7/20/2012

Tissues and Differential Gene

Expression

Overview of Plant Development

Development of zygote
into an embryo

Stages of plant embryo development

Development of the young plant

7/20/2012

The transformation results from interrelated processes:

If you were a plant cell, how would you know

what you are to become? What is your fate?

Cell division
zygote gives rise to a large number of cells
Cell differentiation
cells become specialized in structure and function
Morphogenesis
creation of form
physical process give an organism its shape
organization in particular 3-dimensional arrangement

Plant Development
All cells share a common genome that
possesses all the genes necessary to make any
kind of plant cell.
Mature cells removed from a leaf or root can
dedifferentiate in tissue culture and give rise
to the diverse cell types of a plant
Thus, cellular differentiation depends on gene expression.
Gene expression is the regulation of transcription and translation resulting in the
production of specific proteins.

Fig. 35-8

Plant Tissues
Dermal
Vascular
Ground

Dermal
tissue
Ground
tissue

Vascular
tissue

7/20/2012

Vascular Tissue System

Dermal, Vascular, and Ground Tissues

Each plant organ has dermal, vascular, and
ground tissues
Each of these three categories forms a tissue
system

long-distance transport of materials

between roots and shoots
Xylem
conveys water and dissolved minerals upward
from roots into the shoots

Phloem
transports organic nutrients from where they
are made to where they are needed

Dermal tissues are protective tissues.

Fig. 35-8

Vascular Tissue System

Collectively called the stele
In angiosperms the stele of the root is a
solid central vascular cylinder
The stele of stems and leaves is divided into
vascular bundles, strands of xylem and
phloem
Dermal
tissue
Ground
tissue

Vascular
tissue

Fig. 35-8

Ground Tissue System

Neither dermal nor vascular
Ground tissue internal to the vascular tissue
is pith; ground tissue external to the
vascular tissue is cortex
Ground tissue includes cells specialized for
storage, photosynthesis, and support
Dermal
tissue
Ground
tissue

Vascular
tissue

7/20/2012

Plant Cells

Plant Cell Types

A plant has many cells, wherein these cells
differ in structure and function.
Cellular differentiation
the specialization of cells in structure and
function

Parenchyma
Collenchyma
Sclerenchyma
Water-conducting cells of the xylem
Sugar-conducting cells of the phloem

Parenchyma

Parenchyma Cells

Intercellular space

Mature parenchyma cells

Cell wall
thin and flexible primary walls
lack secondary walls

Perform the most metabolic functions

Retain the ability to divide and differentiate

Aerenchyma cells
Aerenchyma cells

Intercellular space

7/20/2012

Structural parenchyma
Aerenchyma from stem of Papyrus

Aerenchyma tissue- the presence which

is continuous from leaves to roots
enable wetland and waterlogged plants
to maintain levels of O2 to support
respiration

Aerenchyma from stems

Enable root system to obtain
oxygen by
projecting above water.
Breathing roots
(pneumatophores)Form from lateral roots,
project above soil-20-30 cm
permit O2 to reach O2
deficient submerged roots,
also develop aerenchyma
tissues

Fig. 35-18a

Chlorenchyma

Key
to labels

-photosynthetic parenchyma

Dermal
Ground
Vascular

Cuticle

Sclerenchyma
fibers

Stoma

Upper
epidermis
Palisade
mesophyll

Spongy
mesophyll

Bundlesheath
cell

Lower
epidermis
Cuticle

Xylem
Vein

Phloem
(a) Cutaway drawing of leaf tissues

Guard
cells

7/20/2012

Boundary parenchyma

Chlorenchyma cells in Dieffenbackia

- epidermis

Meristematic parenchyma

Boundary parenchyma

- actively dividing

Shoot tip

Root tip

Storage parenchyma
node

Sulphur-based chemicals in radishes

increase bile flow, improves health of gall bladder
Napiform shape of radish

Internode- region bet

2 nodes

Tap roots

7/20/2012

Enlarged
adventitious roots in
sweet potato,
Ipomoea batatas

Collenchyma Cells

Storage
parenchyma

Lamellar

More thickened walls

Cell walls
thicker and uneven cell walls
lack secondary walls

Angular

Grouped in strands and help support young

parts of the plant shoot
Provide flexible/plastic support without
restraining growth

Lacunar

Fig. 35-10b

Corner thickening

Lamellar or tangential collenchyma

5 m

More thickened tangential walls

Angular collenchyma

Collenchyma cells (in Helianthus stem) (LM)

7/20/2012

Sclerenchyma Cells
Collenchyma-support of
young organs while
still elongating

Cell Walls
rigid because of thick secondary walls strengthened with
lignin (binds to cellulose fibers and hardens and
strengthens the cell walls)

They are dead at functional maturity

There are two types:
Non-Conducting
Sclereids are short and irregular in shape and have thick
lignified secondary walls
Fibers are long and slender and arranged in threads

Conducting

Epidermal sclereids in protective bulb scale of garlic

Non-conducting sclerenchyma cells

Sclereids

Fig. 35-10c

Cross sections of
fibers

5 m

Sclereid cells in pear (LM)

25 m

Cell wall

Fiber cells (cross section from ash tree) (LM)

7/20/2012

Fibers from abaca Musa

Fibers for twine

Fig. 35-10d

Fibers of flax ca 0.8 -6.9 cm long

Conducting sclerenchyma cells

Vessel

Tracheids

100 m

fibers

Pits
Tracheids and vessels
(colorized SEM)
Perforation
plate
Vessel
element
Vessel elements, with
perforated end walls

Fig. 35-10d1

Vessel

Tracheids

100 m

Tracheids

Fig. 35-10d2

Pits
Perforation
plate
Vessel
element
Tracheids and vessels
(colorized SEM)

Vessel elements, with

perforated end walls

Tracheids

7/20/2012

Secondary wall patterns

-deposited inner to the primary wall, strong,
durable, stiffens cell wall, lignified (lignincross-linked polymer)
a. Annular tracheids - tracheids having
thickenings in the form of ring.
b. Spiral tracheids - lignin is deposited in the form
of a continuous spiral.
c. Reticulate tracheids - thickenings in the form
of a network.
d. Scalariform like a ladder
e.Pitted tracheids - entire wall is uniformly
thickened, leaving small areas called pits.

Annular- ringlike

Secondary wall patterns

Helical-spiral
Scalariformladder-like
Reticulate-netted
Pitted-primary wall
almost all covered
with sec walls
except at pits.

helical

helical
annular

reticulate

pitted

scalariform

Longitudinal sections of xylem

and
phloem cells

annular
secondary wall

10

7/20/2012

Reticulate wall pattern

Spiral secondary
wall pattern

Reticulate secondary wall pattern

Scalariform wall pattern

Three Basic Types of cells based on Cell

Wall: Summary
Parenchyma. Thin primary walls. Typically alive at maturity.
Many functions.
Collenchyma . Unevenly thickened primary walls. Typically
alive at maturity. Provide plastic support.
Sclerenchyma. Primary walls plus secondary walls. Many dead
at maturity. Provide elastic support and some (tracheary
elements) are involved in water transport

Types of Tissues
I. Simple- one cell type
Parenchyma
Collenchyma
Sclerenchyma
II. Complex- more than one cell type present
Xylem-conduction of water and minerals
Phloem- conduction of food

11

7/20/2012

Cells in Xylem Tissue

A. Water-Conducting Cells

tracheids and vessel elements

dead at maturity
tracheids are found in the xylem of all
vascular plants

B. Supporting Cells - fibers

C. Storage Cells - xylem parenchyma

Starch sheath
Crushed phloem cells

Sieve element
cambium
metaxylem
Crushed
protoxylem

Xylem tissue

Sugar-Conducting Cells of the Phloem

Sieve-tube elements are alive at functional
maturity, though they lack organelles
Sieve plates are the porous end walls that
allow fluid to flow between cells along the
sieve tube
Each sieve-tube element has a companion
cell whose nucleus and ribosomes serve both
cells

Fig. 35-10e1

3 m

Sieve-tube element (left)

and companion cell:
cross section (TEM)

12

7/20/2012

Fig. 35-10e2

Fig. 35-10e3

Sieve-tube elements:
longitudinal view (LM)
Sieve-tube
element
Plasmodesma

Sieve plate
Sieve
plate

Companion
cells

10 m
Nucleus of
companion
cells

Sieve-tube
elements
Sieve-tube elements:
longitudinal view

Sieve plate with pores (SEM)

30 m

Every function in the living cell

depends on proteins

Differentiation

Enzymes for catalysis of biochemical reactions

Structure of cells
Receptors of hormones are proteins
Signalling molecules are proteins
Transcription factors that turn genes on and
off are proteins
Seeds are rich in proteins

But
Different Cell Types Produce
Different Proteins
Typical eukaryotic cell ~10,000-20,000 different proteins
A large majority of proteins are common to all cells.
Only ~ several hundred (~1-2%) suffice to create very large
differences in morphology and function between cells

If all cells in one individual have the same

genome, why are there so many different cell
types?
differential gene expression
the expression of different genes by cells with the
same genome

Relatively small number of proteins make a big difference!

13

7/20/2012

Gene Expression

Gene Expression

What happens to the other genes that are not

expressed? Are they lost when a cell
differentiates?

It is known that cell differentiation generally

depends on changes in gene expression rather
than gene loss. Genes are expressed when the
protein product they encode appears in the
cell.

The cell types in a multicellular organism

become different from one another because
they synthesize and accumulate different sets
of RNA and protein molecules.
If the differences between different cell types
depend on the particular genes that they
express, at what level is the control of gene
expression exercised?

Gene Expression
Genes program synthesis via genetic messages
but do not build proteins directly. Between
DNA and Proteins is a bridge which is RNA,
also a nucleic acid

There are many steps from DNA to Protein

many steps are regulated. A cell can control
the protein it makes by various ways.

Flow of genetic information

Genes are DNA sequences, instruct

cells to produce particular proteins,
which in turn determine traits.

Transcription - Synthesis of RNA under the direction of DNA.

Resulting RNA a faithful transcript of the genes protein-building
instructions

Translation- synthesis of a polypeptide under the direction of

RNA

14

7/20/2012

Control

Control (continued)

There are many steps in the pathway leading from DNA to protein.
Thus a cell can control the proteins it makes:
by controlling when and how often a given gene is transcribed
(transcriptional control)
by controlling how the primary RNA transcript is processed (RNA
processing control)
by selecting which completed mRNAs in the cell nucleus are
exported to the cytoplasm (RNA transport control)

Steps at which gene

expression can be
controlled in
eukaryotes

Transcriptional
control

Processing
control
NUCLEUS

mRNA
Transport
control

3
Translational control
by ribosome selection among
mRNAs
protein
Active protein

by selectively activating, deactivating of

compartmentalizing specific protein molecules after they have
been made (protein activity control)

Almost all cells in an organism contain an identical genome,

and must regulate which genes are expressed at any given
time.

Primary RNA
transcript

by selectively destabilizing certain mRNA molecules in the

cytoplasm (mRNA degradation control)

Differentiation: Summary

DNA

by selecting which mRNAs in the cytoplasm are translated

by ribosomes (translational control)

CYTOPLASM

mRNA

mRNA degradation
control
inactive mRNA

Protein activity
control
Inactive protein

Cells of multicellular organisms must continually turn on and

off genes in response to signals from their external and internal
environment.
Regulation of gene expression is needed for cell specialization
in multicellular organisms which are made up of different types
of cells, each with a distinct function.
Differences between cell types are due to differential gene
expression, the expression of different genes by cells with the
same genome

Leaf cells

Root cells
Stem cells

Vegetative Organs
Root
Stem
Leaf

15