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Reservoir
Dam
Service Intake
Bottom outlet
Spill structure
Diversion structure
Service road
Fig 1.1
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Storage Components
The reservoir volume is sub divided in to the following parts, when seen in its vertical section.
Reservoirs
Functions of reservoirs in Hydraulic Engineering
Balancing water demand and supply
Storage of water for further usage
Provision of storage: flood storage, sedimentation storage, for industrial sewerage,
nature protection
Classification of storage based on use:
Use and drinking water storage
Storage for irrigation
Storage for hydropower
Storage for low flow augmentation
Storage for cooling water
Flood storage
Artificial lakes, e.g. for recreation, fish protection, nature protection
Single or multiple purpose reservoirs
Classification based on storage or balancing period:
Day, week, month, year storage
Classification based on art of storage:
Surface storage
Subsurface storage (Caverns, Ground water)
Reservoir parameters
The most important reservoir parameters are reservoir volume (storage) S (m3), the reservoir area
A (m2) which can be related to the elevation or water level in the reservoirs. These parameters can be
computed with the help of topographic maps or surveying. The reservoir surface area can be
computed using planimetery related to a given contour height.
Based on the derived elevation-area curve and depth, elevation-volume can be computed using
various methods:
I. Average area or trapezoidal method
A Ai 1i
Si hi
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II. Simpsons 1/3 rule method
A 4 Am Ai 1i
Si hi
Where Am= mean area between Ai & Ai+1
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III. Simpsons 3/8 rule method
h 3
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9
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Si i A1 A2 A3 A4
3 8
8
8
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Where h: depth magnitude between interpolation points
A1, A2, A3 and A4: are planar areas at interpolation points.
Classification of Dams
Dams are numerous types and there are various ways of classifications.
Classification Based on Purpose
a) Storage Dams
i) Flood control
ii) Water supply: domestic, municipal, industrial, irrigation
iii) Hydroelectric power
iv) Recreation storage
v) Pollution control
b) Stage control Dams
i) Diversion
ii) Navigation
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iii) Check
c) Barrier Dams
i) Levees and dykes
ii) Coffer dams
d) Multipurpose Dams
Classification based on Hydraulic design
a) Overflow dams
b) Non overflow dams
c) Composite dams
Classification According to Material of construction
a) Embankment Dams
b) Concrete Dams
a) Embankment Dams
They are constructed of earth fill/earth fill. Upstream and upstream faces are similar and moderate
angles, giving a wide section and a high construction volume reltive to height.
b) Concrete Dams
They are constructed of mass concrete. Face slopes are dissimilar, general steep downstream and
near vertical upstream slopes, and dams have relatively slender profile dependent on the type.
Other type such as timber, steel, etc dams in some cases may be constructed.
Dam
Embankment
Concrete
Gravity
Arch
Arch-Gravity
Massive
buttress
Rockfill
Earth fill
Combination
Good for narrow valleys. Except arc or cupola, also suitable for wide valleys.
Smaller construction fill volume (compared to embankments)
Construction can takes place irrespective or weather condition
Smaller free board (1-1.5m)
Can be constructed as overflow dam, i.e. can accommodate spillway, hence cost for
separate spillway reduced.
Outlet pipe work, valves and other ancillary works can be provided within the body
of the dam
Disadvantages:
Sensitive to settlement, demanding sound rock foundation
Sensitive by earth quake
Depending on the dam type, its construction is demanding (technical personnel,
machine requirement, form work)
Difficult heightening (simplification by pre-stressing)
Bad interference in to natural landscape
Completed unit costs are much higher than for embankment fills, which seldom
balanced by the much lower volumes of concrete required in a dam of certain height.
1.7.1. Gravity Dams
Concrete gravity dam is designed so that its stability is maintained on it own mass. Its profile
is essentially triangular, to ensure stability and to avoid over stressing of the dam or its
foundation. It may be straight or curved in plan.
1.7.2. Buttress Dams
Consist of a continuous upstream face supported at regular intervals by downstream buttress.
Buttress dams were first developed to conserve water in regions where materials were scarce
or expensive but labor was cheap. Normally needs up to 60% less concrete than gravity dams
of the same height, but needs more form work and reinforcement.
(See figure 1.6.c)
1.7.3. Arch Dams
Loads resisted mainly by arch action and transmitted through abutments. It requires constant
solid and strong abutments. The type is suitable in narrow gorges when the length of the
crest is not more than 5 times the height of the dam. Its particular derivation is the cupola or
double curvature arch dam, which is the most sophisticated concrete dams, and is extremely
economical in concrete. (Refer figure 1.6. b)
1.7.4. Other Concrete Dams
There are member of less common variant of the major types of concrete dams, which also exist.
They include hollow gravity, decked buttress, flat slab (ambursen) buttress, multiple arch (multiple
cupola) dams.
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g.
h.
The valley width at the dam site is required to be narrow and wide in the storage part. Figure 1.8
shows the various forms of valley shapes.
Slope: upstream of the dam site, the possible small slope and downstream of the dam site the
possible large slope (by hydropower scheme)
In the collection of relevant topographical information, the following may be followed:
General Plan:
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Obtain a general plan of the catchment and project area from relevant sources (e.g. EMA)
Carry out limited survey to include additional information in this plan (aerial reconnaissance,
physical survey, walkovers)
It must include: the dam site, spillway site, irrigable area/power house site, catchment are of
the stream, locality to be supplied with potable water (if any) Scale may vary from 1:10001:10,000
The following features should be included:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Availability of aggregate
Reservoir Site
Discharge (surface and sub-surface); daily/monthly volume of flow in the stream and
peaks of stream flow at or near dam site
Miscellaneous Data
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Materials data: soil, gravel and stone (for aggregate and riprap) are needed in good quantity
and quality for dam construction (possible borrow sites for these materials should be
identified), the borrow area should be within the reasonable distance from the site. Selection
of suitable borrow area is identified by:
Thickness of the top organic soil which has to be discarded
Content of organic matter in the rest of the soil
Quantity of oversized cobbles which would have to be removed from the
soil
Rock for aggregate and riprap has to pass the standard tests of specific gravity, absorption,
abrasion, soundness, etc.
Erosion in the catchment area- identify sources of erosion
Transport-Existing facilities and rates
Local labor-availability and rates
Information at the desk study stage
Notes on site reconnaissance
Which are generally valid for site investigation for civil engineering purposes.
1.8.3. Investigations
The purpose of site or material investigation in the context of dam engineering is to determine the
suitability of the selected site for dam construction and reservoir storage as well as to describe the
geotechnical parameters necessary for the design and construction of the structures.
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For such purposes, thus, general site exploration and investigations, in addition to the above data
collection, involve the following:
Field investigation
In situ tests/ Field tests
Laboratory tests
(See details of these soil mechanics and foundation engineering courses)
1.8.4. Location of Dam
Influencing factors:
Suitability for appurtenant structures (bottom outlet, intake, spillway, power house)
Recreation value
Cost
Dam type
Required storage
Finance
1.8.6. Selection of Dam Type
Influencing factors:
Topography (valley form see Figure 1.8 and 1.10)
Foundation (stability, impermeability)
Geology (layers, fishers)
Required height
Purpose of the dam
Climate (ice)
Flood spillway
Availability, quality (nature, state) of construction materials
Construction (Supply, transport, equipment, qualification of personnel)
Landscape
Cost (economics)
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It is necessary to make open the possible alternative solutions until an optimum solution is found
w.r.t cost, construction program and available resource. Novak et al consider four cardinally
important points in selection of dam type as:
1.
Hydraulic Gradient: the nominal value of hydraulic gradient I for seepage under,
around or through dam varies by at least one order of magnitude according to type
(0.5 for homogenous dam to 10 or more for buttress or coupola)
2.
Foundation stress: nominal stress transmitted to the foundation vary greatly with dam
type (The notional maximum stresses due to dam height of 100m varies between 1.8
to 10 MN/m2 for embankment to arch dams)
3.
Foundation deformability: certain types of dams are better able to accommodate
significant foundation deformation /settlement without damage.
4.
Foundation excavation: economic considerations dictate the excavation volume and
foundation preparation should be minimized.
Figure 1.10 illustrate examples of valley profile with suggested dam type and Table 1.3 provide type
characteristics with respect to choice of dams 9After Novak et al)
Figure 1.10: Illustrative examples of valley profile in relation to dam type
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Type
Embankment
Earth fill
Rock fill
Concrete
Gravity
Buttress
Arch/Cupola
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