1. (J.

hansen, 1981)
The global temperature rose by 0.2 degree Celsius between the middle
1960s and 1980, yielding a warming of 0.4 degree Celsius in the past
century. This temperature increase is consistent with the calculated
greenhouse effect due to measured increases of atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Variations of volcanic aerosols and possibly solar luminosity appear to be
primarily causes of observed fluctuations about the mean trend of increasing
temperature. It is shown that the anthropogenic carbon dioxide warming
should emerge from the noise level of natural climate variability by the end of
the century, and there is a high probability of warming in the 1980s.
Potential effects on the climate in 21st century include the creation of
drought-prone regions in North America and Central Asia as a part of shifting
of climate zones, erosion of the West Antarctic ice sheet with a consequent
worldwide rise in sea level, and opening of the fabled Northwest Passage.
2. (S. Fred singer, 1982)
In 1982 William. Kellogg and Robert Schware had developed some economic
and political consequences of global warming for the first time. As result of
increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide derived from burning of fossil fuel. In
present a warming earth would also mean according to authors- gradual
shrinking of Antarctic ice caps and an early melting of ice in Arctic Ocean.
This would reduce level of earth that can lead to a large and permanent
change in climatic regime of northern hemisphere and inevitably whole earth.
3. (Smagorinsky, 1983)
There is a growing theoretical evidence that significant changes in the global
climate can be expected as a result of known systematic increases in the
carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere. Since carbon dioxide and water
vapor trap terrestrial infrared radiation (greenhouse effect), an increase in
carbon dioxide or water vapor will increase the atmospheric surface
temperature. Vertically, one dimensional models explicitly take the heat
balance of the atmosphere into account together with that of the earths
surface, as it turns out, increasing the carbon dioxide content all increases
the water vapor capacity of the atmosphere and further enhances the
greenhouse effect. Recent monitoring measurements of atmospheric CO2
clearly indicate an 8% increase over 25 year period. The present level is
about 340ppm. It is estimated that the level in the mid-19 th century was
about 290ppm and that by the middle of the next century a doubling to about
660ppm will have occurred. Such estimates are based on uncertain long
range projections of fossil fuel and an assumption that the oceans will absorb
one half the emitted carbon.

(Sinclair, 1987)
Strong measures such as protection of tropical forests and reduction of CFCs can
control the greenhouse effect. According to Dr. Irving Mintzer (senior associate at
World Resources Institute) there are four scenarios to do so including the base

case tropical deforestation should be controlled; energy should be efficiently used

with introduction of non-fossil energy sources. In slow build-up scenario carbon
intensive fuels should be limited, solar energy should be introduced. International
agreement should freeze CFC emission at 1985 level at all domestic and industrial
level. The high emission scenario encourages accelerated energy use with, for
instance conversion of marginal lands to agriculture. The modest policies scenario
includes affordable solar energy systems, tropical reforestation, and high energy
prices of non-renewable fuels to help people switch to energy efficient fuels. This
when successfully applied will keep a safe Earth temperature at 2.9- 8.6 degrees
Celsius by the year 2075. According to World Resources 1987 the problem of trance
boundary shipments of the rapidly increasing waste such as e-waste is likely to
increase as developing countries accept this for hard currency or needed industrial
hardware. Yet some positive effects such as increasing soil fertility boosting crops
up to 50% Burkina Faso. Substantial progress on the triple goal of increasing selfsufficiency in food, conserving the environment and reducing poverty could be
realistically be achieved within a decade.

4. (Holden, 1990)

About 700 people from the scientific community including close to half of the National academy of
sciences and Nobel Prize winners have signed a petition which calls for President Bush to pay serious
attention to the issues of global warming. The appeal made by the Unions of Concerned Scientists (UCS),
was sent to the White House, a few days earlier than the meeting held in February, of Intergovernmental
Panel of the climatic change. To which the administration has said that more study is needed regarding
this issue and concern as to why this global climatic change has begun.
1. (T.C, 1995)
The LEDCs are more vulnerable to global warming. In the equatorial Atlantic and the Caribbean the three
most sensitive tropical species dehiscens, obliquiloculata and menardii were absent due to temperature
drop of about 6 degrees not suitable for reproduction. Such examples add up to glacial-non glacial global
warming spreading it worldwide. Richard stone in his article if the mercury soars so many health
hazards states that environmental health hazards are biological. The 2.5 degree increase in global
temperature will be pronounced in 50 years from now effecting resources availability like for health,
medicine, food therefore even bringing there GDP down.
1. (Plummer, 1996)
According to 1992 World Bank estimate there are 100 million international migrants of all kinds, out of
which two thirds reside in LEDCs, the main reason being environmental destruction. According to William
T.S Gould the need to move on to a nearest city or country for refuge arises from any sequence of events
from eco-system for instance when firewood demand exceeds its supply leading to deforestation causing
more pollution, cow dung or crops are burnt as fuel instead in a third world country depriving the land from
nutrients, simultaneously expanding livestock and human numbers exceeding grazing capacity. This
combination of deforestation and overgrazing increases rainfall run off and soil erosion making poor
people desperate to shift to developed nations.

1. (Dunlap, 2000)
In the past decade global warming has become a widely accepted social problem. It is also known as the
greenhouse effect. It is the increase in mean global temperature due to the emission of greenhouse
gases produced by human activities. Increase the awareness of this threat caught attention from the
public regarding environmental and climate problems and thereby increasing efforts by environmental
activists and scientists regarding protecting the environment. It also caused for major international actions
against global warming such as treaties being designed to reduce carbon dioxide emissions
23. (Makiko Sato, 2000)
A common view is that the current rate of global warming will continue or accelerate. But we argue that
rapid warming in recent decades has been driven mainly by non-CO2 greenhouse gases (GHGs), such
as chlorofluorocarbons, CH4, and N2O, and not by the products of fossil fuel burning, CO2 and aerosols,
the positive and negative climate forcing of which are partially counterbalancing. Non-CO2 GHGs have a
declining growth rate in the past decade. If sources of CH4 and O3 precursors are somehow reduced in
the future, it would cause the change in climate forcing by non-CO2 GHGs in the next 50 years to be
nearly zero. Combined with a decrease in black carbon emissions and reasonable success in slowing
CO2 emissions, this reduction of non-CO2 GHGs could lead to a decline in the rate of global warming,
which would reduce the danger of striking climate change. Such a focus on air pollution has practical
benefits that unify the interests of developed and developing countries. However, assessment of ongoing
and future climate change requires composition-specific long-term global monitoring of aerosol properties.
1. (Contexts, 2004)
The recent box office hit The Day After Tomorrow revolves around the issue of global warming. Even
before the movies release, when asked, most Americans believe that greenhouse effect exists, but only
few think it as their top concerns, although many would like to stop or reduce global warming. According
to a poll held in 2002, 85% of Americans have heard about global warming and 74% believes that it would
lead to increase the global temperatures. Almost of the Americans who know about the Kyoto and Bonn
agreements to limit release of harmful emissions agree to them. However, in a more recent poll, Gallup in
2004 more than one in three Americans had nothing to say about the agreement. These datas reflect
Americas unfamiliarity with the issues rather than no concerns with it itself. The environmental issues that
mainly concerns Americans are majorly related to health.

21. (Houghton, 2005)

Global warming' is a phrase that refers to the effect of the climate on human activities, particularly the
burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) and deforestation on a large scale. This causes emissions of
large amounts of 'greenhouse gases' into the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is the most important of such
gases. These gases absorb infrared radiations emitted by the Earth's surface acting as blankets over it
keeping it warmer than it would otherwise be. Climate changes are highly associated with global warming.
A more detailed understanding of this warming relies on numerical models of the climate which integrate
the basic dynamical and physical equations describing the complete climate system. Many characteristics
of the resulting changes in climate (such as more frequent heat waves, increases in rainfall, increase in
frequency and intensity of many extreme climate events) can be identified. Substantial uncertainties
remain in knowledge of some of the feedbacks within the climate system (that affect the overall
magnitude of change) and in much of the detail of likely regional change. Due to its negative impacts on
human communities (including for instance substantial sea-level rise) and ecosystems, global warming is
the most important environmental problem the world faces. Adaptation to the inescapable effects and
extenuation of their magnitude are both necessary. Action is being taken on international scale by the

world's scientific and political communities. In the need of urgent action, the greatest challenge is to move
rapidly to increased energy efficiency and non-fossil-fuel energy sources.
1. (E.Kahn, 2005)
The natural disasters resulting from global warming are less destructive to richer countries than poor ones
as per there implicit insurance against nature shocks such as floods, cyclones, hurricanes and extreme
temperature events. Scientists have predicted that global warming will accelerate the amount of floods.
The intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2001) reports that 65% of world deaths from natural
disasters between 1985 and 1999 took place in nations with incomes below $760 per capita. According to
CRED (recording emergency events) natural disasters have accelerated since 1988.
1. (Ramanathan, 2006)
The effect of Global Warming is one of the most important environmental issues facing the world today. It
forces one to think that when did the human population become such a big threat to the climate? It starts
with the 1950s, when the world population increased by over 60%, causing a big impact on the climate of
the earth. With the rapidity of increase in the population leaves little doubt over the fact that humans are
the cause of it. Carbon dioxide is what contributes to this climatic damage. The lifetime of carbon dioxide
is over a century. If today to release a can of Co2, roughly 25-35% will still be with even a hundred years
from now. And then our air, which we breathe in, carries it around until it covers the entire planet fully in a
blanket of gases. Fossil fuel consumption and burning of bio-mass are major reasons for this increase.
Increasing use of theses fossil fuels have eventually led to decrease in the monsoonal rainfalls. CFCs are
another reason helping to increase global warming, which are commonly found in air fresheners.
19. (Rabe, 2010)
OBJECTIVES In this article we examine the causes of both belief and disbelief in global warming among
adult Americans. Methods. We use national- and state-level telephone surveys to collect data on
individual-level beliefs regarding climate change and employ ordered logistical regression to measures
the relative effect of various factors on those beliefs. Results. The study finds that U.S. views on climate
change are being shaped by a combination of personal observations, meteorological events, and physical
changes on the planet. The impact of various factors on one's belief in global warming are significantly
determined by partisan affiliation, with Democrats and Republicans responding differently to assorted
types of evidence. Conclusion. Beliefs regarding global warming are being shaped by individual
experiences and weather phenomenon and the processing of such factors is substantially influenced by a
person's partisan leanings.
20. (CUOMO, 2011)
In this essay author present an overview of the problem of climate changes, with attention to issues of
interest to feminists, such as the differential responsibilities of nations and the disproportionate
"vulnerabilities" of females, people of color, and the economically disadvantaged in result to climate
change. Author agrees with others that governments, corporations, and individuals are required to take
full responsibility for histories of pollution, and for present and future greenhouse gas emissions.
Nonetheless he worries that an overemphasis on household and personal sphere fossil fuel emissions
distracts from attention to higher-level corporate and governmental responsibilities for addressing the
problem of climate change. he argue that more attention should be placed on the higher-level
responsibilities of corporations and governments, and discusses how individuals might more effectively
take responsibility for addressing global climate change, especially when corporations and governments
are not capable enough to take responsibility.

18. (John M. Pandolfi, 2011)

Many physiological responses in present-day coral reefs to climate change are interpreted as consistent
with the imminent disappearance of modern reefs globally because of annual mass bleaching events,
carbonate dissolution, and insufficient time for substantial evolutionary responses. Emerging evidence for
variability in the coral calcification response to acidification, geographical variation in bleaching
susceptibility and recovery, responses to past climate change, and potential rates of adaptation to rapid
warming supports an alternative scenario in which reef degradation occurs with greater temporal and
spatial heterogeneity than current projections suggest. Reducing uncertainty in projecting coral reef
futures requires improved understanding of past responses to rapid climate change; physiological
responses to interacting factors, such as temperature, acidification, and nutrients; and the costs and
constraints imposed by acclimation and adaptation.

1. (JONATHAN P.SCHULDT, 2011)

Climate change and global warming are the two names by which survey researches refer to climatic
change. According to an analysis conducted by the website of conservative and liberal think tanks global
warming is the term conservative prefer to use unlike the liberals who prefer climate change. A question
wording experiment (N = 2267) illustrates the power of these frames: the Republicans were less likely to
validate the phenomenon reality when it was referred to as "global warming" (44.0%) rather than "climate
change" (60.2%), whereas Democrats were unaffected by the wording of the question (86.9% vs. 86.4%).
Concluding that the partisan divide regarding the issue dropped from 42.9 percentage points under a
"global warming" frame to 26.2 percentage points under a "climate change "frame. Theoretical and
methodological implications are discussed

1. (Berit Kvaly, 2012)

This article carries the data from year 2005-2009 world value survey to examine individual and crossnational variation in perception of the seriousness of global warming. This study indicated that majority of
people were concerned about the problem of global warming and this assessment is a part for a global
environmental issue. The widespread concern implies that global warming has the potential to generate
mass political participation and demand for political action. The article shows that perception of the
seriousness of the problem is positively correlated with high education, post-materialism, and a leftist
position on the leftright scale. Variation across nations in wealth and CO emissions is not significantly
related to the publics' assessments of the problem, and, somewhat counter intuitively, people from
countries relatively more exposed to climate-related natural disasters are less concerned about global
warming.

2. (Armon Rezai, global warming and negative externalities, 2012)

The emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) persists to be a negative externality even after the worldwide
policy efforts conducted, such as the Kyoto Protocol. While such faulty externalities continue to exist they
pose a huge threat to the efficiency of the economic equilibrium paths. The list of resulting consequences

include: presence of no real economic opportunity cost to correct this externality by mitigating global
warming. The mitigation investment using resources diverted from conventional investments can raise the
economic well-being of both current and future generations. The misleading focus by the economic
literature on GHG emissions sheds light on the intergenerational equity aspects of mitigation by using a
hybrid constrained optimal path as the "business-as-usual" benchmark. We regulate a simple KeynesRamsey growth model to illustrate the noteworthy potential Pareto improvement from mitigation
investment and to explain the equilibrium concept suitable for modeling an uncorrected negative
externality.
3. (Linn, 2012)
The understanding of global warming and greenhouse effects are examined of the middle school students
here. Global Warming: Virtual Earth named curriculum module was designed and polished by us. In the
module activities, students conduct virtual experiments with a foresight of the greenhouse effect. They not
just analyze the data but also conclude how the Earths atmosphere is affected by the individual variables.
Inquiry activities are also carried out to link scientific processes, the socio-scientific issues and ideas
presented in the media. The results show that participating in the unit increases students' understanding
of the science. How students integrate their own ideas regarding the global climate change, using the
virtual experiments is also discussed. This allows them to discover the meaningful complexities of the
climate system.

1. (Allen Thompsan, 2012)

Throughout our history mainly twentieth century, preservation was the important nature protection
paradigm. Protecting the nature includes setting aside nature preserves and keeping them unharmed
from the humans. And importantly it should be independent from human influence. According to this
paradigm humans are separate from nature and any involvement by them in nature would degrade it. The
practice of ecological restoration provides an important area within which we can work out what it means
to have healthy relationship with our environment. In which no harm is caused to it and it is taken care of.
And this practice involves taking responsibility of the damage we have caused to the environment; it
involves morally important relations to individuals and groups; humans and non-humans and it engages
us in deliberation about who we should be in relation to evolving systems.

24. (T.Fasullo, 2013)

Since 1970's Global Warming was believed to be caused due to natural variances only, but increase in
mean surface temperatures came to a halt in 2000s. As the atmospheric greenhouse gases like carbon
monoxide increase, it creates an energy imbalance at the top-of-atmosphere (TOA) even as the planet
tries to adjust to this imbalance by heating itself up, amount of this heating is estimated to be 0.51 W
m2 over the 2000s. Annual global fluctuations in TOA energy of up to 0.2 W m2 are caused by natural
variations in clouds, aerosols, and changes in the Sun. These effects are much larger during major
volcanic eruptions. Yet it has a little contribution towards overall fluctuations. An energy imbalance not
only fluctuates surface atmospheric or ground warming but also causes melting sea and land ice, and
heating of the oceans. More than 90% of the heat goes into the oceans and together with melting land
ice, it causes sea level to rise. For the past 10 years, more than 30% of the total heat has apparently
penetrated below 700 m depth. This value is determined by monitoring changes in surface winds, mainly
over the Pacific in association with a switch to a negative phase of the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO)
in 1999. Surface warming was much more evident during the 19761998 positive phase of the PDO,
suggesting that natural decadal variability controls the rate of change of global surface temperatures while
sea-level rise is quite persistent. Global warming his still happening; but it adopts different paths towards
its ultimate goal..

25. (AghaKouchak, 2014)

Global warming and the rise in extreme temperatures caused by it, significantly increase the chance of
parallel droughts and heat waves. The 2014 California drought is a characterized as an event which
occurs not only due to low precipitation but also extreme high temperatures. Impacts of this event were
tremendous throughout California, from the raging wildfires to record low storage levels and snowpack
conditions. Water shortages during winters are of great concern to decision makers because winters are
supposed to be water making times of the year. The traditional risk assessment methods, involving just a
single variable i.e precipitation condition surely underestimates the risk of extreme events such as the
2014 California drought because temperature effects are ignored in such case. We believe that a multiple
variables are necessary for analyzing such situations and predicting risk of extreme events, especially in
a warming climate. This study comprises of a methodology for analyzing the risk of extremes occurring in
parallel, such as droughts and extreme temperatures.
22. (Matthews, 2014)
There is a considerable interest in identifying national contributions to global warming as a way of
allocating historical responsibility for observed climate change. The uncertainty associated with national
estimates of historical emissions makes the task difficult, as does the difficulty to estimate the climatic
response to emissions of gases with widely varying atmospheric lifetimes. Here, we present a new
estimate of national contributions to observed climate warming, including CO2 emissions from fossil fuels
and land-use change, as well as methane, nitrous oxide and sulfate aerosol emissions. While the
warming contributions of some countries are reasonably well defined by fossil fuel CO2 emissions, many
countries have prevailing contributions from land-use CO2 and non-CO2 greenhouse gas emissions, thus
stressing the importance of both deforestation and agriculture as components of a country's contribution
to climate warming. Furthermore, because of their short atmospheric lifetime, recent sulfate aerosol
emissions have a large impact on a country's current climate contribution. We also show that there are
significant discrepancies in total and per-capita climate contributions among countries. Across most
developed countries, per-capita contributions are not currently coherent with efforts to restrict global
temperature change to less than 2 C above pre-industrial temperatures.

1. (S.Zavaleta, 2015)
Global warming may increase aridity in water by accelerating evapotranspiration. In a 2 years field
experiment increased spring soil moisture by 5-10% also declining canopy greenness by 11-17%. Plant
transpiration altogether contributes 80% of total evapotranspiration depicted by the study in MAY/JUNE
ultimately making air polluted for all the living things.

2. (J.M, 2015) (and, 2015)

Attenuation of the ozone layer is leading to increased penetration of ultraviolet radiation to the earth's
surface. This contributes to global warming and has harmful direct biological effects, e.g. on single-cell
organisms, and on the immune systems of larger species, including humans. Health effects such as heat
stress illness, skin diseases are too common and illegal dumping in toxic waste transfers to food and
water and soil causing illnesses like food poisoning. The seas all over are polluted with plastics that choke
marine life. Oil spills and drift net fishing such as in Exxon Valdez destroys rare species of fishes.