Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
ICONE-11-36257
ABSTRACT
Autofrettage is used to introduce advantageous
residual stresses into pressure vessels and to enhance their
fatigue lifetimes. Autofrettage or self-hooping is achieved
by increasing the elastic strength of a cylinder by means of
high pressure through mechanical, hydraulic or thermal
loading. The swage or mechanical autofrettage process is
routinely used in many industries including nuclear industry,
where enhanced strength-to-weight ratio is desired. The
practical realization of the process would normally involve a
careful evaluation of the related modeling, simulation and
experimental details. There are several key issues in this
context, such as Bauschingers effect, measurement of the
level of autofrettage, fatigue life measurements, prediction
of residual stress field, temperature field for simulating
partial autofrettage, change in autofrettage level resulting
from machining, stress intensity/stress concentration and
fatigue crack growth along evacuator holes, localized
autofrettage as a design tool, crack emanating from an
erosion, and the effect of crack length-unevenness. The
current paper reviews these issues comprehensively and
attempts to provide workable design strategies for this
important industrial process.
1.
INTRODUCTION
Thick-walled cylindrical vessels such as boilers,
nuclear reactors and high-pressure containers, are used for a
variety of applications in nuclear, chemical, armament,
power, oil and food industries, where large internal
pressures have to be withstood. In the absence of residual
stresses, cracks usually form at the bore where the hoop
stress developed by the pressure is highest. To prevent such
failure and to increase the pressure-carrying capacity, a
common practice is autofrettage treatment of the cylinder
prior to use [1]. A French artillery officer (Jacob, 1907)
suggested a process for pre-stressing monobloc gun barrels,
termed autofrettage which comes from the French meaning
"self hooping". There are three types of autofrettage. These
are carried out by hydraulic pressurization, by mechanically
pushing an oversized mandrel, or by the pressure of powder
gas. The mechanical autofrettage offers economic and
processing advantages over the other methods. This paper
deals with the mechanical or swage-autofrettage. Typical
applications include; strengthening of gun barrels, design of
2.
yy
y
zy
z
(1)
+ By = 0
xz yz zz
+
+
+ Bz = 0
x
y
z
where
xx , yy , zz , yx = xy , zx = xz & yz = zy
are
the
(2)
rz 1 z zz rz
+
+
+
+ Bz = 0
r
r
z
r
rd rr = rr
dr
d
(rrr ) =
dr
or
0
3
rr =
0
(3)
rd = rr
dr
or
d
(r ) = rr
dr
1
r 2
1
2 ln
Q
, a r
2
2
2
b
r
b
1
1
(2 Q)
, r b
r2
b
0
3
=
0
3
(4)
(8)
2 ln r Q 1 1 , a r
2
2
b2
r
b
1
1
, r b
( 2 Q)
2
2
r
b
(9)
r = 0
a 2b2 2
1
+ 2 ln
a
b 2 a 2 b 2
3.
rr =
(5)
b2
r 2
P a2
1 +
= i
2
b a 2
b2
r 2
rr =
(6)
b2
r2
1 , rr
(12)
r = 0
1/ 2
2
(1 2 )2 + ( 2 3 ) 2 + (3 1)2
=
3
rr =
(7)
3
( r )
2
(14)
d r r
+
=0
dR R
(15)
(upper limit)
(20)
Pcr = u
2n
2 ln D
2n
3
D 1
D 1
iv)
(18)
Table 1. Comparison between predicted and experimental burst pressure for 6063 aluminum
D/t
Condition
1
2
3
4
u
Faupel lower Eq.
Mean
Faupel Upper
Strain- to -failure
y
Diameter Eq.
P
Eq. (19) P3
(18) P2
theory [43] 1
Pb
Pb
(20) P4
Pb
Pb
6
6
6
6
T6
T5
T4
0
8
8
8
8
T6
T5
T4
0
(22)
iii)
Faupel Equation
(19)
D 1
Pcr = 2u
D + 1
(17)
where the constant Z is quantified by using the uniaxial
tensile test data. Failure of the thick-walled cylinder is
determined by comparing the critical strain c with the
effective plastic strain at each iteration, where m is the
mean stress.
The burst pressure provides an important basis for
the design of thick-walled pressure vessels, it is of interest to
predict this pressure using theoretical models. Following are
some of the burst pressure equations as a result of various
investigations.
ln D 2
3
( m / )
Pcr = 2
ii)
c = Ze 2
(lower limit)
where
i)
Pcr = 2
5
Marin & Weng
Eq. (22) P5
Pb
6
ASME
code P6
Pb
116.4
147.4
47.7
55.5
Mean
1.01
1.05
0.97
1.16
1.05
0.72
0.70
0.3
0.51
0.5
1.1.3
1.12
0.69
0.90
0.96
1.41
1.50
1.70
1.82
1.60
1.24
1.31
1.41
1.56
1.38
1.43
1.52
1.72
1.84
1.63
116.4
147.4
487.7
555.
Mean
Mean for 6063 Aluminum
1.04
1.05
1.29
1.24
1.15
1.10
0.74
0.70
0.50
0.44
0.59
0.59
0.06
0.00
0.91
0.95
1.03
0.99
1.46
1.50
2.25
1.94
1.79
1.70
1.28
1.31
1.85
1.66
1.53
1.46
1.47
1.51
2.25
1.96
1.80
1.72
Table 2. Comparison between predicted and experimental burst pressure for two steels (D/t = 8)
Material
Heat treat
1
2-3
4
u
(0F)
Strain-to-failure
Faupel Eq. (18) or
Mean Diameter
y
theory [43]
1045
1045
1045
1045
1200
1000
800
As
quenched
4330
4330
1000
600
P1
Pb
(19),
P2
Pb
or
P3
Pb
Eq. (20)
5
Marin & Weng
P4
Pb
Eq. (22)
6
ASME
code. P6
P5
Pb
Pb
65.9
37.4
20.7
1.0
1.07
1.18
1.39
0.94
1.12
1.20
1.42
0.96
0.93
1.03
1.22
0.83
0.83
0.94
1.14
0.82
0.94
1.04
1.23
0.83
Mean
1.15
1.18
1.00
0.93
1.01
33.3
26.1
Mean
0.93
0.88
0.91
1.03
0.95
0.90
0.93
1.06
0.81
0.77
0.79
0.90
0.74
0.72
0.73
0.83
0.82
0.78
0.80
0.83
4.
c
= 0.064113 + 0.34816 exp .(12.871 P )
y
[
]
[0.54959 + 0.74913 exp ( 9.6376 ) ]
BAUSCHINGER EFFECT
In terms of material modeling, a complexity that
is often ignored is the Bauschinger effect [13,26,45]
characterized by the Bauschinger effect factor[45], given
as
BEF =
where
yrev
y
y
<1
where
(23)
yrev is
respectively,
and
P
c are
(24)
2
c
is the uniaxial
yield strength.
the reverse
yield stress.
Parker et al. [26] define BEF as the ratio of
magnitude of true yield strength in compression to yield
strength in tension. BEF is a function of prior plastic strain
and is an important factor to accurately predict the residual
stresses produced by overload in typical pressure vessel
steels. Bauschinger effect is not a constant material
property, but is strongly influenced by the magnitude of
loading overstrain. In actual engineering geometries,
different locations experience different over-strain levels,
therefore, a different BEF is required [27]. Hence defining
the appropriate BEF value as a function of over-strain
magnitude is an important consideration. Figure 2 shows
schematic representation of Bauschinger effect of a typical
gun steel, the results of the models of Jahed and Dubey
[30], Chen [45], Parker et al. [12, 46] and Chaaban et al.
[47]. Following is the outline of stress-strain profiles.
(A-B), a near-linear relationship during elastic loading
of slope E (Young's modulus);
(B-C1-C2-C3), a linear or nonlinear behavior during
loading beyond the elastic limit, B;
(C1-D1,C2-D2,C3-D3), a linear behavior during
reversal of the tensile load followed by an increasingly nonlinear behavior as the loading becomes more compressive.
6.
SACHS' METHOD
An experimental technique called Sach's method
[53,54,55,56] was developed to determine the residual
stresses in an unloaded cylinder. This technique requires
that the cylinder be destroyed by machining. Tiara,
Koterazawa and Ohtani [57] have employed this technique
to determine the residual stresses in closed-ended
cylinders that had been loaded at elevated temperatures
and had deformed inelastically by creep. The method
assumes that the material behaves elastically during and
after material removal carried in a series of steps. The o.d
axial and hoop strains are measured and the differences are
then used to compute radial stress at the prospective radius
prior to material removal. Generally there are four possible
scenarios regarding the material removal from i.d. and/ or
o.d. [26].
3 3
3
Lifetime_ratio = 5 . y + A + y / 5 . y + IDEAL + y (26)
3 3
3 3 3
7.
E 1
.
1 r2
r2 a2
(27)
(r ) =
E 1
.
1 r2
r2 + a2
(28)
ri
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
Tc(ri) 0F Chen's
Solution [11]
0.00
-112.67
-215.64
-310.44
-398.14
-479.49
-555.01
-625.01
-689.77
-749.4
-804.37
TH (ri), 0F Hill's
[6] solution
000
-128.40
-245.61
-353.44
-453.28
-546.22
-633.16
-714.84
-719.84
-864.67
-933.77
TC/TH
-0.877
0.878
0.878
0.878
0.878
0.877
0.874
0.871
0.867
0.861
Table 4. The radial distribution of induced rr for Chen [11] and Hill [6] solution as evaluated by FEA
Material
ri/ Stress
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
(1rr / 2rr )
-0.0604
-0.0546
-0.0931
-0.1101
-0.1125
-0.1049
-0.0905
-0.0714
-0.0491
-0.0247
0.0219
0.0000
-0.0654
-0.1005
-0.1153
-0.1163
-0.1078
-0.0927
-0.0731
-0.0505
-0.258
0.0000
-0.83
0.93
0.95
0.97
0.97
0.98
0.98
0.97
0.96
--
-0.0693
-0.0627
-0.1069
-0.1266
-0.1296
-0.1212
-0.1049
-0.0831
-0.0573
-0.0289
-0.0258
0.0000
-0.0752
-0.1156
-0.1327
-0.1342
-0.1247
-0.1076
-0.852
-.0591
-0.0304
0.0000
-0.83
0.92
0.95
0.97
0.97
0.97
0.98
0.97
0.95
--
Milbradt [72]. The destructive approach includes SachsMesnager boring: Sachs [53] and Mesnager [73], Slitling:
Williams et al. [74] and the compliance method: Cheng
and Fannie [75].
Sachs-Mesnager method, though
reliable but has both theoretical and practical limitations
and necessitates the removal of large amount of material
which makes it time-consuming and very expensive[18].
8.
Non-destructive method
Semi-destructive method
Destructive method
i)
An Axisymmmetric
Numerical simulation
Stress
release
method:
Perl [28] & Perl and Arone [18, 76] have recently
attempted to measure the autofrettage level in thick-walled
cylinders considering the mentioned limitations. Perl and
Arone [18] have suggested an experimental method, based
on measuring the hoop strain, while axisymmetrically
releasing the residual stress field. An array of seven evenly
spaced inner cuts are introduced into the model. A
parametric study of the proposed experimental procedure
F ( , ) =
(30)
where
( = / a ) .
2
2 ln D = 0
where
D =1+
3 1 2 E0
.
2 1 2 0
(33)
( )
=A l +B
a
(34)
l
(35)
= 2.65133 0.11305
0
This method is a combination of classical splitring approach by Parker et al. [77] and the recent
axisymmetric stress release method by Perl and Arone
[18] for measuring autofrettage level in gun barrels. The
amount of hoop strain released at point A & B is given
by
( )A = 4M() (b 2 a 2 ) 1
NE
(36)
b
ln
a
(37)
2b 2
b2 a 2
( )B = 4M() (b 2 a 2 )1
NE
b
ln
a
b a
2b 2
( 2 1) 2 4 2 (ln ) 2
( 2 2 - 2 / 2 + 1) - 4 2 ln + ( 2 2 ) + 2 2 (1 2 ) ln 2 2 (1 ) ln
9.
(31)
0 =
1 22 ln
3 1 2 E
(40)
M ( )
M ( = )
M ( = b )
where
K t lame
K t Autofrettage
(41)
dN
af
da
N=
a i C ( K )
(43)
Using
(44)
K = 1.12 a
calculated by Bowie & Newman after Rooke & Cartwright
[84] and Paris law exponent m = 3, yields on integration.
af =
2 / a i NC(1.12 )3
(45)
Equation (45) is useful in predicting final crackdepth profiles. Paker and Underwood [24] have made
comparisons between calculated lives using equation (45),
given by equation (46) and measured fatigue lives, as
given in table 5.
1
1
N = 2
ai
af
3
/ C 1.12 h eff
(46)
K t autofrettage yield
Amount of
autofrettage
None
None
100 percent
Measured
life
4710
5770
9780
Calculated
life Eq(43)
4300
4300
12,200
y
y
(z1 / n 1)
x
+ 0P
.( z x
)
E
E
E
2
2
( e Peak + ( BEF )S y )1 / n
(48)
LOCALIZED AUTOFRETTAGE AS A
DESIGN TOOL FOR FATIGUE
IMPROVEMENT
Segall et al. [20] have investigated the feasibility
of improving the fatigue life of thick-walled cylinders with
cross-bores. Their technique utilizes the high stress
concentration at the cross-bore to induce localized
residual stresses, using relatively low internal pressures.
Iwadate et al.[86] have derived an approximate solution
for stress intensity factor kt, assuming a quarter-circular
crack (figure 11) situated at the intersection, a single stage
cross-bore and cylinder inner diameter, given in equation
below
1/ 2
k t = 1.25P
a 2 t
a sin
tan
Q a sin
2t
F(r, a , )
(49)
R0
+1
R
R
a
sin
+
b
F(r, a , ) = i
+
+ 1
2
(R b + a cos ) 2
R 0 1
R i
11.
MACHINING OF AN AUTOFRETTAGED
THICK-WALLED CYLINDER
Most of today's barrels are swage-autofrettaged,
which need to be machined to final dimensions both at the
bore and outer surface. In most cases the bore is rifled.
Thus material is further removed by broaching.
Autofrettage level in the barrel changes because of the
machining processes. Prevailing level of autofrettage
determines the allowable pressure and fatigue life. Post
machining stress components for fully and partially
autofrettaged cylinder machined internally, and externally
or both are given by Perl [21].
(50)
1.65
12.
TIME-DEPENDENT AUTOFRETTAGE
Generally the research work reported in the
literature is based on steady-state autofrettage analysis.
Malik et al. [15] , Owen and Hinton [17], Fahmy [32] and
Vaqar [87] have attempted time-dependent analysis of the
autofrettage of gun barrels. Fahmy [32] has outlined
necessary tests for the autofrettage technology for
production plants. Malik et al.[15] have carried out
modeling and simulation of time-dependent autofrettage
process for 125 mm gun tube using von Mises yield
criteria, by employing FEM, based on computer code
TRANSDYN [17]. Validation results [15] are shown in
figure 13 and 14 respectively.
a
1
c
Figure 11. Geometry and fracture mechanics idealization of a crossbored cylinder with a quarter-circular crack
10
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
13.
CONCLUSIONS
The current paper has reviewed the following issues
related to swage-autofrettage process.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are indebted to College of Electrical
& Mechanical Engineering, National University of
Sciences & Technology, Pakistan, for the completion of
this research work. We also gratefully acknowledge the
help provided by Pakistan Scientific & Technical
Information Center (PASTIC) in acquiring the related
literature.
25.
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28.
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2.
3.
26.
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