integrals
8.2.
make
integral
last
=
dt = dz\
the
JT/4
substitution
t-=n/4
at 2,=ji/2;
Unbounded Functions
of
at
= jx/4.
22
2^
JT/
Then
77/2
2^
tdt
= jt/2 z.
Hence,
JT./4
In cos
407
z^dz = 2
In cos
\n sin zdz.
jt/4
Thus,
JT/4
JT./2
In sin
xdx
= j In 2 + 2
JT./2
In sin
+2
tdt
In sin 2
J
Jt/4
Ji/2
=J
ln2
+2
lnsinfd*
= -jln2 + 2/.
Whence
^=
Compute
8.2.10.
\ns\nxdx=-
In 2.
the integral
1
dx
yr==z(n
fx
Solution.
A,
=y
The integrand
natural number).
quantity of order
an infinitely large
is
x>1 0.
with respect to -j-^ as
Therefore, the integral con-
verges.
Make
x
at
the substitution x
^
= 0, x=l
at
= sin
00
1
Jl/
rxn dx =
The
last
1^
integral
-*
is
= n/2.
in the
On
integral.
substituting
JT/
C s\n n /-cos tdt
cos/
Then dx = costdt,
we get
s\n n tdt.
evaluated in Problem 6.6.9:

n
Consequently, the given

formula.
integral
^
2
is
jx
yy,
1
~3
also
ft
even,
n odd.
computed
by the same
8.2.11. Evaluate the following improper integrals (or prove their

divergence):
f
(a)
dx
Tun;
r
(b)
dx
f
(c)
J
1
3a:
+2
y^rdx.
k
408
8.2.12.
Compute
the improper integral

i
= x m \n n xdx
In
Solution. At n
m>
(n natural,
the integral
1).
evaluated directly:
is
=^xm dx= m+
:
m+
"
For n
>
integrate I n by parts, putting
= In" x\
J
n-i
n
du=n\n
1
We
<lX
get
1
m+
"
any natural
I
m-f-
of
n:
XT Jf În^^dxm+
This gives a formula by means
And
= xm dx\
X m+l
u =
m
do
n ^n
/-,.
n 1
which one can reduce

x
__
)"
/ to /
for
/z!
finally,
w
Compute the
8.2.13.
(m+l) + 1
"
integral
2.0
_
~
C
J
e~ x dx
^/ 2-\-x x 2
0.3
accurate to 0.03.
Solution.
The
+ x = (2
2
integral has a singularity at the point
x)(l+x). Let us represent
it
as the
x=2,
sum
of
since
two
in-
tegrals:
2
-e
-e
Now compute the first integral to the required accuracy, and estimate
the second one. For eÔ.l we have
0</ <
-
^lp==r
n5x ^'= (u53s
8.3.
Putting e
409
Geometric and Physical Applies of Improp. Integr's
= 0.1,
we
get the estimate / 2
< 0.028.
Evaluation
of the
integral
1.9
e~ x dx
V*by Simpson's formula with
S
and with
a step ft/2
step h
= 0.8
gives
= 0.519,
= 0.4,
S
= 0.513.
And so, integral /j gives the more accurate value, 0.513, with
error not exceeding 0.001. Taking into consideration that integral
is positive, we round off the obtained value to
/
an
2
^0.52
with an error not exceeding 0.03.
By putting
Note.
computation
of the
= 0.01,
we
get the estimate / 2
< 0.005,
but the
integral
1.99
e-*dx
f
4
0.3
would involve much more cumbersome calculations.

8.2.14. Investigate the following integrals for convergence:
i
dx
(a)
/i
f-=;
V sin*
dx
(b)
ex
Jf
< c)
Ccos 2 xdx
Jo^gr:
F=;
f tanxdx
(d)
(e)
j
_1_
sin#dx
8.3.
Geometric and Physical Applications of Improper
Integrals
8.3.1.
Find the area
of the figure
y-l
(the witch of Agnesi)
Solution.
and
its
asymptote.
The function y =
}
tire
number
scale,
and lim y
X-+
tote of the given curve
to find the area
+x*
_^
is
continuous throughout the en-
= 0. Consequently, the x-axis
is
the asymp-
CO
which
is
shown
of the figure that
in Fig.
118.
It
is
required
extends without bound along the
410
In other words,
x-axis.
is
it
required to evaluate the improper integ-
CO
ral
dx
S= JC
-t-t
r
-\-
y-ax\s
By
X"
virtue of the
^=
GO
-4^- = 2[ T
S=f
arctanx
lim
generated by
Find the surface area

arc of the curve y
8.3.2.
Solution.
face
Jl.
revolving about the
= oo
The area
of
the sur-
equal to the improper in-
is
at
Making the substitution e~ x = /,

= e~* dx, we get x^=0 at
118
Fig.
31
= 9Z'-tt^ =
tegral
-7
about the
the
y\
of the figure
we have
CO
x-axis
symmetry
oo
= 0;
hence
S = 2ji [\fT^dt = 2n-[tVT^ + \n(t + VT+T*)]\ =
= ji[J/'l+ln(l+j/~2)].
8.3.3.
Compute the
area enclosed by the loop of the folium of Des-
cartes
x 3 -f if
3axy =
shown
Solution. The folium of Descartes is

present the curve in polar coordinates:
x^pcoscp;
Then p 3 cos 3
we get
cp -f-
sin 3
cp
3a p
cos
cp
3a cos
cp
^ ~~ cos 3 (p+
0.
in Fig. 86.
= psincp.
= 0, whence,
sin
cp
sin
cancelling p 2 ^
cp
sin 3
cp
Since the loop of the curve corresponds to the variation of
and
the sought-for area
equal to
is
jt
r*
9a
^
n
r
Let us re-
2
2
cp
sin'cpcos'cp
sin
cp cos
cp
between
8.3. Geometric and Physical Applic's of Improp. Integr's
To evaluate
tan
cp
t\
= dt\
CO gf
9a 2 f
proper
the obtained
dt
cp
at
9a 2
,.
= 0,
i
make
integral
cp
=y
at
3a 2
df
411
the substitution
Thus we
oo.
,.
get
<4
8.3.4.
soid y
Find the volume
= 2a
^s
a k u *
The
generated by revolving the
of the solid
as Y
"
cis-
m ptote x=2a.
shown
in Fig. 119. Transfer the origin of

coordinates to the point 0' (2a, 0) without changing the direction of
the axes. In the new system of coordinates
x
2a, Y
y the equation of the cissoid
has the following form:
Solution.
X=
cissoid
is
(X
Y2
The volume
-X
the
of
+ 2a)*
= Ji$ X
dF
about
asymptote, is
of revolution
solid
the axis X = 0, i.e. about

expressed by the integral
the
= 2jcJX
dY.
Let us pass over to the variable X. For this

purpose we find dY= Y' dX. Differentiating the
equation of the cissoid in the new coordinates
as an identity with respect to X, we get
2VT'
whence
for
=
Y
3(X + 2a) 2 X (X + 2a)3
2 (X~^~2a) 2
X2
>
Fig.
(X
119
a)
we have
(X
+ 2a)*(X-a)
(X
+ 2a) (X-a)
'
X2Y
X }f-(X + 2a)/X
2
Hence,
= 2n C(X 2a) (X a) :dX.
V- (X + 2a)/X
Make
the substitution (X
/ = oo.
+ 2a)/X =
2
;
X = 2a
at
= 0, X=0at
Then:
2a
1+/ 2
dX:
2at*
\at
:
+
X-a =
(1
2 2
X + 2a- +
dt\
3o
fl/
2
(
412
whence
v
V ~ 9
+ at
t(\ + t*)(\ +
f
)
2at 2 (3a
_
~
4at dt
t'*)(\
+ t*)*
= 48
(trw dt +
16
ttf
dt -
Putting t
tanz, dt
Hence,
= sec
zdz, we get
at
= n/2.
JT/2
V=
A8na's
= 0, ^=oo
at
JT/2
sin 2 z cos 4
zdz
JT,/
= 48jia
16jta 3 ^ cos 2 z sin 4 z dz

JT/2
48na
cos 4 zdz
cos 6 zdz
JT/2
JT/2
16jta 3 ^ sin 4
zdz
16jia 3
sin 6 zdz.
JT/2
Using
known
the
formulas
the
for
integrals
s\n n
xdx,
JT/2
^cos^xdx
(see
Problem
V = 64 jca 3
8.3.5.
Prove that
t/=-7=L=,
V
the
finite
is
the
64 ra 3
1x3x5 -
area of the region

abscissas, the
finite
and equals -y
is
ê
the

ordinates and the
axis of
area of the region
axis of abscissas and
and equals
the curve
axis of
Prove that
y^=t
get
asymptote x
8.3.6.
we
6.6.9),
# = ~2>
6,
and the area
the
of the
straight
lines
x=:l
is
region contained between
the axis of abscissas and the straight lines
x=:l
infinite.
8.3.7.
Find the volumes
of
the
generated by revolving the lines y

(a)
about the x-axis,
(b)
about the y-axis.
solids
= e~ x
enclosed by the surfaces
= 0,
(0
<
-(-
oo):
8.3. Geometric and Physical Applic's of Improp. Integr's
and
= 2a _ x
area contained between the cissoid y 2
Compute the
8.3.8.
413
asymptote.
its
Compute
8.3.9.
and the axes

8.3.10.
the area bounded by the curve y
= e~ 2x
(at
>
0)
of coordinates.
Find the volume
generated by revolving, about
of the solid
= 2^ ^j
the x-axis, the infinite branch of the curve y
for
x>
1.
and attract a
be located at the origin
8.3.11. Let a mass
and
found on the x-axis at a distance x from
material point
having a mass
of
1,
with
F=
force
-r
(according to Newton's
moves
law). Find the work performed by the force F as the point
along the x-axls from x=r to infinity.
Solution. The work will be negative, since the direction of the
force is opposite to the direction of motion, hence
N
oo
A=\
J
^xT dx=
2
lim
n-
=
^rdx
2
oo
J
t
from infinity to
During the reverse displacement of the point
r the force of Newtonian attraction will perform posithe point x
tive
work ^-
This
quantity
under consideration at the point

potential energy accumulated at
8.3.12.
"ballistic"
the
called
is
x=r
a
potential of the force
and serves as the measure
of
point.
In studying a decaying current resulting from a discharge

instruments are sometimes used whose readings are pro00
portional to the "integral
current
intensity"
g=
dt or the "inte-
00
gral square of current
intensity"
S=Î
dt
and not
to the
taneous value of the current intensity / or to its square

is time measured from the beginning of the discharge; /
instan-
2
.
Here
alternating-current intensity depending on time. Theoretically, the process

continues indefinitely, though, practically, the current intensity becomes imperceptible already after a finite time interval. To simplify
the formulas we usually assume the time interval to be infinite in
all calculations involved.
Compute g and S for the following processes:
(a)
cient,
=/
e~ kt (a simple aperiodic process); k

is greater than zero.
which
is
is
a constant coeffi-
414
=I
e~ kt sin
are constant.
Solution.
(b)
(a)
g=
e~ k1
l
\
(simple oscillating process); coefficients k and a>
cot
dt=
lim
V"*' dt =
lin
oo
J /;*-*<= -'JA
oo
(b)
g=
\ I
()
e~ kt s\n
cot
dt
lim
A -
= -^f7T2
+
o)
/2
^ _ n
oo
5-
00
sin
(o/d/= lim
A -
[(cocosorf
LV
=A
46
lim
- 00
co
+6
=
7
'
li e
-* kt
~ co
* 2<ot
dt
/l
dt
cot
+ ftsinwOe-"]^-^^;
or-f-&
co
sin
V"*'
^4
f
J
2
(A cos 2cot
;
2 *
J o
(o& sin 2a)t)
9 -2kt
4k (k*
8.3.13. Let an infinitely extended (in both directions)
co )
beam lying
by a concentrated force P. If the

x-axis is brought to coincidence with the initial position of the axis
of the beam (before the latter is bent) and the y-axis is drawn
through the point
(at which the force is applied) and directed
downwards, then, on bending, the beam axis will have the folloon an
elastic foundation be bent
wing equation
y
= ^ e~ a
1x1
(cos
ax +
sin
a x
\
|),
where a and k are certain constants. Compute the potential energy

of elastic deformation by the formula
oc
W = Ee J (y"f dx
Solution.
Find
(E, e const).
y"\
y"
Pol
ax [(cos ax
= --e~
+ sin ax) 2 ( sin ax+cosax) +
-j-(
sin ax cos ax)] = -e~ ax (sin ax cos ax).
415
Hence,
P 2 a 6 Ee
k2
e~ 2ax
(1
2 sin ax cos
ocx)
dx =
J
o
P 2 a Q Ee
2a
8.3.14. What work has to be performed
from the Earth's surface to infinity?
Determine the work which

e 2 =l
from infinity
8.3.15.
charge
electric
charge
8.4.
e1
to
move
has to be
to
P 2 a*Ee
2a
4a + 4a 2
unit
body
4fc
of
mass
done to bring an
distance from a
Additional Problems
8.4.1.
Prove that the integral
dx
xP In* x
converges
for
>
and
<
1.
8.4.2. Prove that the integral

00
converges absolutely
tionally for
8.4.3.
l<(/?+l)/g<0
for
0<(p+
l)/</
<
and converges condi-
1.
Prove that the Euler integral
of
the
first
tion)
i
B(p,
q)=\ xP-
(l
x)"-
dx
converges for p
>
and
> 0.
8.4.4. Prove that
lim
7
if
-> a>
sinax-sinP^dxÔ,
|a|=HP|.
8.4.5. Prove that
oo
= ê-
xi
-x* n +
dx=Y
(n natural).
kind (beta func-
Ch. VI II. Improper Integrals
416
Prove that
8.4.6.
the integral
if
converges
J-^
any posi-
for
and
tive a
if
f(x) tends to
x> 0,
as
then the integral
00
/(ax)-/(N
<fa
(a>0( p>0)
converges and equals
/4ln(P/a).
Prove that
8.4.7.
00
cc
g"
^x
__ f cos
ax
cosfk
x
dx
X
~ \nn
^
'
"cT
JT/2
At what values
8.4.8.
of
cos X
does the integral
dx
con-
verge?
ji
Prove that the integral
8.4.9.
P
J
diverges
if
dx
j^^k
converges
<
and
if
converges
1,
k^\.
00
Prove
8.4.10.
<s<
and
4,
8.4.11.
sin
that
the
integral
*(*^~ CQS
*)
converges absolutely
if
<j
if
< s < 4.
Suppose the integral

+
00
lf(x)dx
(1)
converges and the function y(x)

Does the integral
is
bounded.
lf(x)<p(x)dx
(2)
necessarily converge?
What can be said about the convergence of integral (2),
ral
(1)
converges absolutely?
8.4.12. Prove the validity of the relation

/ (x)
where f(x)
= 2/ (ji/4 + x/2)
^ In cos
y dy.
2/ (n/4
jc/2)
In 2
if
integ-
Compute with
8.4.
417
Additional Problems
the aid of the relation obtained

JT
8.4.13.
(-^)
= j
In cos
Deduce the reduction formula
ydy.
for the
integral
JT
In
and evaluate
=^\ncosx-cos2nxdx
this
integral.
(n
natural)
ANSWERS AND HINTS
Chapter
p
=
2
(b)
1.1.5.
Hint. Prove by the rule of contraries, putting 2
common
are positive integers without

1.1.8.
Hint.
1.1.9.
(b)
You may
take k
where/? and q
multipliers.
2s
1.1.11.
of
x^?4,
x
(a)
which
for
<
*<0;
b\
16|
>
The equality
////i/.
2^x<:3.
(b)
0;
values of x for which x 2

2
1.1.13. (a) x < -g- or
\a
x^sl.
or
4<x<2.
(c)
valid for those values
is
//m/. The equality holds true for those
5x-\-6^0.
a:
>
(b)
8;
<
<
or
when a and
good
holds
are
<
//m/. The inequality
5.
opposite
in
sign or
when
\a\<\b\.
' 2 - 3
'
+
+ a&+a
=
10
5x2*.
+
/(*)
1.2.4.
1.2.11.
[aV + ta +
&'-
/t
<+>"->
3
)
_L
1-2 .6.
V'l+l;
4"
'
;
^10-5.
,,,,
= 5; / (0) = 4; / (0.5) = 4; / (-0.5) = -I / (3) = 8.

+d
= a Xn a a
follows that n + = a Xn+i = a Xn
1.2.15. tfm/. From
+
+ =
1.2.18.
(x) = 527.
1.2.17. / (x) = x 5x+6.
1.2.16. x=2; 3.
(*) = 23;
S = &^1--^x.
1.2.20. P = 26 + 2
or x> 2.
1.2.19. x^
^
1
.2. 14. / (2)
it
i/
1.2.21. (b)
2,
(g)
...).
(-^,
Since
and
< j+2kn(k =
(c)
3);
(2,
Hint.
2)
a:;
(3,
oo);
( oo, 1)
sin#^l,
(h)
1, 2,
[1,
...).
4);
and
the
(i)
(2,
oo);
function
(-2,
0)
<p
is
and
(d)
= ^ + 2kn(k =
defined only
(0,
1);
(j)
0,
1,
when sinx=l;
-iL + 2tot<*<
Answers and Hints
1.2.22.
points
1.2.24.
(1,
(d)
The function
(d)
defined
is
x= 2.
(~oo,
(a)
and
0)
1.2.26.
(b)
oo);
1.2.25.
oo).
(0,
(3
(b)
2ji<a:<(2+1)
(a)
ji
(b) Hint. Consider the
1.3.3.
Ch.
to
over the entire number scale, except the
2jt,
and
ji)
5<x<6.
(* = 0, 1, 2,
*2
difference
(b)
increases
It
.-ffcri
for
<
\+x\
^ + kn
<
3];
y,
(b)
[1,
(c)
4);
(3,
...);
\+x\
1.3.4.
419
(k
1,
2,
...)
and decreases on the other intervals.

JI
< x^-
The function decreases on the interval
1.3.7.
from 4-oo to 2 and
ji
<
increases on the interval
The function
ji
rorn 2 to
+-
neither even, nor odd, (d) even.

1.3.10. (a) Even; (b) odd; (c) odd; (d) neither even, nor odd; (e) even.
1.3.9.
(c)
1.3.12.
\A |==5,
(a)
is
co
14
= 4,
= 5, =
cp
= 0, ^=y;
(b)
= 4,
(0
= 3,
q>
-5-,
= arc tan y r = //m/. 3 sin y + 4cos y =

= 5sin ^y+cp^, where cos q^^, sincp = y. 1.3.13. (b) T = 2n\ (c) T=
The function reaches the greatest
1.3.16. The greatest value /(1) = 2.
T=
2ji
(c) |/1
(o
a:
cp
a:
4ji.
1.
////if.
value at the point where the quadratic trinomial 2x 2
4#+3
reaches the least
value.
Even;
(b) even;
odd;
1.3.17.
(a)
1.3.18.
(a)
1.3.19.
Hint, (a) Assume the contrary. Then
T = n;
r = 6ji.
(b)
(c)
#+r+sin
(
whence cos
x-\
T \ =
(x-\-T)
which
(d)
even.
= x-\-s'm x,
impossible
is
for
any constant 7\
the
since
2sin "^-
side
left
cos \^x+T = cos

= 2nk (k = \
not
is
constant;
whence either
x,
suppose
(b)
the
7= = =
>Y
2, ...), which is impossible, since the left-hand

t
of these equalities are functions of a continuous argument x.
t
1.4.6.
x=
(a)
log 2 ^
1
g2
1.6.3.
(c)
==
1
(a)
1+arcslnj/
(b)x
lQ gj/
(0
<
<
= 3sin*/;
2 or 2
<
<
(c)
= y lo 8
(y
Then
contrary.
Vx+ T4- V~lc=2nk, or
>
members
(d)*
0);
00).
.og|
0,
(b)
T>
- y,
2;2.25;2g; 2{g
1.6.9.
Hint.
The
inequality
|^^~2 <
is
satisfied
lor
> N
Answers and Hints
420
= Ey= 0.01
At 8
lj.
= 0.1
the
inequality
is
beginning with /z=10, at
fulfilled
beginning with /z=100, at 8

0.001 beginning with /z= 1000.
Hint. Verify that the sequence {x 2n -\} tends to
1.6.10.
as n
oo,
oo.
as n
and the sequence {x 2n \ tends to
(c) it has; (d) it does not have.
1.6.12. (a) It has;
(b) it does not have;
Hint. For a
1.6.19.
= (\-\-a n
inequality a
/ =-
<a)|*J<-|;
Hint.
1.6.14.
(a n
V/ a
>
put y/~a= + a n
>
> na n prove that a n
1
n
)
1.7.1.
(b)
A;
1.7.4.
(b)
1;
xn
of
>
and, with the aid of the
0)
of the
(c)
(e)
0;
1.
a =
inequality
1;
1.7.2. (b)
(e)
1.7.5.
(g)
(h)
1.
Hint.
111
J_
2'
(a)
finitesimal,
1.8.6.
(b)
and cos n 3
(b)
2x3
form x n
(c)
1;
1.
'
/i(/i+l)~
'
= ^
1
-f
1'
--i.
(d)
0,
11
summand
each
Represent
Hint. The quantity
is
an
in-
bounded quantity;
is
Hint. The
wand
X3x...X/?^2
put
> na n
bring xn to the
will
an
(f)
1;
the form of the difference

1
([
-\-
Hint. Multiply and divide by imperfect of a sum, square
(f) 0.
1X2
<
an infinitesimal. For a
is
and make use
0)
divide by n
in
which
(a n
and then
\<.
<x n
-)-
\x n
(b)
sequence
is
(f)
(e) 0;
bounded
due
n\=^\x2x
to the fact that
therefore
^H4)'+-.+(^n=3-()-'<,
(b) 0.
1.8.7.
1.8.9.
<
//t/i/.
<
For
all
/z,
fulfilled;
beginning
with
therefore
J=-
<
xn
certain
,"/
= n
value,
<
{!/ n,
*
<
i.
o
the inequalities
-f-
and lim iV
/i
iy
= lim
1.8.10.
= J^G/
The
lim y n
fl
are
2!
Hint. Take advantage of the fact that
->
Hint.
>
The sequence {y n \
decreases,
since y n i
=a
'l
= a 2flX2 =
0-
boundedness of the sequence from below

by & and from the relation y n + i= Vy n
follows from a
>
1.
Denote
b=\.
oo
1.8.11.
//m/. Ascertain
ness from the
that
the sequence increases. Establish the bounded-
inequalities
n(n\)
*<'+('-)+(T-T)+-+(.-r-7)--f
A n skits and
/lints to Ch.
Hint. Transform x n into the form xn
1.8.12.
421
2n
yn +
2
and take advan1 -j-
tage of the inequalities
2n
2i
2n
<
<
Y& + + n
1.
////i/. See Problem 1.8.7 (a).

//m/. Establish the boundedness of
with the sum of some geometric progression.
1.9.2. (b) Hint. Choose the sequences
1.8.13.
and
and
ascertain
sequences
the
that
xn
by comparing xn
sequence
the
1.8.14.
</i=l,
...)
2,
appropriate values of the function
of
have
different limits:
lim 2
1.9.3.
arc tan x <
=0.
lim 2
the inequality
of
arc tan
tan (
V 2
x'
n
+ oo,
Xn
Hint. Take advantage
(e)
71
(f)
(x
>
0).
Hint. Transform the difference
=
1
sin x
-\
(d)
(e)
~; (f)~.
o
jx
-g-
|sina|^|a|.
into a product and apply the inequality

1.10.1.
sin
.
sin x
Hint. Multiply
the
numerator
and de-
\Z
nominator by imperfect trinomial square (jj/ 10
x-f-2);
(g)
~~
(h)
log fl 6.
'
Hint,
lim
log a
at-v3L
V x
= log a
+ 6 3J
lim
(*-3)(^* + 6 + 3)
= log a 6;(i)
x3
L*-3
<j)^.
1.10.2.
(e)
On removing
////i/.
the irrationality to the denominator divide
the numerator and denominator by x.

1.10.3.
(b) 32.
-5-.
(c)
as
Put
Hint.
(g)
'
x=z 15
(f)
Hint.
oo.
x =z;
Put
3. //m/. Put s\nx = y.
i
1
1.10.5.
1.10.7.
1.10.11.
(b) e
(b)
(c)
(a)
*"
(d)
(f)
4;
cot a
1.10.8.
(b)
(d)
1;
_1_
(c)
'
(cl)
2
1.10.12.
(a)
(h) 2.
(g)
j_
20
(b)
-2;
(c)
y>
(d)
(f)
(e) 0;
'
n
(
e)
~ 24
1.
Answers and Hints
422
(a) e 4 ;
1.10.13.
(h)
(i)
1;
9;
-1;
(b)
(k)
1;
(j)
1.11.6.
(b)
They
(a)
100*
is
(a)
It
(e)
of
the
a sin a
tan
~~T'
a3
smallness;
order of
first
order
second
of the
an infinitesimal of an order of smallness lower than x.

smallness;
is of the fourth order of
(b) of the first order of
of the third order of smallness;
(d) of the third order of
(f) of the order of
of the first order of smallness;
smallness
(c)
(g)
(i)
L=a 0.
are of the same order;

(c) they are equivalent.
an infinitesimal of the same order as x\
(b) x 2 is an
order higher than x\
(c) 6 sin a: is an infinitesimal of the
infinitesimal of an order higher than x\
(d) sin 3 x is an
infinitesimal ot an
as x\
-fax
~* Q
is
same order
smallness;
smallness;
1;
1.11.8.
\/ tan 2
(g)
It
|.
1.11.9.
(at
rj
lim e?*i
X
a-
(e)
(f)e-J;
j/lT. Hint. Replace arc cos (1 x) by arc sin }/~2a; x 2 (b) l;(c)a.
is of the third order of smallness. Hint.
1.10.14. (a)
(b)
(e)
Hint.
$X
oiX
lim
X-*
1.11.5.
p.
(d) e 3
2 In a;
(c)
(h) of the first
order of smallness;
smallness. Hint. Multiply and divide the difference
oi
jj/cos x by imperfect trinomial square;

(j) of the first order of smallness.
The diagonal d is of the first order of smallness; the area S is of
the second order of smallness; the volume V is of the third order of smallness.
cos
1.11.10.
1.12.3.
(b) 4;
(f)
3;
1.12.7.
(a)
(b)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(a)
/( 0)
~;
1.12.8.
(i)
(a)
1.12.9.
1.
/(-0) =
/(
1.12.6. (a)
2.
(b)
Hint.
10.14.
Ml 0) = 2,
+ 0)=+co.
1.13.3.
(c)
_2;
(b)
1.13.1.
/(2
1;
(g)
1042=
/(l+0) = 2;
_ .
f
= 0;
(b)
10 3
the
discontinuity
of
( oo)=
first
kind:
^-
kind at the point #
first
arc tan
(+ oo) =
=5
=
(c)
+
/( 0)=1, / ~H 0) = 0;
1.14.6. (b)
At
(e)
(1+0.042).
/(-0) = 0,
/(
+ 0)=+oo;
/( + 0)=1.
1.
(b) The function has a discontinuity of the

The jump is equal to 27.
1.14.3. (c) The function is continuous everywhere;
/(5_0)=
/(2-0) = -oo;
kind
first
= 3.
arc tan
(d)
(f)
1.14.2.
(c)
(b) 2.
1;
the
point #
JI
= 0;
/(5
0)
there
at
the function
(e)
ji.
has
Hint.
first
kind:
jump equals
the
-]--îs
discontinuity of the
JX
the point
at
the point
a:
0,
discontinuity of the
a
JT
the point ^
(d) at
=y
an
infinite
dis-
continuity of the second kind:
1.14.7.
(a)
At the point
the discontinuity
it
x~0
is sufficient
there
is
removable discontinuity. To remove
to redefine the function, putting /
(0)=
1;
(b) at
Answers and Hints
is
there
is
the points x
is
to extend
sufficient
there
423
removable discontinuity. To remove the discontinuity

(c) at the point #
the function putting /(0)=1;
-j- oo;
kind: /( 0)
(d) at
a discontinuity of the second
0, / ( -|-0)
the point x
it
to Ch.
(2k hO-j
(^
= 0
1 2,
f
flx)=UmJs\nx)*=\
= kn (k~ 0.
the points x
(e) at
removable discontinuities, since
).
1, 2,
if
jf
sin x
<
1,
s in^
1;
discontinuities of the
...),
1st
kind,
since
-
if
sin x
if
sin
1, 2,
...
sin x
(f)
at the points
= n 0,
.
At the point
sin
x=
a:
0,
0;
removable discontinuities, since
x=n
if
>
<
a:
is an infinite discontinuity of the second

discontinuity of the first kind (the jump
being equal to 2); (c) at the point #
0, an infinite discontinuity of the second
kind, at the point x=\ a discontinuity of the first kind (the jump being equal
(d) at the point x\, an infinite discontinuity of the second kind.
to 4);
1.14.8.
kind;
(a)
(b)
point
the
at
there
2,
1.14.9.
(a)
/(0)=1;
1.15.2.
(b)
The function
The function
1.15.3. (b)
lim
(c)
lim
\imy=
Jl
/(0)=^;
(c)
(d)/(0)
= 2.
is
at the points
= --|;
is
y\\mu =\\
continuities, since
/(0)
continuous on the interval (0, +oo).

continuous everywhere. At the only possible point
we have
of discontinuity
(b)
(n
lim y
U-*cc
= 0,
lim u 2
=l\
1, 2,
x_
there
...)
=y
B= _ t
are removable
~>
Yes.
on the interval
1.16.12.
1.16.2.
1.17.1.
1,
No. For instance, the function y
1.16.13.
1.53.
1].
Hint. Multiply the obvious inequalities:
(a)
<
n'
V2(n-\) <
-4-
/(S=T^<=1;
.f.
rr*
b) Hint.
Let
^-o-X
2
D
2n
T34 X T56 X...X >2n

2
1
.
2n
'
Then A
< B
since
dis-
1.
2/712/t
<
2n
. and
2n-\-\
'
'
2n
f-
A'1
< AB^--
r
2n -f
=x
Answers and Hints
424
1.17.2.
Hint.
(a)
Extract
the
from both sides
root
101st
inequality
of the
2
and reduce both sides by
(b) Multiply the obvious inequalities:
1
99
98
2
1.17.3.
(a)
<
<
100
199
or
X
X
101
x
X
198
<
102
<
<
<
<
200
<
100 2
100 2
100 2
100 4
<
(b)
3;
>
or x
(c)
the
inequality has no solutions, since it is equivalent to the contradictory system

1.17.4. Yes.
1.17.5.
(a) No; (b) Yes.
2 > 0, a:(4a: 2
*+4) < 0.
1.17.7. Hint.
Apply the method of mathematical induction. At /i=l the
relation is obvious. Supposing that the inequality
(l+*i)(l+* 2
...
(l+*-i)^l+*iH-*a+---+*-i
holds true, multiply both its sides by \-\-x n

(i=l, 2,
conditions \-\-x n >0, Xi>x n >
1.17.8.
(a)
a:=0, 1, 2,
(e)
[-4, -2] or
1.17.9.
for
all
cp (a:)
a:
(a)
7= 0,
only
for
+oo);
[1,
(c)
No:
and
cp
(0)
x^0;
take into consideration the

1).
< x< (2/i+
1)
for
(x)
0)
(/i
f (x);
= 0,
jx
(/i
= 0,
1,2,
nowhere
is
1, 2,
...);
defined;
...).
and / (0) is not defined;

(b) No: f (x) is defined
only for x > 0; (c) No: f (x) is defined for all x, and
Yes;
(e) No: f (x) is defined only for x > 2, and cp (*)
(x)
cp
( oo,
*=(2/i+l)y
(f)
4];
[2,
(2/zjt) 2
(b)
(d)
and
(d)
2 and for x < 1.

3) (6
1.17.11. V
8xt (x
1.17.10. (a) (0, oo);
x), 3 < x < 6.
(b) [1, oo).
1.17.12. (a) x
5. ////i/. The domain of definition is specified by the inequalities x-f-2^0, x
5^0, 5 xÔ, which are fulfilled only at the point
that the number x
5 satisfies the given inequality, (b) Hint.
#
5. Verify
The domain of definition is specified by the contradictory inequalities x 3 > 0;
2
x > 0.
r, X
nX _J_ n X
9
fiX
y
"
(b) a*=
(see Pro1.17.17. (a) f (x )
7l
for
>
+ T1?
blem
1.17.16).
1.17.18, An even extension defines the function
,
f(x)
=x
-{-x for
x for
An odd
0<
a:<3,
3 < x <
0.
extension defines the function
f(x)=x 2 + x
for
0<*<3,
If the function
a period 7\, and the function cp (a;)
/ (x) has
and T l
n 2 d (n lt n 2 positive integers), then the pen 1 d, T 2
nd, where n is
riod of the sum and the product of these functions will be T
the least common multiple ot the numbers n x and n 2
1.17.22. Hint. For any rational number r
1.17.21.
////if.
has a period
7\>,
>=m*)={
'
But there
is
no
least
number
in
i
for rational x,
n
; for irrational x.
the set of positive rational numbers.
Answers and Hints

1.17.23. Hint.
wc denote
we get
II
Ch.
to
425
the period of the function
= f{0) = f(-T)
f(T)
aT =
sin T-\~ cos
whence
= sin 7)-]- cos aT),
7 = 0, cos^r^l, and hence T = kn
sin
by T, then from
f (x)
aT 2nn
2n
is
rational.
k
1.17.25. The difference of two increasing functions is not necessarily a monox and g(x)
x 1 increase for
tonic function. For example, the functions f(x)
xÔ, but their difference / (*) g (x) ==x x 2 is not monotonic for xÔ: it
and decreases on
increases on
0,
Example:
1.17.26.
a:
-{1.17.27.
(a)
= -j\n
if
a:
if
1+0 (-1 <
-y
is
<
rational,
irrational.
is
1);
(b)
x=<
oo
<
<
lor
V~y
1,
16,
<
16
log 2 y for
<
oo.
The functions y=x 2 -\-_
1.17.28. Hint.
+2x+l
for
= X+V*
=
+
and y
mutually inverse, but the
2
x has
x, i. e. x
2x-fequation y
no real roots (see Problem 1.4.4).
1.17.30. (c) Hint If is the domain
(xÔ)
(x
are
1)
the
definition of
then the function y
of
function
= f[f(x)\
(x),
is
defi-
xE
for
those
which
the points of the desired
graph are plotted is shown in Fig. 120.
2 (b
1.17.32. Hint. The quantity T
ned only
f(x)E.
for
How
=
a)
a period: from the conditions
= f (a x) and f(b + x) = f(b x) follows that
[x + 2 (b-a)] = f[b + (b + x2a)]=f(2a-x) = f[a + {a--x)] = f(x).
symmetry
/
1.17.33. (a)
diverges;
It
(b)
= n
that
xn
=n
xn
= 3,
yn
The converse
|.
= 0,
(x n y n )
= oo.
oo
(b)
incorrect.
is
No.
Take
into
Example:
Hint.
1.17.36.
may
The sequence a
1.17.38. Hint.
turned
9. If this sequence
0,1,
-+
= n-{-\;
...).
4,
(x n y n )
-* oo
lim
n
(n
lim
yn
n{n ~ 2)
1
1
converge or diverge. Examples:
either
+ (-I)].
Example: xn
1.17.34. (a) No.
a =
may
it
--
yn
xn
of
it
1.17.35.
is
(a -\-x)
account
1)"
1
.
only the following values:

out to be monotonic, then the irrational
number would be represented by a periodic decimal fraction.
1.17.39.
Hint.
If
the sequence
i.
~
On
6 +l a
attain
increases,
<
an +
bj
then
(/=
1,
2,
)>
Answers and Hints
426
whence
follows that
it
t>
+ a +...+a n
+ i(<*i
<
+ b +...+bn
a n + l (b 1
and hence
"1
&1
+ ^2+ + +
+ &2 + ... + ^ w +
0/1
+ 02+ "-+fl/l ==
+ &2+...+&*
g
^ +
+
== W + ft +
(bi + b +...+b n +
^1
&1
1.17.40.
nx
(a)
< E
(b)
2;
(nx)
v
'
^ nx
From
1.17.42. Hint.
<
fl2
From
Hint.
< ^
x
n
>
'
nX ^
the
inequalities
x.
the inequalities
n
ix 2
^=1
it
)(b l
1.17.41.
0.
(c)
0;
follows that x
it
+ + +
+ b +...+b n
^2
fe=i
/z=i
follows that
/i+l
2/i
nl
2n
i
Hint. Take advantage of the fact that
1.17.43.
lim a
lim
n
-* go
yfa
(see
cc
Problem
lim
1.6.19),
rt
"
=1, and
00
qualities a
1.17.45. Hint.
1.17.46. (a)
->
for
>
1,
/i
<
the ine-
co
1_
rt
lim
ah
<
<
take
place.
Divide the numerator and denominator by x m
a=l;
= l;
a=l; b=-^
(b)
Hint. To find the coefficient
a divide the expression by x and pass over to the limit.

1.17.47. (a)
= x
M-{
W
1
/
f
for
0<x<
for
<
>
1,
1.
(b)
+/2JI,
JX
for
for
/(*)H
= -{-nji
Take advantage
(1
(/i
1.17.48. Hint.
?=
)...(1+a: 2 ")
1.17.49. Generally speaking, one can't.
lim
X ->
and
if
result:
we
+ *) + ln(l-*) =
X2
~ X =Q. +
replace In
lim
( 1
a:)
1,
2,
...).
of the identity
x)(\+x) (1+x
ln(l
= 0,
by x and
For example,
]ijn
X
In (1
= 1 x* n
ln_0- f 2)
X2
-*
x)
by
=_
we
will
get the
wrong
Answers and Hints
1.17.50.
Hint.
then
sideration,
If
chord
the
equal
is
subtended by the arc under con-
angle
a central
is
2R
to
427
Ch. I
to
sin
Ra,
and
the
sagitta
to
a2
R(\ cosa) ~ R-.

1.17.51. 2. Hint. The difference
inscribed regular /z-gons is equal to
/.
on
2tf/z
jt
,
n
where a
sin a
n
n = 2nR..tana
~ tiRcc
a
jr
tan
sin
perimeters of a circumscribed and
the
of
.,
2
,
and the side
of
an inscribed rc-gon
2Rs\n = 2R sina~
2Ra.
1.17.52.
On
the equivalence of (1-j-a) 3
1.17.53.
No,
logd+^l!^-^
is
and 3a
as
>0.
as*-+0.
If
the function cp (x)
/ (x) -\-g (x) is continuous at
then the function g (x)
cp (x)
f (x) is also continuous at this
g(x) sign x (see Problem 1.5.11 (p)); both
point; (b) No. Example: / (x)
and their sum is identically
functions are discontinuous at the point x
0,
equal to zero, and is, hence, continuous.
1.17.54. (a) Yes. Hint.
=x
the point x
for
1.17.55. (a)
No. Example:
Xf:0, g(0)
functions
pie:
r
= g (x) =
/(#)
point
= 0,
<
m
No.
for
^
<
''
product
their
1-r ec
1.17.56.
=x
is
continuous everywhere, and
#=
continuous at
/ (x)
being discontinuous at the point #
function
is
=
=
Example:
K
i
f /
0; (b)
of these
No.
Exam-
functions
are
discontinuous at the
0;
f (x)
i-
g(x)~ sin-^-
The product
lim x sin =
x
since
both
= 0.
f(x)
v
=<
I
being
1
if
continuous everywhere.
is
.
rational,
We may
irrational.
the Dirichlet function (see Problem
'
if
a:
.,
write
is
1.14.4 (b)).
2\ (x)
1, where X (x) is
1.17.57. (a) #
is a disconti\
is a discontinuity
of the second kind,
nuity of the first kind;
(b)
is a discontinuity of the first kind: f(\
0,
0)
f (x)
( 1
H 0)
1.17.58.
x-+
(c)
(a)
cp
(x)
is
discontinuous at
= n = 0,
y=y
1,
lim
n-0
(n\
x=\
y=\,
lim
x==n
points except x
are discontinuities
all
2, ...
The function has
= 0.
= 0.
of
a period of
1;
the
(b)
first
kind:
x=
x-> n +
...) are points of discontinuity of the first kind:
2,
lim
x
-*
Vn-0
= 2n
1;
lim
y
Vn-rO
x=V'n
= y\ X ~_ y = 2n
The function is even;

(c)
(/i=1, 2, ...) are the points of
discontinuity of the first kind; at these points the function passes over from the
value
to
and returns to 1. The function is even;
1
Answers and Hints
428
(d)
y=]
if
if
-75-
|
1
sin x
sin
s
I
1
i.e.
^-\-nn < x <
i.e.
>
x= -\-nn
= ~2
a:
sin x
if
<
i.e.
^--f-jx/z,
6~
111
-^-f-ji/z,
<
J1/1
<
|-jw.
JI
are discontinuities of the
first
kind.
1.17.59. The function f[g{x)\ has discontinuities of the first kind at the
The function g[f(x)] is continuous everywhere. Hint.
points x
1; 0; +1.
The function f (u) is discontinuous at u
0, and the function g (x) changes sign
since f (x) attains only the
at the points #
0, 1. The function g[/(#)|==0,
values
0,
1.
Write the function
1.17.61. Hint.
f(x) = {
that
sure
2,
= 0:
Choose the points
and
Hint.
= f(x) x.
0,
'
< x<2.
from
The function
[0, 2].
to
on the interval
= /(*o)
c,
/(&)-/
[a,
b\
is
[/
to),
. ,
2X
<1
(*)].
(* 2 )
= /(*o) +
e.
theorem
value
[/
to)
to) +...+/ to)]
< max
Apply the intermediate value theorem
on the interval
We
x 2 so that
*2
*o)Apply the intermediate
/ (x n )]
1.17.65. Hint.
0)
2,
chosen.
to
the
function
1.17.64. Hint. Apply the intermediate value theorem to the function

the interval [x lt x n ], noting that
min
discontinuous at the point
is
given and the point
is
Apply the intermediate value theorem
= min(^ *i>
1.17.63.
g(x)
increases
e<min[/(x )-/(a),
x x and x 2 x 1 < x <
/(*i)
and put 6
2<x <
tor
interval [0, 2].
1]
/(-0)=1, /(+0) = 0.
1.17.62. Hint. Suppose e >
may consider that
for
function
the
3
to on the
and from
to the intervals
for
(*+l)2
Make
the form
in
x+
lj
[/
to),
to the function
f (x)
on
(x)].
(x)
At sufficiently large values of the independent variable the

values of the polynomial of an even degree have the same sign as the coefficient
at the superior power of x; therefore the polynomial changes sign at least twice.
1.17.67. Hint. The inverse function
1.17.66. Hint.
Yy\
Vy\
is
continuous in the intervals (00,
= 0.
for
for
<-l,
= 0,
for y
1) and
(1,
>
00)
and has one isolated point
Answers and Hints to Ch. II
Chapter
II
2.1.1.
20
-
(b)
= 3x
2.1.6. (a) y'
2.1.2.
the indicated points.
2*arctan*+l.
._ ,
+r
l^x
~2x
f
e''
a;
'
'
(f)
i/'
6a:
(b)
2.2.6.
*/'
(b)
3;
-f-
= -3(3-sinA:)
o /o
u'2e* +
3
2M
l
-j
2*
x9
2
In 2
*'
(g)
VI;
= 2e*cos*;
(h)
j,'
3^==+5;
y
2 cos
(c)
a;
(e)
l)
^'
(f)
*/'
a:
(2a:
2 sin
cos
sin x
= 3 cos
+
5^
h)
h-ri 5;
tanx^\+x*
(i)
(/'
5)cos(a: 5A:-H)-Asec
a:
sin
=-
3a;
arc
a:
x/l + ln**
cosA:;
5 In 4
3/(2e*-2* +
sec'2
="2^
3 sin x
(d)
K)
*/'
(d)
(g)s\ny^=
301nMtan3*)^;
/
2(1 a:)
~
(c) y'
2.2.2.
a:?*
(cos a: sin a;) sin

x2e x
2.2.5.
m/sec.
= 2e*+y;
*'
(0
= 25
+ 8^+ 2^./x
w ,__ 3^6(*-2
D2
v av
non-differentiable at
is
2.2.4. (a)
^ 7y+^+
(0
2
= -j
ax
9000.
2.2.3. (b)
T5r
(b) y'
2.2.1.
2.1.5.
2.
The function
2.1.7.
10a;
y'
(b)
(b)
429
a:
= 21narc tan-^-3
arc tan
9+^
tti
3
2.2.8.
'
(b)
X(Jtsinh2x
=-
sinh ,
cosec* x;
*+ cosh 2
= e sinh e ta<acosh+6>_
{^
= (tan*)
(d)
</'
= 3*x
y'
(e)
j/^y-p^sinSArcos 2 ^^
(c)
(x+\)
(d) y'
taax)
+ coshjt*.sinh2x*);
I
2.2.9.
2a;
lntanA:-[ sin^
2a:
2.2.13.
(coshy + sinh-0
= -Jj
e + b)x
(cosh fo + sinh ^) = (a +
j/cosh
=y
/' (*)
(a)
*+l;
(d) /'(x)
(b)
j/'
= (cos
cos
s,y
51
cos
y'=-
j/ sin 2
3a: (1
5a:
"* (cos x
a:)
sin
x
= 4 sinh
cos a; tan x sin
j_
jl
U+2)
/' (x)
3a:)
(*-j-3)
r2
= tanhx;
f
4a;;
24
(c)
3(x-l)
In
3a:
2 -}-
(b)
(a
fr)
2.2.14. (a)
(e) /' (a;)
*);
(i) f
(x)
(c)
/' (x)
= (a+b)e ax X
Answers and Hints
430
In 3
2.2.17.
...
(b)
(a)
^81*
2.3.1.
k n e**\
(b)
+ y sin
2.3.4. (b) e*
(a:
2"" 1
(e)
#-ln x
^5x
sin f 2x
(sin
5/ cos
-1- sin
(f)
(c) e
ax
71
jâ"-
j sin $x
^~
1)
+ 3'
(b)
x
a:
* 3 sin
(a)
+ cos
2
)
cos
a:
x 60 x
(c)
x)\
4n^sinA:].
'
+^ are sinx
A
a:
\,;
+7r
'(1
= 2 (1 x)
+ 6/: +
x)
2
)
(n 1) 4];
3rt
2.4.3.
(b)
2.4.4. (b)
y'
= 7^-+sin
:
2.4.6.
y'
=JL+ e "T(e x
(b)
tr
~W
Yt=F
2.5.1.
(d) *,;
C)
= - 2>-
(b) 6a:
/.
(c)
ifi=^=|;
J.
(c)
(d)
2.4,,.
~~
2t (2/ 2
+ 2/+l)
jA.
,.,
cos/
6 sin
/)
(e)
2a:
=-
(a
;
~ ^l^
6y+ 37 =
9 = 0;
+
2*/
(l^)
2 ''.
1^=57^7
4 sin
fe)
201
^2
^2_|_i
(d)
2/z
-ey )V-* x+y )
. JtjJ,
l
rr3
2.4.5. (b)
2 4 7
a:)
y'x = 3 sin/ sec

x
[(4/z
a:
= -cot^f;
^=_*L_
(b)
2e~*
(b)
( 1)"
lx3x5x...X l97x(399 x)
(d)
(1
4 cos
"
/,
_1_
(6
...
(c)2r-"x
[_^__^_]
(a) .00!
2.4.1. (b) Xyy
a- 2 p 2 +
x 1140 X sin x-j-8640 cos x\
cos
[3* 2
1_
+ny +
-l).
Hint. y
{c)
(x
2ioo
^2
+ /iy
IH/i-^8
n (n
(a)
2.3.9.
In3
--"- "ix'.'gr --^-]}-
2.3.8.
+ 1
arc tan
+ n ^)
(1
(2x 2
j/
(1+a: 2 ) )^1 +a: 2
cos 2 In 3 *)
+ 48a: + 551);
2* 2
2.3.6.
In 3
sin
r
+ n-y)+^sin
^3*
+ COS p*
In 3
Jârcsin3- 2 *
5x j/cos 4
ârc sin3" 2 *
tan
=r.
0.
cos 3
y
;
Answers and Hints
2.5.3.
(b)
2.5.15.
= arctan2|^2.
cp
-J;
2.5.16.
(d)
(b)
2.5.8.
y=l,
(b)
(a)
Ch. II
to
+ 2</-2 = 0;
(c)
431
+ 2 = 0; y = x.
0+^= 3 (*+|- J
11.
-J.
2.5.19. s
2.5.17. 26,450.
= at-^; v = a-gt;
s max
= s[
= r;=^^sinM(l+2ecosM).
2.5.20. y
2.6.5.
(b) log 10.21
2.6.7.
(c)
= cos* A x (d) A y = + tan

d*i/ = 4-* 21n4(2A: ln4 l)dA:
2
2.6.9. (a)
oaift (a)d.2
y
2.6.10.
in particular at
2.6.11.
= 4 s'm2xdx
d 3y
AV = 4nr
dy
= 0.05.
a:)
A*.
(b)
d2
~ 4 ~ ln *
y (In 4)
4 ln *
a:
a:
4(1+3a: 4 ),
d2
/,
dx 2*'>
^^4)2
:i
= tan
Ay
0.9942.
( 1
(c)
2.6.3.
(d) cot4510'
1.009;
(TZ^r ^ - f="p ^
4(1+3a: 4 ),
4a:
2
1
y= ~ CQS
Ar-\-4nr Ar
2/
+o jxAr
the
is
volume contained between
Ar; dV
4nr 2 Ar is the volume of a thin layer
two spheres of radii r and r
with a base area equal to the sphere's surface area 4:xr 2 and a height Ar.
= g/A/-|i- g At
the distance covered by a body within the
the distance covered by a body which would move at
time At; ds=gt At = vdt
a velocity v = gt during the entire interval of time.
2
As
2.6.12.
is
is
2.7.1. (a) It does not exist;

2.7.2. 90. Hint. Since
(b)
exists and equals zero.
it
x^0
(e*,
y
/1(0)
= -I,
2.7.3.
2.7.4.
e-* x <
%
0,
/;(0)=1.
r_(A)=-<p(fl); /;
the derivative
Hint. For x ^
n*) = -cos(l)+2xsin(l
At
a:
the derivative equals zero:

a
/'(0)=
Thus, the derivative /'
second kind at the point x
XT-^^
lim
exists
(a:)
Aa:- sin
for all x,
'
but has a discontinuity of the
= 0.
2.7.7. Hint. The formula for the sum of a geo2.7.5. a

2x
b
x\.
metric progression represents an identity with respect to x. Equating the derivatives of both sides of the identity, we get
"'" +1
1
1
2r
1
;
3*
,
+ +
+^- =
^+;>'" +
Answers and Hints
432
multiplying both sides
by x and
equality
of this
\+x-{ n+
+ 2*+...+iV-=
2.7.8. sin x + 3 sin 3x +
+
_
(2/i
(2
sin
1)
differentiating
again,
we
X + Un^+*i-\) X+>-nx>> +
\)*
(2/i-|- 1) sin (2/i
1)
(2/i
) jc
1 )
sin
get
(2/1+1)*
4 sin 2 x
//m/. To prove the identity multiply its left side by 2 sin* and apply the
To deduce the desired formula
cos (a
cos(a
formula 2 sin a sin P
p).
P)
differentiate both sides of the identity and equate the derivatives.
2
2
<*> [e x
/' (cos *)];
2.7.9. (a) sin 2x [/'(sin *)
(b)
f (e x ) /'(*)/ (e x )\;
^11?}
(C )
'
\|)
ln
(*)
<P'
(#)
cp (a:)
(x)
(p
ln
.
"
In 2
(*)
cp (*)
(d) No.
2.7.10. (a) No;
(b) No;
(c) Yes;
2.7.11. Hint. Differentiate the identity /(*)
/(*) or f( x )
f(x).
This fact is easily illustrated geometrically if we take into consideration that
the graph of the even function is symmetrical about the y-axis, and the graph
of the odd function about the origin.
2.7.12. Hint. Differentiate the identity / (*+ T)
f (x).
2.7.14. y'
2\x\.
2.7.15. The composite function
2.7.13. F'(x)
6x 2
/ [cp (x)] may be non-differentiable only at points where cp' (x) does not exist
u at which f (u) does not exist.
and where cp (#) attains such values of q>(x)
But the function y
u2
\x\ 2 has a derivative y'
Q at the point #=0,
though at this point the function u
\x\ has no derivative.
2.7.16.
(a)
y"
= 6\x\;
tage of the
that
show
(a)
of
= (n 1)
XX
2 sin
(b)
cos-!
= C
(k
= 0,
....
1,
the binomial coefficients.

u n -^
w_ 2 and use the
0,
and take advan-
/i)
method
Designate:
(b)
sin i- at
= 0.
discontinuous at x
is
Verify that
property
u'
y" (0) does not exist, since y' (x)

2.7.17. Hint,
of
un
f(x)
mathematical
induction.
2.7.18.
Hint. Apply the Leibniz formula for the
derivative of the pro-
/ith
duct of the functions u
=e
and v
=x
2
.
at
2.7.19.
yM(0)={ [1x3x...X(2/j
I
Hint.
Differentiate
y(n)
e-*
2.7.22.
2.7.23. x 12
Hn +
formula
Leibniz
the
V =-2 X
= 2)
(/i
Take advantage
2.7.21. Hint.
and
(0)
yx
(x)
for
\fn
-2
at
= 2k
= 2k+\
n
n
(k=\,
identity
the
l)]
times
>
(0)
2,
and,
(/i
...).
putting
nth
2 )<n
= ( 2xe-**Y n
(_oo <{/<l),
*3,4=Kl-l/7=^
(t=l,
4x/(l-jtf)
obtain
(0<y<l),
2,
>
derivative of the product
=j^jy
= 0,
of the definition
= (e-x
the
= V + Y\- y
2)
3,
4) for Xi
0,
1.
u~e~ x2
and
Answers and Hints
433
Ch. Ill
to
2x
Hint. Solve the biquadratic equation x*

obtained functions x ( (y).
2.7.25. (a) x x
(b)
\.
3; * 2 =1;
-{-y
and
find
the domains
x=
Hint. Note that the function x=-2t
2.7.26.
==
t
\
<J
vative at
= 0.
But
2/ 2
0,
>
rywhere.
2
[ 2x
through x: y
y=<
*
< ^
'
<
2.7.27. a
=c=
-!-
This function
'
'
0,
<
2
i.e.
sin ax-\-f
f' (x)
differentiate eve-
The curves
2.7.28. Hint.
is
0.
4
2
points where sinaA:=l. Since at these points
y'
we can ex P ress y ~t 2 + * V
therefore
<0
haS n deri "
/^q'
intersect
at
the
cosa#=0,
= f (x) = y'v
(x)acosax
the curves are tangent.
For
2.7.30. Hint.
y=
nn
normal
and the
the tangent
the equations of
are
reduced to the form:
= co\^-{x at)-\-2a\ y tan y (x at),
n(2k 1) (k=\, 2, ...) the tangent line (y 2a) touches

respectively. For l
at) passes through the highthe circle at the highest point, and the normal (x
2kn (k
for t
at) pasest and lowest points;
0, 1,
.) the tangent line (x
ses through both points, and the normal (y
0) touches the circle at the lowest
^+ y.y
dt
2.7.34.
point.
v
reliable result,
45.
cp
2.7.35.
The
= ^^
relative error 6
the result with the least relative
i.e.
Chapter
3.1.2.
3.1.5. l
to the
III
Yes;
(b)
The most
corresponds
error,
value
sin 2cp
= e\.
(c)
No, since the

No, since
derivative
non-existent
is
g( 3) =g(3).
3.1.7.
3.1.9.
(d)
at the point 0.
Hint. Consider
Ihe functions
f(x)
2x
= arc sin
-j-2 arc tan
for
a:
>
1,
g(x)
3.1.15. (a)
2x
= arc sin y-j
2 arc tan x
= y;
a-^;
(b)
(c)
for
<
= 10
(d)
it
is
not
appli-
# = 0.
cable, since the function has no derivative at the point

3.1.16. 1.26 < ln(t+?) < 1.37. Hint. Write the Lagrange formula for the
function f(x)~\nx on the interval [e, e-\-\] and estimate the right-hand side
in
the obtained
relation:
In (1 -\-c)
(e
<
<
e-\- 1).
Apply the Lagrange formula to the function f (x) = \n x on the

l+*]> x > 0, and estimate the right-hand side in the obtained re-
3.1.17. Hint.
interval [1,
lation
3.2.3.
ln(l+x)
(b) 0.
=y
Hint.
(1
<
Represent
<
cot x
3.2.1.
-=
(c)
JI!iLf
;
c)
2;
JL
(d)
0;
3.2.5.
(f)
(b) gi
e.
Answers and Hints
434
3.2.6.
(a)
(b)
1;
3.2.9.
1.
-i
(a)
lna-1;
(b)
(c)
(d)
2;
rr.2
(f)
0;
(n)i-;
(h)
1;
(g)
^;
(o)
In a;
(j)
e~;
(p)
-1;
(k)
-1
(r)
1;
(q)
n
2
(i)
(e)
3.3.5.
4":
(m)
e;
(1)
0.34201.
(b)
1
3.3.6.
^ 3.018350.
83
^83 =
tfm/.
V 81+2 =3 (l+gy)
*
-
Apply the
bi-
'
nomial formula and retain four terms.

3.3.7. Hints, (b) Write the Maclaurin formula for the function /(A:)
tan*
with the remainder R 4 (x);
(c) write the Maclaurin formula
for the function
j_
2
with remainders R 2 (x) and R 3 (x).
(1 +*)
/ (#)
3.4.2. (a) / (x)
+ g+o(*
3.4.3.
_^ x +
,
(jcB);
/w = x _^ + f!_fl +
(b)
).
(b)
i;
(c)
-1;
(d)
1;
(e)
1.
1+2,+, 2 -4,3_|, 4 __L, 5; (b)-^-g+g;
1-f +
(c)
720*
3.5.1.
(0,
3.4.4. (a)
+ 12
= 1 ^ _i. x
(d)
oo);
(e)
The function decreases on the
( oo,
interval
and decreases on (^-^
and
y^j
increases on
and
(3,-j-oo)
number
over the entire
the function increases
(f)
0)
^ oo,
the function increases on the intervals
scale.
3.5.2.
(b)
The function
increases on the
intervals
JT
0,
and
5t
^-
2jt
decreases on
and
(b) the funcincreases throughout the number scale;

(c) the function
tion increases on the interval (1, 0) and decreases on (0, 1);
(d) the function increases on both
decreases throughout the number scale;
(e)
oo, 0) and (0, oo) where it is defined;
the function decreases
intervals (
(f) the function
on the intervals (0, 1) and (1, e) and increases on (e, -j-oc);
oo,
and '(I, oo),
on ( 1, 1).
increases
on the intervals (
1)
decreases
3.5.11. b^{.
3.6.1. (b) The minimum is / (1)-=/ (3)
3, the
3.5.10. a<0.
7 \
3.6.2.
(b)
the
minimum
The
(d)
minima
maximum f(2) 4;
/
(a)
3.5.8.
The function
are
(\)=V~3;
the
maximum
3.6.3. (b)
3.6.7. (b)
The maximum
The minimum
3.6.8.
On
mum
(b) the
(b)
j=
'
the interval
minimum
3 6 -10- (a)
-
is
is
is
/(0)
= 2.
( 2)=
/(0)
[0,
= 0.
2jt]:
160;
the
the
the
minimum
minimum
The minimum
/( 2) = 1,
is / (0)
maximum
is
= 0,
/
= 2.
^-^-j=r 4;
the
(2)=
/(0)
1;
maximum
(c)
the
the maxi-
/ (2)
=^4e~ 2
maximum
is
Answers and Hints
25
f
5 =
y
/(0)
= 0,
the
minimum
minimum
the
= 7;
/(0)
to Ch. Ill
maximum
the
(e)
is
maximum
(d) the
3)
435
(2) ==
is /
1,
minimum
the
3,
/(2)=-j/44.
There
3.6.11. (a)
ximum
is
3.7.1.
The
(c)
greatest value
3.7.2.
is
3.7.6.
The
(a)
value
) = --(-0.25
Yl) 6
=^
value
j
/(0)
the least value
= y,
j/(0)
value
the least
/(2)
value /(
least
= 0.
the least value /(3)
In 3, the
is
value
est
3)
'
the least value
value, the least value
est
3.8.3.
H=R
/ ^-^j= 2; (e)
=
2
In 2);
there
(2)
of
is
2,
2.
to
is
of
x)
(sin
at
3.8.8.
The radius
3.8.10.
the radius of the cone base.

.
x
,
15
the cylinder
base
j
of
The equation
3.8.11.
of
is
R
r=
2
the
where
desired
straight
T+T
x=a
p
for a
3.8.12.
>
p and x
v= 1/
V
a^p.
for
3.8.13.
no great-
is
i/
2tl
is
the great-
is
(f)
(1
4Wi
3u~
/(0)=1.
is
(y
interval
the radius of
R
V =where H =the height the cylinder,
acos a, where a = 0.5 arc tan
a sin a,
reduced
finding the greatest value
the function
S = 4xy-\-4x = 4a
2a sin a)
P max = ^r
W = W 3.8.9. A = 2/?=
< a < ~
4
3.8.7. x
the sphere.
Hint. The problem
in the
= ^4
= 0; c the greatest
= ^-0.25 In 3; (d) the
the least value
if"
/(l)=l,
is
î^y^^lh
the least value
/( 2) =
is
(d) the
0.
f(\)
greatest
= 0;
the least value /(0)
ma-
the
(c)
= 0.
the least value y(0)
= 2,
/(0)
is
f(
is
is
value
greatest
the greatest value
(b)
^L_
6,
y(4)
is
is
is
greatest value
the greatest value
(c)
no extremum;
(b) there is
minimum
the
(d)
greatest value
The
(b)
no extremum;
is
= 0;
/(0)
v
1
-ttt
//in/.
will
It
take
2b
hours
cover
one
The
knot.
T = ^~^- = ~-\-bv 2
appropriate expenses are expressed by the formula
to
TL
3.8.14.
cp
Hint. At the
board
width a the
area of
cross-sectional
the
trough is equal to a
walls to the bottom.
3.8.15.
(1
+cos
cp)
Hint. The point
sin
cp.
where
cp
is
the angle of inclination of the

V
of
fall of
the
jet is at a
2
the tank base, where
h
x is the height at
located, v is the rate of flow; therefore the length
the expression
V2gx
y ^^=2
distance of
from
g
which
the orifice should
of the jet
Vx(h-x).
is
be
determined by
Answers and Hints
436
hours the least distance will be equal to ^- km.
3.8.16. After
2v
3.9.1.
The intervals
(b)
xity
tervals of concavity are
)/~~3,
the curve
(e)
oo,
<
the intervals
(f)
the in-
>^3)
oo,
)>
'
^>
concavity are
of
J
3
(0,
convexity
conve-
of
(c)
13);
(1,
oo), of
oo),
(1,
V~3, _ "7(^)>
^
concave everywhere;
is
and
0) and (|^~3,
V"s); the points of inflection are
(0,
1^; the points of inflection are
and
concavity are
of
x x ) and
(x 2)
convexity
of
oo),
points of inflection are (x lt y x ), (x 2
3.9.5.
concave
The point
(a)
>
for x
the curve
is
concave
in
is
where x x
where
3);
(3,
=e
the curve
arc sin
V"5-A
-
is
=e
convex
and convex
in
the
for
<
3 and
l/~~5
#=arc
x2
VI
the abscissa of the point of inflection
y2)
of inflection
(b)
3;
x2)
(x lt
-V~5
sin
i
;
V^\
-
arc sin
2~
3.10.1.
>
(c)
oo
x=2;
(d)
= 0;
= 0;
y = 2x
= 3, y = x 3;
(d)
(e)y
function
3
=y
(1) ==y (
is
asymptote
maximum
1)
6 \
has
no
oo,
4) =
(c)
y=2x as
(c)y = x;
it is even. The graph is symasymptotes. The minimum is y(0)-=l
The points
/
of inflection are
1)
V"3
g
23 \
the
(b)
J;
function
the
2,
1;
+oo). The graph has a vertical

and (
1,
and an inclined asymptote y=x
3. The minimum is y (0)^0,
/
256
3296
The points of inflection are
and
6,
defined in
x=
and
JTX
y=
defined everywhere,
is
and
metrical about the (/-axis
maxima y
(b)
= 2x-^.
The function
3.11.2. (a)
x>+oo
as
(i)
3.10.3. (a) *
defined
is
in
( oo,
0)
and
+oo). The graph
(0,
J;
has a vertical asymptote x
tion
( --
is
V~*
\
)
(1,
two
is
1)
and
vertical
(
(1,
oo);
it
asymptotes
V 3) = +3
inflection is (0, 0);
= 0.
The minimum
(d) the
is
function
is
is
y (^-^-^=3. The point
defined in the intervals
of inflec-
oo,
1),
odd. The graph is symmetrical about the origin, has

1 and an inclined asymptote y x. The minimum
x
the
(e)
maximum
y{V 3)--=
the function
is
2~
point
'
defined everywhere,
it
is
even.
of
The
Answers and Hints

graph
symmetrical about the
is
minimum
(0)
asymptote
The point
is
= 2.
is
The horizontal asymptote
0.37;
the function
y_
(0)
i/
defined in
is
(0)
= 0,
0.075); (g) the function
as x
The
oo.
+oo). The
2,
maximum
the
maximum
The
inflec-
vertical
0.73)^0.12.
defined everywhere.
/ 3 \ 3
/ 3 \
is
is
Ae
is
-z-vi
defined and continuous everywhere. The horizontal asymptote

is i/(0)
0, the point (0, 0) being a corner point on the
y\. The minimum
graph:
is
(tzVjy vi-sy (*_o, (ttfiy
is
inflection are (0, 0),
of
-v~$
(h)
is
= 0.
and has a horizontal asymptote y

2 jj/ 2. The points of
y ( }^ 2)
the function
(f)
The minimum
of inflection
The points
(/-axis
maxima
the
j[/ 4,
(2, \/ A)\
are
tion
is
437
Ill
to Ch.
= -i
f
,
y +{ 0)
=
= +~.
^=2.330;
3.12.11. 0.6705.
x2
2.128.
0.202; jc 3
3.12.13. (a) 1.17; (b) 3.07.
3.12.14. 1.325.
To approximate the smaller root more precisely
- 1 to find a more accurate value of the
write the equation in the form x
e- 8x
1 .25
larger root represent it in the form
In x).
(1
3.13.1. No. Hint. Show that at the point
the derivative is non-exis3.12.6.
4.4934.
3.12.8.
3.12.12. (a) 0.27; 2.25; (b) 0.21.

3.12.15. 0.5896 and 2.2805. Hint.
x=
x~\
tent:
Ml)=-1.
/'-(1)=1;
3.13.2.
Hint. Check the equality
/ (b)
f (a)
= (b a) f
+b
2
Hint. Apply the Rolle theorem to the function / (x)
a^ n -f,..-\-a n - x (x) on the interval [0, x ].
f
A(x 5
3.13.4. Hint. Make sure that the derivative f (x)
one
1) has only
real root, #=1, and apply the Rolle theorem.
3.13.5. Hint. The derivative /' (x)
nx n ~ l
p has only one real root at an
even n and not more than two real roots at an odd n.
3.13.6. Hint. The derivative is a polynomial of the third degree and has
three roots. Take advantage of the fact that between the roots of the polynomial lies the root of its derivative.
3.13.3.
3.13.7. Hint.
From
the correct equality
limcos-r =0
determined from the mean value theorem,
it
~>
(0
<
<
x),
where
is
does not follow that lim

x
~>
cos = 0,
x
since it cannot be asserted that the variable attains all intermediate values
0. Moreover, g takes on only such a sequin the neighbourhood of zero as x
ence of values
3.13.8. Hint.
The mistake
is
=0
().
that in the Lagrange formula one and the
same
is
coefficients
powers of
which lim cos
taken for / (x) and cp (x).

3.13.9. Hint. Apply the Lagrange formula to the function \nx on the interval
a]; (b) apply the Lagrange formula to the function zP on the interval [y, x].
3.13.10. Hint. With
the
aid of the Leibniz formula ascertain that the
point
[by
for
<
of
the Chebyshev-Laguerrc polynomial alternate in sign, the odd

for
having negative coefficients. Whence deduce that L n (x) >
0.
xn
3.13.11. Hint. Using the Rolle theorem, show that inside the interval \x
1
roots of the second derithere are at least n roots of the first derivative, n
vative, and so on.
3.13.12. Hint. The L'Hospital rule is not applicable here, since the derivanumerator and denominator vanish at all points where the
tives, of both the
Answers and Hints
438
factor
sin* (which we cancelled
tives)
vanishes.
+ h) = f(a) + hf'
f (a
with
it
+ Qh) f"
f" (a
the
expansion
= }_f,
a+^ n
6
(a)
(a)
R2
by using
3.13.14. Hint. Prove
h'
(a)+-^
f"
given
the
where p and q are natural numbers, p

> p
/"' (a
>
equality
the
get
limit as h
to the
rule of contraries.
>
+6^).
problem,
the
in
and pass over
h2
deriva-
limit ol the ratio of
Write the Taylor formula with the remainder
3.13.13. Hint.
Comparing
computing the
in
> 0.
Suppose that e== "~
and, using the Taylor formula,
1,
get for n
i =1+ _L + Jr+
Multiply
both
..4
\-
sides
and
n\,
integers
n\ are positive
b
r
n\ J
1!
by
equality
this
of
+ Jr+ _^r (), <9<
...
and
noting,
+r-r(
/i
,,
~ n\ and
< 77 <
n-\-\
that
1,
\ q J
obtain a contradictory result.

3.13.15. Hint. Verify that the function
i
f(x)
sin*
x<
=}
'
n
2
'
is
x=--0
Ascertain that the derivative f
3.13.16. Hint. Show that /' (*)
\
1,
/m
/(0)
<
(x)
0.
inside the interval.
is
Ascertain that
> for a <

= l-a<[ <Qfora>1>
1,
and take advantage
of the fact that the function increases.

3.13.17. Hint. Show that the function f(x)=xe x
2 increases
site signs at the end-points of the interval (0, 1).
3.13.18. Hint. Show that the derivative
/'
is
equal to
the
points
3
a:
W=-^+ 2xsin T C0S T

points *=
(n =
9
{x
and has oppo-
0)
at
the
= 2~~
0,
i-
derivative
the
changes
1, 2,
sign
in
...),
and to
any vicinity
at
of the
origin.
cp (x)
in3.13.19. Hint. Ascertain that the auxiliary function \p (x)
/ (*)
creases.
3.13.20. Hint. Make sure that at all points of the domain of definition of the
bcÔ. But if ad bc 0, i.e.
function the derivative retains its sign if ad
then the function
is
3.13.22.
A minimum
/(*
p 6,
>0 and n
constant. 3.13.21.
if
cp
(x
#=14.
is
even; a
maximum
and n is even; the point x is not an extremum if n

if
f(x )
(p (* ) <
the funcis odd. Hint. At an even n, in a certain neighbourhood of the point x
tion retains its sign and is either rigorously greater than zero or rigorously less
than zero, depending on the sign of cp (x ). At an odd n t lie function changes
sign in a certain neighbourhood of the point x
.
Answers and Hints

For x
3.13.23. Hint.
the
derivative
/' (#)
>
f (x)
hence
0,
= 2 sin + cos
xx
is
/ (0)
439
a
is
minimum. For
positive at the points
x = /
and negative at the points
IV
to Ch.
>
= -^
ZiTin
The case x
(2/i+1)ji
<
investigated ana-
is
logously. 3.13.24. (a)

and 0; (b) 1 and 2.
3.13.25. (a) The least value is non-existent, the greatest value equals 1; (b)
the function has neither the greatest, nor the least value.
3.13.30. Yes. Hint. Since /" (x) changes sign when passing through the point x
the latter is a point of extremum for the function /' (x).
3.13.31. The graph passes through the point
(
2) and has a tangent
1,
line y
is a point of inflection, the curve being concave down2
ward to the left of the point M, and upward to the right of it. Hint. The functhrough
passing
x
tion
increases
and changes sign when
1.
f" (x)
1
=
h
3.13.32.
= L=.
3.13.33. Hint. According to the Rolle theorem, between the roots of the first
there is at least one root of the second derivative. When
passing
through one of these roots the second derivative must change sign.
2
2n
3.13.35. Hint. The polynomial has the form a x' -\-aiX^"- -\-{-a n - x x 2 -{-a n
Polynomials of this form with positive coefficients have no real roots.
3.13.36. Hint. Take advantage of the fact that a polynomial of an odd degree
(and, hence, also its second derivative) has at least one real root and changes
sign at least once.
2
**
lim ( *L
3.13.37. Hint. Find
!
derivative
+ +
Chapter
IV
/=A: 3 + A: 2 + 0.51n|
4.1.2.
-2-
4.1.7.
2x |+C.
1
= (*+l) + ^-*
2
+C.
Hint. Eliminate the irrationality from the
denominator.
4.1.14.
= ~arctan~ + C.
/=-!=arctan-^J+C.
^
4.1.15.
^3
4.1.18.
= ln|* +
Vx* + iyx+_\ + C.
V\Qx-V7
= U= In
+c
2 ^70
V 10*+ V~7
x3
3-
4.1.20.
4.1.21.
(a)
+2cotA: + C;
4.1.22.
arc
tan
(d)
x
(a)
In
4.2.3.
5-l^
5
/
(b)
T (*-4)
+C;
(c)
3tanx-f
l-arc tan x-\- C.
In (x-\-
2
(c)
C;
2 "*
2
1
-f-*
+ C;
)-farc sin x-f-C;

(d)
0.2 cos 5*
37
=
4
Y~2x
(b)
sin x
xsin5a + C.
5 + C.
cos x-\-C\
440
Answers and Hints
t= 2 Vcosx+C.
4.2.8.
+ In
4.2.13. (a) 0.75
(d)
ârctan^ + C;
4.2.14.
y y sin
2 +
.1(8
4a:
arc sinA:
4.3.19.
3* (sin *
4 3 21
3a: 4 )
arc sin
(c)
x+ In
In 2
In
a:
|
-^-{-C;
+C.
+ C;
*+C;
+ C.
+ In tan
2
-J
+ C.
+ cos sin 3)
l+(ln
3)*
+ ^C
,
(x*
4.3.24.
10x + 21) sinA: +
cos 3*-)
2
A;(4A:
20) cos + C.
a:
sin3x + C.
4.3.25.
^j-xt+ix^J \nx ^+^_3*+C.
4.3.26.
iârctanx-^+-J + C.
4.3.27.
y arc cos * -H^ j/T^F+C.
4.3.28.
(a)
_ 18^+g-13
n(6x+2) _6^tl cos(fa+2)+ ^,3 +

2
2_^ +C;
27
express
+C.
4.3.23.
2 *+!)
4.4.2.
^T^7 +C.
(x-x* + lx+!fje** + C.
+ C;
1)
4.3.22.
320
3a:
i-
(f)
j/sin 3
a:
J^l
"
+ +
+ rO |/"i+x + C.
^xf/x [(ln*)*-|ln* + | + C.
2 |Ar+Iarcsin* + 4 J/T^t+C,
xln(x+
4.3.18.
_|_i_ x
ln|ln*|
)(1-a:)
2
a:-|- sin 4
a:
tan x
In
a:
(a:
2 cos yV+C;
(e)
(b)
|-(ln*-5)^l + lnx+C;
cos
4.3.17.
+ C;
(b)
(d)
4.3.14.
__(35-40x+ 14*
/
a:
a:)
(a)
(c)
4.3.2.
4.2.10.
-i3
(b)
+C
(d) Hint.
.|_
(jc
2__ 7jc+1)
( 2x-f-l)3
-A
2a:-7)(2a:+1)
(
Apply the generalized
sin""
e
n --
'
formula
for
integration by parts and
from the relation thus obtained
In
i
1
x (a sin x
n cos x)-\
x
(n\)
3
n1
,
/->
'
n-
Answers and
4.4.3.
(n\) sin"cos x
(b)
'
(a)
cos
_L_tan"-iA:-/_ 2
/i
Vx
v"- 1
a;
a/_ 2
/i
= In|
2);
+ C.
tan
= ln
cos x
sinx|+C;
/
|+C;
a:
= In
Chapter V
5.1.2.
*-2*+| In
5.1.5. 2 ln
In |*
t^t-
V7
3
5.1.10.
^
>^7
arc tan
+ ln x
+
+ 50x + 68
4 (x + 2) (x + 3)
5x
9* a
5.1.11.
(x-
9x4-1
2
5.1.8.
I)
arc tan (x
2 +C
(x+\)
ln
(*
Jn
x+2
5.1.14.
2(jc .
arc
1
^+1
+ In
_"V?+T
tan
tanx-
+ C.
1^3
Lârc
+ C.
arc tan
V3
y x+24
16
3)H
C,
x +x
2 arc tan x
l)
/*+6
5.2.4.
2)
+ 2)
(*
(1+,).
6(1+*)^
+ 2) + C.
(x
5.1.13.
+ C.
~ arc tan +
5.1.12.
5.2.2.
+y ln|*+2| + C.
(Jt+1)
$/'
x+24\n
\
^ x\\ +
C.
?4+ln
V"3
+ C,
5.2.7.
5.2.9.
j/^1x +
f
C.
\--x V
)
5.3.3.
-2
5.3.5.
2 ln
5.2.8.
where
arc sin * + C.
arc tan
j/V-f- 2*
-[-4
*|
2(/*
+C
+ 2*- -4 x
r
= + C;
j/> + a + C;
441
2 sin 2 x
'
= -'
(nS*
nl
Ch.
to
2 sin 2 x
4.4.4.
Hints
l)
= a;-|-C;
/
(c)
Vx*+~a
+ C.
Answers and Hints
442
5.3.6.
5.3.7.
1+l ^-**+2arc
|/ j^+C.
tan
(*+/T+?)" +e
|5.3.8.
15
X
~
^
5 Yx* + 2x 1-5 ln(x+l + y X + 2x+5) + C.
3* + *--l
y 3x 2_ 2x+ + c.
o
Hiii j/x + a:+1 + |- In
+ 2 J/V-j-x+l + C.
14x + 111) Vx*-\-4x-r3- 66 In * + 2 +
+ 3 |+C.
o
.
'
2x
'
5.4.2.
5.4.5.
5.4.6.
5.4.8. -1-
5.4.9.
(jc
2a:
-f-
-f-
(32a- 2
Vw + bx+7
20* 373)
329 '
-\
128
64
/2
In
4jc
4x+5+-
+ 2 V\x*+ 10a:+14| + C.
+
5.4.10.
5 .4. 1
..-^-
4X
,
1
5.4.12.
x2
+C
y j-pnh + + X + 3^ +
2
5.4.13.
+ 3 -2arcsin-L + C.
2
+ C.
////i/.
make
First
the
substitution
t.
5
5.5.2.
3arctan
x-{-C.
5.5.4.
\2 + x*
-y \2 + x
A(l+xV -|-(I+*V + jg (+**) +C.

+ C.
^ |/ (l + ^/^) _3 ^(i
s
5.5.5.
5.5.7.
5.5.8.
5.5...
5.5.10.
5.5.11.
5.6.2.
3 In
V
,
(b)
77= + c
C+^f-^+C.
^+^^-
-11
|V
(a)
+C
3
+ / T4 + C
('
3 sin^ #
5.6.10.
a/ - +
_L
5 sin 5 x
cot
JL tan 2 a:-1
5.6.6.
f_c.
x+y cot x
In
( 1
+ tan
x)
tan*
cot 5 x
+ 4-tan**-|-C.
3
x+C\
+ C \ tan x + In
----
cos
a|
+ C.
+C.
Answers and Hints
sinx
5.6.12.
1+
sin 3 x-\--^ In
]r-
ârc
5.6.14.
tan
443
+C
^tanh-^+r
(b)
(x+
j^
arctan^
+ C.
j/'^T+C.
5.7.4.
1)
/ = arc sin ^în-C.
5.7.7.
*~
/==
5.7.8.
5.8.2.
.o
5.8.5.
= 4 ^ x+ 2 In (2 x 2 V a:) 2 (l +
cos + sin
= arc tan x.
\-C where
a r^
*
6.2.2.
1;
(a)
2/i
(b)
125
r"T~92
4/i
(c)
(f)
6.3.1.
(a)^HL^;
(a)
0;
2,
(c)
<
<
- V 1-f-x
(b)
is
the
*=1,
at
maxima
- (substitution x = a sin 0;
1;
(a)
^2
3
Û+ln 2+]^
2
]A 3
at
1=4
(b)
0.2
(a)
(b)
(c)
i;
(h)
(i)
M = /(0)=A
^ = jjL
minimum
x=
In
e~;
6.3.14. (b)
6.3.24.
the
i-
(b)
at
(b)
112;
^=
(b)
(substitution
*= tan
(b)
yi=
1;
2(y 3-l);
(C )
the
0-
+ ?-^ji.
2
In
j|
6 3. 15. (b)
jx;
1.
Sm
2 1n2;
Hint.
6.4.J5. (a) 2
is
5.
lb
6.4.6.
4/z
arc tan
(g)
1;
(b)~.
In x;
The maximum
= 2;
(a)
2/z
6.2.10.
\-
-J
In 2;
(e)
,125
ift
= 16-4,175
1
6.3.23.
are at x
(a)
+ C.
4x51 = 19.
175
6.3.11.
= -e-smx.
6.4.3.
and
it:
= /(2)=A.
whose height
as the area of a trapezoid
J^lziO.
k)
6.3.25.
-J- arc tan -J;

(
In
VI
=16
(a)
x)
-f-l
= 4 ^~^ ^ = 44
i
io s
6.1.12.
n
"
4x1 1=3
and bases
cc
Chapter
/
-\-C.
+5
I'-'-e^
6.1.9.
]/> 2a:
minima
a:
}^?^) + â:(2*
o
+ +CIn (s + V^TT)--
5.7.3.
sin
sin x\
sinh4*
(J)4-
-+5!|^ + C;
5.6.22. (a)
(d )
7=
Ch. VI
to
n
24
(c)
sin
sin
(d)V3 0.5
In (2
Answers and Hints
444
(e)0.251n3
V^3);
(substitution x
6.4.16.
tution x 2
at
(g)
(b)
-5-;
cos 2
The substitution
tinuous at x
(substitution x
a:
w iH
= tan x
(d) -^(substi-
t)\
n t do, since this function
disconti-
is
will not do, since this function
is
discon-
x=
\/ x 2 dx =
]/ x 2
dx
+^
x 2 dx
\/
-2
-2
and apply the substitutions
Y~t b in
2 <
<
x=-f
and
<
V~t b in
2.
6.4.20.
It
is
impossible,
It
is
possible; see
since
sec
and the interval
of integration
is
1].
[0,
6.4.21.
Problem
6.4.12.
On
G.4.22. Hint.
stitution x
writing
dx ==
/ (x)
-a
in the first
/ (*)
-a
(arc sin
0^+
(n
arc sin
/)
dt+
'
/ (2ji
+ arc sin
/)
sum
of three integrals for the in-
tne
variable:
'
f (x)
If
(1)
is
an even function, then
31
31
f (x)
cos
nxdx 2^
71
f (x)
cos nx dx, and
(x) sin
X dx
Jl
0.
JT
-JT
(2)
the sub-
t,
If
make
-l
2jT
and substitute
)
y) (t' "IT")
x = n arc sin/, x = 2ji + arc sin respectively.
tervals:
dx,
/ (*)
o
/
Hint. Represent the given integral as the
6.5.3.
+J
6.4.23.
arc sin
d*
integral.
-^-^-j
(h)
/);
b
V~ t is double-valued. To obtain
necessary to divide the initial interval of integration into
is
it
parts:
<
a3
(i)
/).
The inverse function
6.4.19. Hint.
= 2a sin
(substitution
-j- In
(c)
x cos x = t)\
7i.
the correct result
<
sin
= 0.
6.4.18.
two
6 2 sin 2
The substitution x = -j~
6.4.17.
nuous
= acos/);
(a) -g-;
=a
(substitution
(a:)
is
an odd function, then

J
JT
/ (x)
cos nx dx ==
0,
and
/ (x)
sin
nxdx
JT
-JT
JT
/ (x)
sin
/i
dx.
6.5.4.0.
(b)
-|;
<g)f-l;
6.6.3. 6
2e.
6.6.5.
(c)
(h)i|l-2^3.
jt
}/" 2
4.
(d)
6.6.6.
1;
jt
6.6.13. (a) -5-
2.
(e)
In
2-
(f) In
Answers and Hints
6.6.14. Hint. Integrate by parts twice, putting

~
(arc cos x) n l the second time.
x.
6.6.15. Hint. Integrate by parts, putting u
time and u
6.7.4.
2/z
= 6;
(b)
445
Ch. VI
to
= (arc cos x) n
the
first
0.601. Hint. Estimate
(a)
1V (x)
/
on the interval
yj
and put
0.7462. 6.7.5. 0.96
6.8.1.
0<x<l,
for
-i
F(x)--
for
< *<2,
Continuity is checked directly. The assertion concerning the derivative re2.

quires checking only at the points *=1, x
6.8.2. Hint. Make sure that the function / (x) is continuous both inside the
and lim f(x)
interval (0, 1) and at the end-points ( lim f(x)
f{\)).
f(0)
*->l-0
X-> +
6.8.3. No. Hint. Consider the function
if x is rational,
1
|
cp (x) == 1
if x is irrational on the interval [0,
1].
6.8.4.
]/"3.
Hint.
/" (x)
dx
f* (b)
(a).
6.8.5.
Hint. Putting for definiteness x
(x)
= n^ x
>
<
and
/z+1,
take advantage of the additivity of the integral

x
(x)
dx=
(x)
dx+
(x)
dx+
...
(x) dx-\-
n-l
the
(x) dx.
6.8.6. The antiderivative F 1 (x) will lead to the correct result and F 2
wrong one, since this function is discontinuous in the interval [0, jc].
(x)
to
X
6.8.7.
ted
in
the
{x)
=y + J
form F
(x)
(0 dt. Hint.
f (t) dt
+ C.
Any
antiderivative
Putting *
=x
0t
find
(x)
can be represen-
C yo=
x
6.8.8.
l=-^\n
2
2b
2a
'
it
is odd, and
The function is defined on the interval
1,
1),
creasing; convex on the interval [1, 0] and concave on the interval [0,
6.8.9.
the point [0, 0] is a point of inflection.

6.8.10. Hint. The function
x x at
< a:^
at, =
'<H
in1];
1_
is
continuous on the interval,
and the greatest value
it
reaches
at
the
least
and
value
at
m=e
xl.
^0.692
at
446
Answers and Hints
6.8.11.
Hint. Integrate the inequality
6.8.12.
Hint.
sin x
Integrate the inequality
and write Schwarz-Bunyakovsky inequality
V x sin x dx ^
J
6.8.14.
x dx
"J/
sin # dx
-=
8"
Apply the Schwarz-Bunyakovsky inequality
//i/i*.
~|2
VI
the form
in
-I
6.8.15.
Hint.
Make
6.8.16.
Hint.
If
= -y-
the substitution arc tan
X
f (x)
is
an even
F(x)
function, then
^f(t)dt
is
an
odd
function, since
F(-x)
f(t)dt = ^f(z)dz = F(x)
(/
z).
And
if
f (x)
an odd function, then
is
F(x)^f(t)dt
is
an
even function,
since
F(x)=
= -^f{-z)dz = F(x)
^f(i)dt
all
the remaining
antiderivatives
have
Chapter
7.1.4.
7.2.2.
(a)
7.2.13.(a)
7.3.4.
~.
6
(a)
~2
'
= -z);
{x)-\~C
and, therefore, are
with respect to a equals zero:
0.
VII
(b)
In 2;
form
the
also even functions.

6.8.17. Hint. The derivative of the integral
~ = /(a + 7W(fl) =
(t
v
(
b)
(i=y;
7.3.6.
'
-| (2 l/"~2-
4-4-4-
2^2
(b)
!n
(1=10
-t-t^
e-j-1
2;
(c)
arc sin A~+45

3
2
1
- 283
A;
(c)
l);
7 2 5
*
'
(d)
X4
7 2 - 10
-
7.3.11.
2.
A.
15
7.2.15.
'
y.
7.3.13.9.
'
'
'
(1=^ +
(e)
1;
V& + h*
7.2.16.
7.3.16.
i-r
m-\-l
Answers and Hints
VII
to Ch.
447
y.
7.3.19.
98
7.3.23. -i-
y.
7.3.20.
7.3.24.
7.4.9.
(a)
twice at the origin at
quadrants;
in the
Hint. The curve
(b)
x=
only
2 ),
is
is
7.3.22. 0.75jt.
3).
7.3.27. -ilz
7.3.28.
oU
symmetrical about the coordinate
a, y
b.
symmetrical about the #-axis, intersecting
The loop
1.
is
situated in the second and third
Hint. The points of self-intersection ot the curve are found
tx (/),
x (t^ = x
following way: y
= x(t
x(t 1 )
15
7.3.26.
Hint. The curve
V 3)ln(2+V
axes and intersects them at the points
it
(2
7.3.25.
7.4.8. 0.75jtafr.
2ji
4
15
7.4.6.
7.3.21.
if
therefore y
(t 2 )
= 0,
= x x
^ = 0; = 2\ (c)
(t x )
i.e.
{t x
(t 2 )
at
^zt 2 and
t1
D
Hint. The curve is symmetrical with respect to both axes of
coordinates and passes twice through the origin forming two loops. Therefore, it
is sufficient to compute a quarter of the desired area corresponding to the variation
7.4.10. 0.25nab.
of
from
to
7.4.11.
and multiply the obtained result by
4.
Hint. The curve resembles an astroid extended in the vertical
^-J-.
Sab
direction.
7.5.2.
(b)
(a) 5^.;
The curve
Hint.
is
radius
circle of
through the pole and symmetrical about the polar axis,
7.5.8.(a)^;
7.5.6.2^(^1-.).
(b)
passing
^"^(p^y.
XI
JX
7.5.9.^(^-^3").
'
Tia
7.5.10.
-575-
Hint. The curve passes through the pole forming two loops located
oZ
symmetrically about the
the first and fourth quadrants. It

by one loop corresponding to variation
(/-axis in
to calculate the area enclosed
is
of
sufficient
cp
from
ji
to
and double the result thus obtained.
7.5.11.
jt<2
Hint.
The curve
passes
through the pole,
it
is
symmetrical
about the polar axis and situated in the first and fourth quadrants. It is sufficient
to calculate the area of the upper portion of the figure which corresponds to
ji
variation of
from
cp
to
and double the
result thus obtained.
(,+_).
zia^
7.5.13.
(a
Hint. The
them only
curve
is
symmetrical about the coordinate axes and
the origin, forming four loops

one in each quadrant
four-leaved rose). Therefore, it is sufficient to find the area of one loop corres-
intersects
at
ponding to the variation of

2
cp
from
to
and multiply the result by
4.
7.5.14. Y~2 na
Hint. The curve is symmetrical about the axes of coordinates and the bisectors of the coordinate angles; it cuts off equal intercepts on
the axes. The origin is an isolated point. It is sufficient to compute the area of
.
Answers and Hints
448
one-eighth of the figure corresponding

result
by
2
9
Hint.
tiply the
7.6.2.
ji.
to variation
circle
2n 2 a 2 b.
7.6.10.
7.6.16.
(a)
7.6.18.
(a)
are:
= ~
3
x x1
and mul-
to
*2
^ abk
64
(c)
jx;
therefore the cross-sectio-
(d)
-=-ji;
ji
5jx
64
(f)
11
-e
\na*\ e
+na c =
2
no*.
-r-
_ 2A
a3
~ji;
(e)
|-a 3 tana.
7.6.17.
7i.
^
3
^+
sinh
Hint. The abscissas of the points of intersex
}/" 3).
ji.
7.6.23.
7.6.24.
48
Ifinr 6
127
1Q
tt
.
7.6.14.
7.3.9).
(c)
triangle situated at a distance x from
|a;
7.6.21.
^(6ji-|-5
7.6.22.
j/"l6
Problem
(see
2L.
7.6.20.
r=
h Yâ 2
to
(b)
16
10
(b)
12ji;
tt
tion
7.6.11.
2
-f jra c.
equal
is
2nab(^\+^j\
5jL.
7.6.19.
from
cp
perpendicular to the *-axis at the point x will
plane
cut the sphere along a circle of radius

nal area S(#)
ji(16
x 2 ).
7.6.5. 0.5na 2 h. Hint. The area
of a
the centre of the
of
8.
7.6.25.-^^2
ji.
105a/?
//t/i/.
Represent the evolute
= ^-s\n
jra
c= y a 2 b 2
where
t,
of the ellipse
parametrically as follows: x
^-na A
7.6.26.
-^L
7.6.27.
cos 3
2 In
7.6.28.
|^ 2)
-f-
Jta 3 .
7.7.2.^.
(b)2ln(2-^3). //W.
|-j
7.7.4.
In
^=-i;x,
=
2
2
axes at
10^+^5^.
t
^2+ V 3)
+
7.7.9.
In
7.8.8.
7.8.9. 8na.
16a.
7.8.12.
7.9.9.
1.5jxa.
= 2 ^ 2 a cos
(
V
[
cp
7.10.18. 29.6ji.
7.10.8.
V 3/
7.10.19.
~J
is
+ r2)].
+ 3-i^V
^24-^(1+
Hint. The curve intersects the
At
= ~L
In -|-
7.9,10. 2
Hint.
the point
3a
p[|^2+ln(l
7.9.11.
2jx
f 6+
coordinates,
//m/. The curve p
7.10.15.
y.
7.9.5.
2jt
7.8.5.
8a.
(c)
7
v
'
j/"3\
2jt
7.10.5.
polar
to
7.7.8. (a)
-2-;
=iV 8. 7.8.7. 4 j/~3.

7.8.11.
7.8.10. ii^Z^l
y
and
See Fig. 79.
al
7.8.2.
over
J^
'
7.7.10.
Pass
Hint.
^2
jia.
a circle.
(a)
7.10.3.
-.
Jii
7.10.14.
(34
(b)^.
V~\j-2)?-.
9
1^2)].
4n 2 a 2
7.10.16.
y^
2
-
jta 2 .
7.10.20.
7.10.17.
7.11.7.
2).
16a 2 where a
is
--y-^
jx (<?*
Answers and Hints
radius
the

cylinders
the
of
(0 l(53i
o
+ 6 V 3).
7.11.13.
3 1).
na 2 /"p?.
7.11.21.
+ 21n ^fL3)
M
7.13.7.
ft
fl
rt ,
7.13.11.
7.13.19.
(c)2n ,fc
nabhd.
7.12.11.
M y =-j
2
;
aft
= f2
Xc
= y c = -j.
0.2 (2e
*r
7.13.31.
x,
(a
0.2a
if
both
and
is
7.11.23.
nR * H
(e
=x
m-\-n
+ ln(l+
/i
dx
equal to
/"2).
Mx =
7.13.10.0.15.
f/
7.13.28.^ = ^;
= 0.
7.13.8.
7.13.16. x c
= 0.4a.
yr
= 0.
* 2e*)
m n
if
m-\-n
x m have two
figure
4.5na y
and n are
and n are
of different
if
m-\-n
and y =
The area of the
n
jta 3
0.25:rc/? 3 .
7.13.3.
'
7.13.30.
are odd;
/z
2).
=f\ 7.12.9.^.
mn
7.14.1.
m-\-n
3b)
yc
71
evenness. Hint. The curves y

and (1, 1) in the first quadrant.
quadrant
')^fl.
12
4/?
12
7.13.26.
2
/"2
7.13.9.
0r
mn
even;
j2
7.13.12.
/jf
7.12.4.
-f^.
a3b
J/5-2 V
^51
7.12.13.
V'a 2Jt-b^
/*
7.13.29.
^-
(5^ 5-1); M y = ^V 5 + lln(2+^ 5).
7.12.2.
nrdh'K
7.12.12.
+^
7.U.22.
I2ji.
(^5-0) + (^2+l)
jx
(5
Y~2)\
7.11.19.
/
nabh
(a)
V2
7.11.14.
-;
(a)
(3 + 4
(b)
15
7.11.24.
7.11.10.
1.5jx.
(a)
'
(2 In
7.11.18.
2jx
7.11.20.
449
^3
7.11.17.
7.11.8.
base.
71,n
^~T arctan T-
VII
to Ch.
both
common
situated
points (0, 0)
in the first
Depending on evenness and oddness
m and n this figure is mapped symmetrically either about the coordinate

and n are of different
axes (m, n even) or about the origin (m, n odd). If
evenness, then the curves enclose only the area lying in the first quadrant.
formula for computing the area in
7.14.3. Hint. Take advantage of the
polar coordinates.
7.14.4. Hint. Since the figures are of equal area, the function S(x) appear-
of
ing in the formula for the
volume
V=
(x)
dx
is
the
same and, consequently,
the values of the integrals are also equal.

7.14.5. Hint. The formula follows directly from Simpson's formula
h
/ (x)
dx
= [f(0) + *i(j^+f(h)].
Answers and Hints
450
S(x)
sphere
for
revolution
= n(r x
2
= 2jip#
(#)
for
)\
cone
nr
(x)
x2
;
paraboloid of
for a
and so on.
Hint. Divide the curvilinear trapezoid into strips A# wide and write
an expression for the element of volume AV
2n xy Ax.
7.14.8. Hint. Use the formula for calculating the length of a curve represented parametrically.
7.14.6.
7.14.9.
In
Hint. The
tangent corresponds to
y.
V2-z.
7.14.14.
7.14.13.
the origin with a vertical
nearest to
point
7.14.16.
0.5 In
(a)
(x+y);
JX
(b)
0.5 arc sin x.
Chapter
8.1.2.
(b)
VIII
y ln2;
(c)
(d)
1;
* n
8.1.6. (a)
M^
Hint.
diverges.
(c)
8.1.17.
nX
n X
+*
dx[ } x> dx-\+
^ >
for
Represent
nX
the
integral
dx
}
1
(b) converges;
diverges.
(e)
sum
the
as
Make
4"
the substitution *
" X
that
dx=-
" X
\
dx;
(b)
_2_
(f)
(a)
(a)
diverges;
8.2.14.
(e)
9a
(a)
(b)
converges for p
8.2.7.
(e)
<
it
diverges;
and diverges
converges.
for
(a) 2ji.
mgR. Hint. The law
It
(e)
y;
8.3.8.
3jw 2
(d) converges;
(b) 2 V^ln 2;
diverges;
(c)
of attraction of a
R
= niP
-^y
6^2;
converges;
(c)
diverges;
diverges;
(b)
(d)
1.
8.2.11. (a)
converges;
It
diverges;
(c)
(b) diverges;
converges;
It
(f)
converges. 8.3.7. (a)

8.3.14.
the se-
in
'
summand and show
8.2.2.
two items:
of
-r ^
CO
cond
> Y'el;
converges;
1.
(f)
ji;
Vx
f
J
iy
> _J__
(e)
cc
f
J
Hint.
0.
(a)
CO
In 2;
^*
diverges. Hint.
It
8.3.9.
-1
(c)
y.
converges;
(d)
8.3.10.
body by the Earth
is
^p.
deter-
mined
by
the
formula
where
is
the
mass
distance between the body and the centre of the Earth,

Earth.
of the
8.3.15. e v Hint. Electric charges interact with a force -jf-
body, r
where
ex
are the magnitudes of the charges and r is the distance between them.
8.4.1. Hint. Represent the integral in the form of the sum
+co
a
+ oo
f
J
1
dx
xp \n9
_C
x~ j
1
dx
xp \n^x
J
a
dx
x?
{a
>
is
the
the radius of the
is
l)
and
e2
Answers and Hints

and apply special tests
integral In a:= ln[l
VIII
to Ch.
consideration
convergence, taking into
for
451
that in the
and in the second integral

than any power function.
the logarithmic function increases slower for q <
8.4.2. Hint. Making the substitution xQ=t, reduce the given integral to the
first
a:
as
1,
+l
form
1)]
smtdt. Represent the
integral
dt +
t*
dt,
where a =
t*
sin
as the
dt
sum
and show that the integral conver-
absolutely
ges
îi_L
for
the
<a<2
integral
and
reduced
is
conditionally
the
to
0<a^l.
for
Note
that
converging
conditionally
at
integral
+X
-f CC
GO
f
J
pi
t
^jl-dt, and
at
to the diverging integral
~^-dt.
1/2
8.4.3.
xp
sum
Hint. Represent the given integral as the
- l (\x) (i- dxr

v
o
l
xP~
-}-
(1
x)*!-
dx and apply the special comparison
test.
1/2
T
8.4.4.
8.4.5.
Hint.
If
By
Hint.
7=
sin ax- sin fix
then
|,
substituting
=x
the
dx
integral
is
bounded.
is
reduced
to
Euler
the
gamma-function.
hM-fMdxJ fJ&dx-[ L&dxJU!!^
Hint.
8.4.6.
In
-4
h
OC
dx.
aa
that the last integral tends to zero as a

0.
8.4.7. Hint. Take the function f(x)
e~ x for the
cosx for the second and take advantage of the
f(x)
8.4.8. It converges for
< 3 and diverges for
equivalence of
cos
a:
and
integral, the function

results of Problem 8.4.6.
first
m ^ 3.
as
Hint. Take advantage
0.
ji
P
8.4.9.
aa
Applying the generalized mean value theorem, show
aa
of the
a&
Hint.
Represent
dx
as
the
sum
C
of
J (sin x)*
two integrals
5
dx
J (sin
x)
-f-
dx
;
reduce the second integral to the
first
one by making the substi-
J (sin*)*
ji
tution x
=
tl
and take advantage
of the
equivalence of sin* and x as x
0.
Answers and Hints
452
mni
8 4 .,o.
.
- cosx)
sinx{[
.
*(i-x)
dx=
dx
CC
C0S
4 ^
^'^s
^ dx
'
The
inte & rand of tne
summand on
first
the right side
is
>0. By the special comparison

an infinitely large quantity of order s
3 as x
test the first integral converges absolutely for s
3 < 1, i.e. s < 4, and diverges
for s^4. The second integral in the right side converges absolutely for s > 1,
the second insince the function sin#(l
cos a:) is bounded. But if
< s
tegral converges conditionally as the difference of two conditionally converging
<
00
cc
*-^dx
integrals
^s\nx-josx
and
dx
Pro5 em
(ee
8>I
j 3 ).
^
TT
JT
Hint.
8.4.11.
example,
Integral (2) can diverge. For
YV(x)
cp
let
2/ux<A:<(2/z4-i)ji,
1,
<
11,
(2/i
H- 1)ji
<
<
(2/z4-2)
jt.
CO
CD
The
-^^- dx converges
integral
(see
Problem
8.1.13).
But
^^-^^(x)dx =
o
CO
00
S *"
diverges (see the
<2a:
same problem). But
if
the integral
/ (x)
dx con-
o
cc
verges absolutely, then the integral
f (x) cp (#)
dx also converges absolutely:
if
a
cp
|
(#)
<
C,
then
/ (a:) cp (a:)
< C
f (x)
and
|,
it
remains
the comparison
to use
theorem.
ji
T" x
8.4.12
//m*. Transform
the
integral
(x)
into f
(x)=
In sin z
by the
dz
JT
2
Jl
substitution
the
above
8.4.13.
z.
Taking
into account that sin z
to the sum ol three integrals.

Hint. Putting w=ln cos x\ cos 2nx dx
= dv,
Z
2 sin
/,,
'
2/2
p
\
sin
sin 2/?a
sin 2/2*
= sin
(2n
cos*
dx,
2) x-cos
2a,
0.
cos
reduce
integrate by parts and get
T
=
1
the equality
J
Since
4- sin 2a -cos (2/z
2)
a:,
Answers and Hints
to
Ch. VIII
453
n_
2
sin
nx2) ^
f
/0
\ sin (2n
.
ln
~2n
a:
cos #
n
2
+ jsin(2n-2>*.sin 2
^ + U^
2
cos
(2/z
2)
a:
J
Check by
direct calculation that
equal zero. Therefore,
and
by
sin
induction,
2/i
cos
a:
sin (2/z
v
4*
2jt
n^2
for
Since /,---
for
2)
7
^2
dx
A'
= ( 1)"- ^
1
=
n
cos x
= ^ we have
4
the second and the third
/2
==
/_,.
n 1
summands
/ 3 =.-.-.
*
<j
'
T~^3^4

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I.A.

(With elements of theory)

FROM THE RUSSIAN

Revised from the 1970 Russian edition

sed Interval. Continuity of an Inverse Function

Real Numbers. The Absolute Value of a Real

Applications of the Derivative

Differential of a Function. Application to App-

Basic Theorems on Differentiable Functions

Taylor's Formula. Application to Approximate Cal-

Indeterminate Forms. L'Hospital's Rule

Maxima and Minima

Solving Problems in Geometry and

Investigating Functions and Sket-

Chapter IV. Indefinite Integrals. Basic Methods

Chapter V. Basic Classes

Integrating Irrational Expressions

Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions

Integration of Other Transcendental Functions

Integration (List of Basic

Chapter VI. The Definite Integral

Lower and Upper

Evaluating Definite Integrals

Estimating an Integral. The Definite Integral as a

Changing the Variable

Simplification of Integrals Based

Approximating Definite Integrals

the Aid of De-

Finding Average Values

Computing Areas in Rectangular Coordinates ...

The Area of a Curvilinear Sector in Polar Coordinates

The Arc Length

Chapter VII. Applications of

The Arc Length

Computing Pressure, Work and Other Physical

Chapter VIII. Improper Integrals

Improper Integrals with Infinite Limits

Answers and Hints

This textbook on mathematical analysis

experience of lecturing at a higher technical college. Its aim

to problems improving the theoretical

background. Therefore standard computational exercises are supple-

Some counter-examples explaining

the need for cer-

formulation of basic theorems are also

introduction containing the prin-

theorems and formulas. Then follows

one or more typical problems. Finally, problems with-

which are similar to those solved but

contain certain peculiarities.

students to the textbook

they can refer the

character and concentrate mainly on the solution

meet the needs

or following correspondence courses, providing a sub-

stitute for the oral explanations given to full-time students.

he studies the relevant theoretical material

on to the worked-out solutions, and finally

solutions unless in difficulty.

1.1. Real Numbers.

number may be written

p and q and vice versa.