smart & green structural and repair materials

DURATINET PARTNERS
PORTUGAL
Laboratrio Nacional de Engenharia Civil, I.P. (LNEC)
Estradas de Portugal, SA (EP)
REFER, E.P.
TEIXEIRA DUARTE Engenharia e Construes, S.A.
Administrao do Porto de Lisboa (APL)
Fundo para o Desenvolvimento das Cincias da
Construo (FUNDCIC)
FRANCE
Institut franais des sciences et technologies des
transports, de lamnagement et des rseaux
(IFSTTAR)
Universit de Bordeaux
Universit de Nantes
Universit de La Rochelle
Conseil General de la Charente-Maritime (CG-17)
IRELAND
Dublin University- Trinity College (TCD)
National Roads Authority (NRA)
SPAIN
Universidade de Vigo (UV)
Porto de Vigo
Xunta da Galiza
UNITED KINGDOM
Queens University Belfast (QUB)

TECHNICAL REPORT

TR 6.2
FIBER REINFORCED POLYMER COMPOSITE MATERIALS
USED IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

smart & green

structural and repair materials

TECHNICAL REPORT

TR 6.2

FIBER REINFORCED POLYMER COMPOSITE MATERIALS USED IN

CIVIL ENGINEERING

Author:
Susana Cabral-Fonseca

Author:
Susana Cabral Fonseca
Researcher at LNEC

Reviewer:
Alan OConnor
Professor at TCD

NOTE:
The contents of this report reflect the views of the authors, who are responsible for the facts and accuracy of the data
presented.

PREFACE
The main subjects concerned in this TR were discussed and a general review was made inside the working group
WG A6 Smart & green structural and repair materials. The WG was created in the DURATINET project with the
aim to stimulate the creation of a new cluster on smart and green structures and to promote the use of new
construction materials environmental friendly and with improved performance and/or durability.
This TR is one of a series of review documents, concerning smart & green structural and repair materials theme,
which summarizes the current knowledge on the applicability of Fibre-reinforced polymer composite materials in
concrete.
Fibre-reinforced polymer composite materials (FRP) is a class of materials which presents an immense potential
for use in Civil Engineering, both for rehabilitation of existing structures and for the construction of new facilities.
Competition in the Civil Engineering market typically dictates high-volume low-cost materials with extended
service-life and minimum maintenance. To attain these goals, composites for construction differ from mainstream
aerospace composites in material constituents and manufacturing techniques.
The objective of this TR is to present the status of this new class of construction material. Rather than
presenting an overview of FRP materials, in general, emphasis is given to their application in Civil Engineering.

WG A6 Smart and green structural and repair materials

WG Leader:
X. Ramon Novoa
Vigo University , SP
Partners active members
Country
Portugal
UK

Institution
LNEC
University of Bordeaux
Queens University
Belfast

Members
Manuela Salta, Maria Joo, Elsa V. Pereira, Susana
Cabral-Fonseca
Sylvie Yotte
Muhammed Basheer, David Cleland, Sree V.
Nanukuttan, Sudarshan Srinivasan

DURATINET project approved by the Atlantic Area Programme and co-financed by ERDF
CONTRACT N: 2008-1/049
ACRONYM: DURATINET
PROJECT TITLE: Durable Transport Infrastructure in the Atlantic Area Network
Laboratrio Nacional de Engenharia Civil (LNEC, IP)
Materials Department
Manuela Salta

ii

CONTENTS
1

Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 1

Fibre reinforced polymer composite materials ................................................................................................. 2

2.1 Composition .................................................................................................................................................... 2
2.1.1 Fibres ........................................................................................................................................................ 2
2.1.2 Matrices .................................................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Fabrication ...................................................................................................................................................... 5
2.3 Properties ........................................................................................................................................................ 5
2.4 Durability ......................................................................................................................................................... 7

Fibre reinforced polymer composite materials as a construction material ....................................................... 8

Application of FRP composites in Civil Engineering ...................................................................................... 10

4.1 Rehabilitation ................................................................................................................................................ 10
4.1.1 Repair and strengthening ....................................................................................................................... 11
4.1.2 Seismic retrofit ........................................................................................................................................ 12
4.2 New constructions ......................................................................................................................................... 12
4.2.1 Seismic retrofit ........................................................................................................................................ 13
4.2.2 Concrete reinforcement .......................................................................................................................... 13

References .................................................................................................................................................... 16

iii

FIBER REINFORCED POLYMER COMPOSITE MATERIALS

1 Introduction
Fibre-reinforced polymer composite materials (FRP) have hitherto been utilised
predominantly in the aerospace and military industries, but for the last three decades there
has been a growing awareness amongst civil engineers of the importance of the unique
mechanical and in-service properties of these materials together with their customised
fabrication techniques. In fact, this class of materials presents an immense potential for use
in Civil Engineering, both for rehabilitation of existing structures and for the construction of
new facilities [1].
Competition in the Civil Engineering market typically dictates high-volume low-cost materials
with extended service-life and minimum maintenance. To attain these goals, composites for
construction differ from mainstream aerospace composites in material constituents and
manufacturing techniques[2].
The objective of this text is to present the status of this new class of construction material.
Rather than presenting an overview of FRP materials, in general, emphasis is given to their
application in Civil Engineering.

SMART & GREEN STRUCTURAL AND REPAIR MATERIALS

2 Fibre reinforced polymer composite materials

2.1 Composition
FRP is a general term used to describe a wide range of products made up of a combination
of fibres in a polymer matrix. Their mechanical and physical properties are clearly controlled
by their constituent properties and by the micro-structural configuration. While the fibres are
mainly responsible for strength and stiffness properties, the polymeric matrix contributes to
load transfer and provides environmental protection. In addition, fillers are used to reduce the
cost and sometimes to improve performance, imparting benefits as shrinkage control,
surface smoothness and crack resistance. Additives and modifiers ingredients can expand
the usefulness of the polymeric matrix, enhance their processability or extend composite
durability (Fig 1).
Fibres

Fillers

FRP

Additives

Matrix

Fig.1. FRP components

The reinforcing of a low modulus polymeric matrix with high strength and modulus fibres
utilizes the viscoelastic displacement of the matrix under stress to transfer the load to the
fibre; this result in a high strength, high modulus composite material. The aim of the
combination is to produce a two phase material in which the primary phase, that determines
stiffness, is in the form of fibres and is well dispersed and bonded and protected by a weak
secondary phase, the polymeric matrix [3].
2.1.1 Fibres
The four main fibres use in the construction industry are: (i) glass, (ii) carbon, (iii) aramid and
(iv) basalt. Generally, fibres can be used in different ways, with the performance changing for
each [4]:
- the highest performance in terms of strength and stiffness in one direction comes from
uni-directional composites, when fibres are parallel and give their maximum possible
performance in this single direction;
- by arranging the fibres in a weave or mat, strength can be gained in more directions,
although the limit strength is reduced.
- by chopping the fibres into short lengths and arranging them randomly, equal strength is
achieved in all directions. This is generally the cheapest technique, used for the least
structurally demanding cases.
Fig 2 shows examples of configuration of different types of fibres used to reinforced polymers,
with application in Civil Engineering [5]:

FIBER REINFORCED POLYMER COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Fig 1. Fibre types in distinct configurations: (a) glass; (b) carbon; (c) aramid; (d) basalt

The most suitable of these fibres for a particular structural application depends primarily
upon the mechanical requirements, as strength, stiffness, the environmental requests and
allowable budget.
- Glass fibres are used for the majority of composite application because they are cheaper
than the others. There are different forms known by names like E-glass (the most
frequently used), S-glass (is a stringer and stiffer fibre with a greater corrosion resistance),
R-glass (is a higher tensile strength and modulus and greater resistance to fatigue and
aging) and AR-glass (an alkali-resistant glass used to reinforced concrete). The main
characteristics of glass fibres are their high tensile strengths and moderate elastic
modulus. Glass fibres are, also, excellent thermal and electrical insulators. Glass fibres
are particularly sensitive to moisture, especially in the presence of salts and elevated
alkalinity, and need to be well protected by the resin systems used in the FRP. Glass
fibres are also susceptible to creep rupture and lose strength under sustained stresses.
- Carbon fibres, manufactured by the controlled carbonization of organic precursor, are
produced in many grades. Carbon fibres cost currently significantly more than glass fibres.
Their main characteristics are the high tensile strengths and elastic modulus and their
very low density and thermal coefficient. The characteristic of each type of carbon fibre is
often indicated in their commercial designation by codes as HS (high strength), HM (high
modulus) or UHM (ultra high modulus). Carbon fibres are very durable and perform very
well in hot and moist environments and when subjected to fatigue loads. They do not
absorb moisture.
- Aramid fibres are polymeric fibres, where molecular chains are aligned and made rigid by
means of aromatic rings linked by hydrogen bridges. Their main characteristics are high
strength, impact resistance due to their energy absorbing properties, moderate modulus
and low density. The fibres, themselves, are susceptible to degradation from ultraviolet
light and moisture but exhibit resistance to acids and alkalis.
- Basalt fibres are materials obtained by melting crushed volcanic lava deposits. Basalt
fibres have better physical and mechanical properties than glass fibres, but are
significantly cheaper than carbon fibres. Their main advantages are fire resistance,
significant capability of acoustic insulation and immunity to chemical environments.
Other fibres that are now in the development phase for use if FRP products for structural
engineering include ultrahigh-molecular-weight polyethylene fibres and polyvinyl alcohol

SMART & GREEN STRUCTURAL AND REPAIR MATERIALS

fibres. Natural fibres, such as sisal, flax and bamboo, have been used only in experimental
applications to produce FRP products. However, it is expected that they will become more
important in the construction industry due to their sustainability and recyclability [6].
Table 1 illustrates typical properties of the different types of fibres, showing their strength,
stiffness and density.
Table 1. Range of properties for fibres for FRP composites
Fiber type

Density

Tensile strength
(GPa)

Elastic modulus
(GPa)

Glass

2.46 - 2.58

2.4 - 3.5

72 - 87

Carbon

1.74 - 2.20

2.1 - 5.5

200 - 500

Aramid

1.39 - 1.47

3.1 - 3.6

58 - 130

Basalt

2.65 - 2.80

4.2 - 4.8

89 - 110

According to Halliwell [7], the functional requirements of fibres in a composite are:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

high modulus of elasticity to give stiffness;

high ultimate strength;
low variation of strength between individual fibres;
stability during handling;
uniform diameter.

2.1.2 Matrices
A polymer is an organic material composed of macro-molecules made from many repeats of
the same unit called monomer. There are several different polymer matrices which can be
utilized in FRP composites, but in construction industry only a relatively small number are
actually used. According to their nature, there are two major types of polymers, which
determine the methods of manufacturing and the properties of the composite: (i)
thermoplastic and (ii) thermosetting. The first FRP were all based on thermosetting polymers
and, besides the fact that thermoplastic have seen rapid growth in recent years,
thermosetting is yet the most used in Civil Engineering applications[8].
Thermoplastic polymers are long chain molecules held together by relatively weak Van der
Waals forces. These polymers can be amorphous, which implies a random structure with a
high concentration of entanglement, or crystalline, with a high degree of molecular order [9].
The semi-crystalline polypropylene and nylon are especially popular as matrices.
Thermosetting polymers are usually made from liquid or semi-solid precursors which harden
irreversibly; this chemical reaction is known as cure and on completion, the liquid resin is
converted to a hard solid by chemical cross-linking which produces a tightly threedimensional network of polymer chains. This family of polymers has an important virtue when
used as matrices in FRP, which is the low viscosity of the precursor liquids, prior to crosslinking, that facilitates wetting of reinforcement fibres. The main polymers used in
construction under this heading are:
- Unsaturated polyesters. Currently are the most widely used polymers in construction, as
matrix of FRP. They are relatively low cost materials and are easy to process at an
ambient temperature of cure. They can be formulated in hundreds of different ways to

FIBER REINFORCED POLYMER COMPOSITE MATERIALS

tailor their properties to different manufacturing process and can easily be filled and
pigmented.
- Epoxies. In general epoxies have high specific strength and dimensional stability. They
are particularly known by their adhesion ability to many substrates, and low shrinkage
during the cure. A wide variety of formulations are available giving a broad spectrum of
properties. They can be processed at both room and elevated temperatures. Epoxies
have excellent environmental and chemical resistance, when compared with unsaturated
polyester.
- Vinylesters. These polymers have similar mechanical and in-service properties to those of
the epoxy resins and equivalent processing techniques to those of the unsaturated
polyesters. Generally they have good wetting characteristics and possess resistance to
strong acids and strong alkalis conditions. They can, also, be processed at both room and
elevated temperatures.
- Phenolics. The most important characteristic of this family of polymers is there good flame
retardant properties, low smoke generation and high heat resistance. For this reason, they
are used when fire resistance is a requirement.
According to Hollaway and Head [3], the requirements for a good FRP matrix are the following:
(i)

wet out the fibre and cure satisfactory in the required conditions;

(ii) bind together the fibres and protect their surfaces from abrasion and environmental
ageing;
(iii) disperse the fibres an separate them in order to avoid any catastrophic propagation of
cracks;
(iv) transfer stresses to the fibres efficiently;
(v) be chemically and thermally compatible with fibres;
(vi) have appropriate fire resistance and limit smoke propagation;
(vii) provide good aesthetic finish (colour and surface).

2.2 Fabrication
A wide range of processing methods is available for FRP composites, although there are
differences between the techniques available for thermosetting and thermoplastic, due to
their intrinsic different properties. One of the most important aspects of the manufacture of
FRP composites is that the structural material and the product are formed simultaneously in
a single process. FRP composites may be built in situ from the raw materials, as in the
hand lay-up methods, or they may be shaping semi-finished or finished products.
Table 2 presents the commonly used process for fabrication of FRP composites applied in
Civil Engineering, their principles and typical applications [4].

2.3 Properties
The attractiveness of FRP as construction materials derives from a set of advantages
gleaned from the ability of this type of material through the synergistic combination of fibres
in a polymeric matrix. Wherein, the fibre reinforcement brings load in designed direction
taking benefit of anisotropy, and the resin acts as a medium to transfer stresses between
adjoining fibres through adhesion in fibre-matrix interface.
The properties of FRP composites depend on the following aspects:

SMART & GREEN STRUCTURAL AND REPAIR MATERIALS

(i)

nature and properties of the constituents (fibres, matrix, additives and fillers);

(ii) relative proportion of fibre/matrix;

(iii) fibre reinforcement configuration (particullarly, orientation);
(iv) methods of manufacture.
The influence of such aspects can be observed on typical material properties of different
FRP composites shown in Table 3.
The choice of the FRP components, fibre/matrix proportion, fibre reinforcement configuration,
and method of manufacture should be made on the basis of the structural application,
environmental conditions, lifetime requirements and manufacturing process aspects.
Of three types of fibres used in FRP reinforcement the one with the greatest tensile strength
is aramid, with carbon and glass offering similar strength (Table 1). Glass fibre is significantly
weaker than the others and is not suitable for applications where high tensile loads are
expected. When specific stiffness is required, carbon fibre out-performs the others.
Table 1. Fabrication processes of FRP composites
Pultrusion

Tightly packed tows of fibres, impregnated with polymer, are pulled through a shaped heated die to form aligned,
continuous sections geometry.
Solid and hallow profile section may be produced with a high fibre content and high degree of fibre alignment.
Off-axis fibres may also be introduced, if required.
Pultruded shapes and concrete reinforcing bars and tendons; I beams and other sections.

Filament winding

The process involves winding fibres over a mandrel which rotates while a moving carriage laying down the
reinforcement in the desired pattern. The orientation of the fibres can also be carefully controlled so that
successive layers are plies or oriented differently from the previous layer.
Cylindrically symmetric structures such as hollow tanks and vessels. The process of wrapping in retrofit
strengthening is an adaptation of the process.

Compression and transfer

moulding of compounds

Compression moulding of thermosetting moulding compounds in form of dough with chopped glass fibres (DMC)
or sheets with longer fibres (SMC).
Simple or complex decorative panels.

Matched-die moulding
and autoclave

Large panels and relatively complex open structural shapes are constructed by hot-pressing sheets of preimpregnated fibres or cloths between flat or shaped platens, or by pressure autoclaving to consolidate a stack of
prepreg sheets against a heated, shaped die.
Composite reinforced with chopped-strand mat or continuous-filament mat reinforcements may also be presslaminated.
Laminates and retrofit strengthening sheets.

Continuous sheet
production

Chopped strand mat or chopped strands are impregnated with resin and sandwiched between two layers of film
on a moving belt. The sandwich passes through guides that form the corrugated or other desired profile.
Corrugated plates.

Resin-transfer moulding
and vacuum-assisted
resin transfer moulding

Pre-catalysed resin is pumped under low pressure into a fibre preform, which is contained in a closed and often
heated die. The preform may be made of any kind of reinforcement, but usually consists of woven cloths or
continuous-fibres mats.
Structural components with varying shapes and degrees of anisotropy/orthotropy, e.g. cladding and roofing
panels, shell structures and bridge decks.

Contact moulding by hand

lay-up or spray-up

Open mould methods, where fibre continuous strand mat and/or other fabrics such as woven roving are placed
manually in the mould and each ply is impregnated with brushes and rollers.
The product must also be built by spraying through a gun which simultaneously delivers short fibre and precatalysed resin.
Fabrication one-off structures, small number of large components.

FIBER REINFORCED POLYMER COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Tensile experimental curves for unsaturated polyester offers an elongation at break of about
3 %; vinylester and epoxies have greater elongations of 4.5 % and 8 %, respectively.
Table 2. Typical mechanical properties of unidirectional FRP composites
Fibre type

Fibre content

Tensile strength (MPa)

Tensile modulus (GPa)

Shear strength (MPa)

Glass

0.55 - 0.65

600 - 1200

35 - 50

4-6

Carbon

0.57 - 0.60

600 - 1200

130 - 300

60 - 90

Aramid

0.60

1200 - 1400

76

60 - 83

2.4 Durability
FRP materials are increasingly being used in civil engineering applications such as
reinforcing rods and tendons, wraps for seismic retrofit of columns, externally bonded
reinforcement, composite bridge decks, and even hybrid and all composite structural
systems. Since FRP are still relatively unknown to the infrastructure systems planner, there
are heightened concerns related to the overall durability of these materials, especially as
related to their capacity for sustained performance under harsh and changing environmental
conditions under load [10][i].
Although FRP have been successfully used in the industrial, automotive, marine and
aerospace sectors, there are critical differences in loading, environment and even the types
of materials and processes used in these applications. Several evidences provides
substantial reason to believe that if appropriately designed and fabricated, these materials
can grant longer lifetimes and lower maintenance costs than equivalent structures fabricated
from conventional materials [10].
FRP materials used in civil infrastructure are exposed to a variety of environments that may
act individually or may be synergistic in nature. According a recent study undertaken to
identify critical gaps in durability of composites to be used in civil infrastructure applications
[11]
, seven factors were distinguish, namely:
(i)

moisture/solution;

(ii)

alkali;

(iii)

thermal, including cycling and freeze-thaw;

(iv)

creep and relaxation;

(v)

fatigue;

(vi)

ultraviolet radiation;

(vii) fire.

SMART & GREEN STRUCTURAL AND REPAIR MATERIALS

3 Fibre reinforced polymer

construction material

composite

materials

as

Some of the most important advantages of FRP composites over conventional construction
materials are listed in Table 4.
Table 3. Advantages of FRP over conventional construction materials
High specific strength and stiffness

Corrosion resistance

Unlike metals, FRP do not rust, making them attractive in applications where
corrosion is a concern (marine waterfront structures, for example).

Non-magnetic properties

Steel members and reinforcements for concrete are often a problem in structures
with electromagnetic interference sensitive electronic equipment.

Time saving

Large FRP composite parts can be pre-fabricated off-site and can be shipped to
the construction site and installed, due to their light weight.
Increase in overall construction efficiency and positive effects on planning and
logistics.

Low maintenance requirements

Due to the corrosion resistance and enhanced environmental resistance, it is

expected to require less maintenance, resulting in lower overall life-cycle costs.
Ideal where access is difficult or expensive.

Tailored properties

It is possible to tailor properties to comply only in the directions required,

improving efficiency and economy, when compared with solution with isotropic
materials.

Freedom of shape and appearance

New design concepts (e.g. bridges with longer free s spans).

Saving in the supporting and substructure elements.
Enhancement of seismic resistance by weight saving.
Increasing speed of assembly and reduction of time for time-critical projects (e.g.
bridge repair).

It is possible to fabricate shape and complex geometry.

Can give a particular color or texture, particularly important in architectural
applications.

FIBER REINFORCED POLYMER COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Despite the considerable advantages there still exist significant challenges that must be
overcome before FRP can be used as widely as conventional materials, such as concrete,
steel or timber. The most important are listed in Table 5.
Table 4. Challenges in the adaptation of FRP as a construction material
High initial material costs

Probably, one of the major obstacles for using FRP materials in an extremely costcompetitive market.
Cost analysis of FRP materials with respect to conventional construction materials
should be based on a per unit performance, with proper consideration to weight
reductions.

Need of familiarity with materials

Mechanical properties of FRP materials strongly depend on their constituents, fibre

fraction and configuration.
Failure mechanisms depend on microstructure and fibre architecture.

Perception of brittle material

response

FRP do not show yield like steel.

Lack of knowledge on design

Design and fabrication must be considered at the same stage of the project.

Design guidelines not standardized

The intrinsic tailorability of FRP difficult the adoption of standardized design guidelines.

Uncertain durability

Lack of substantiated data related to the FRP long-term durability.

Key durability concerns for fibre-reinforced composites in civil infrastructure have been
identified as follows: a) moisture and chemical reagents; b) alkaline solutions; c) thermal
effects; d) creep rupture; e) fatigue resistance; f) UV weathering; g) fire performance.

Environmental impact

In a very simple analysis it may be appear that FRP are not an ideal material, from an
environmental perspective.
However, with a holistic approach, the material are much more positive (for example,
they are able to save an otherwise failing structure).

Fire

Careful design and the right choice of resins, additives and fillers can make FRP fire
retardant. However, there is always a compromise to be made, and if fire resistance is
absolutely critical, than FRP materials can often be the most cost-effective solution.

SMART & GREEN STRUCTURAL AND REPAIR MATERIALS

4 Application of FRP composites in Civil Engineering

Over the last decade there has been significant growth in the use of FRP composites as
construction material in structural engineering. These materials have proven themselves to
be valuable for use in the construction of new buildings and bridges and for the upgrading of
existing structures [6].
Composites applications in infrastructure can be classified into the general areas of structural
rehabilitation and new construction, as shown in Fig 3.

FRP composites
in Civil
Engineering
New
construction

Rehabilitation

Repair

Strengthening

Seismic retrofit

Structural
elements

Concrete
reinforcement

Fig 2. Classification of composite application in civil infrastructures

4.1 Rehabilitation
The repair and strengthening of deteriorated and damaged infrastructure has become one of
the important challenges confronting the civil engineer worldwide. In many countries the
rehabilitation of existing structures is fast growing especially in developed countries that
completed most of their infrastructure in the first half of the last century. These structures are
now in need of urgent repair and retrofit. There is, therefore, an urgent need for development
of effective, durable and cost-efficient repair, strengthening and retrofit materials and
methodologies [3].
Generically, FRP composites can be utilized for structural rehabilitation in the following
situations [12]:
- Deficiencies at the design stage, including: design errors, inadequate factors of safety,
use of inferior class materials and poor construction quality.
- Change of use, in service, namely, increased safety requirements (upgrading of structural
design standards), modernisation that causes redistribution of stresses and increase of
the applied load.
- Ageing of materials that compromise the load capacity of the structure: for example
concrete degradation in hostile marine or industrial environments.
- Accidents, as fire or seismic events.
There are two possible alternatives to restore a deficient structure to the required standard;
these are complete or partial demolition and rebuild, or beginning of a programme of
strengthening [13].

10

FIBER REINFORCED POLYMER COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Within the scope of rehabilitation of concrete structures, it is essential that differentiation is

made between repair, strengthening and retrofit terms which are often erroneously used
interchangeably [3]:
- in repairing a structure, the FRP composite is used to fix a structural or functional
deficiency such as a crack or a severally degraded structural component.
- the strengthening of structures is specific to those cases wherein the addition or
application of the FRP composite would enhance the existing designed performance level.
- the term retrofit is used to relate to the seismic upgrades of facilities.
4.1.1 Repair and strengthening
Repair is necessary when the original structure has deteriorated, damage in service or was
not constructed according the required design. In many cases, a repair programme may
include strengthening to add a level of safety to the repaired structure and to account for
uncertainty in the rehabilitation project.
Repair with FRP composites has been used successfully on concrete, timber, metal and
masonry structures. The predominant role of concrete as a structural construction material
stimulated the application of FRP composite in repairing of concrete structures, namely,
bridges and large structural elements [14][15].
The basic FRP strengthening technique, which is most widely applied, involves the manual
application of either wet lay-up (Fig 4) or prefabricated systems (Fig 5) by means of cold
cured adhesive bonding. Common in this techniques is that the external reinforcement is
bonded onto the concrete surface with the fibres as parallel as practically possible to the
direction of principal tensile stresses. Besides the basic techniques, several special
techniques have been developed, namely the automated wet lay-up wrapping (of columns or
chimneys, for example), use of pre-stressed FRP (to close open cracks in bridge decks, for
example) [16]. Near-surface mounted (NSM) technique may also be thought as a special
method of reinforcement of concrete structures. In the NSM method, grooves are first cut into
the concrete cover and the FRP reinforcement, usually a laminate strip, is bonded therein
with appropriate groove filler, typically epoxy paste or cement grout.

Fig 3. Wet lay-up of FRP sheets

11

SMART & GREEN STRUCTURAL AND REPAIR MATERIALS

Fig 4.Application of FRP strips

4.1.2 Seismic retrofit

The problem of structural deficiency of existing constructions is especially acute in seismic
regions, as, even there, seismic design of structures is relatively recent. The enhancement of
confinement in structurally deficient concrete columns in seismically active regions of the
world has proven to be one of the most significant applications of FRP materials in
infrastructure applications [17].
Seismic retrofit of reinforced concrete structures, namely bridges, using conventional steel
techniques, whilst effective, has been found to be time consuming, cause significant traffic
disruption, rely on field welding and is susceptible to corrosion. Additionally, many of the
methods increase the stiffness and strength capacity of the columns putting adjacent
structural elements at risk from higher transmitted seismic forces. The use of FRP
composites in this application (Fig 6), not only provides a means of confinement, without the
associated increase in stiffness, but also enables the rapid fabrication of cost effective and
durable jackets with little traffic interference.

Fig 5. Seismic retrofitting of a bridge with FRP composites

4.2 New constructions

FRP composites, today, are used in a variety of applications, ranging from replacements for
steel rebar and tendons used conventionally as tensile reinforcement in concrete, jackets for
retrofit of columns, and externally bonded reinforcement for the rehabilitation of deteriorating
structural systems. Additionally, FRP composite are use in all composite structures such as
building frames and bridge decks and are being increasingly adopted for fabrication of
structural elements to be used in conjugation with the traditional construction materials.

12

FIBER REINFORCED POLYMER COMPOSITE MATERIALS

4.2.1 Seismic retrofit

One of the most popular area of FRP composite, as construction material of structural
elements, is in the form of high-quality constant cross section FRP profile shapes. Fig 7
shows examples of products commercially available.
FRP pultruded structures profiles have been used in a significant number of structures to
date, including pedestrian bridges, vehicular bridges, building frames, cooling towers,
walkways and platforms, etc.
(a)

(b)

Fig 6 . (a) Examples of FRP pultruded profiles; (b) FRP unit building block system

In the 1990s a significant efforts was undertaken by FRP manufacturers to develop FRP
bridge deck systems that could be used on conventional steel or concrete girders. In fact,
there are now an increasing number of field applications of FRP bridge decks systems (Fig
8), driven by needs of lighter weight and more durable systems to offset increasing costs of
maintenance of conventional structural concrete in areas of harsh climatic conditions, or
where there is a need for upgrading of structures to meet new code requirements without
access to new construction.

Fig 7. Example of a FRP bridge deck system

4.2.2 Concrete reinforcement

The predominant role of concrete as a construction material and the problems associated
with corrosion of steel reinforcement stimulated the development of fibre composites for
internal [18][19] and external [16][20] reinforcement of concrete and pre-stressing cables and
tendons [21].
FRP bars, rods and grids
The use of FRP reinforcing bars and grids for concrete is a growing segment of the
application of FRP composites in structural engineering for new construction [19]. For an
effective reinforcing action, it is necessary to develop bond strength between FRP and
concrete. This is attained in FRP rod by having various types of deformation systems,
including exterior wound fibres, sand coatings and separately formed deformations (Fig. 9).

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SMART & GREEN STRUCTURAL AND REPAIR MATERIALS

Fig 8. Examples of glass and carbon FRP bars and rods

FRP reinforcing bars and grids for concrete with both glass and carbon fibres are produced
by a number of companies in USA, Asia and Europe [22]. Their use has become recurrently
and is no longer confined to demonstration project as in the past. Applications have become
routine for certain specialised environments, namely in bridge decks an in underground
tunnels (Fig 10).

(a)

(b)

Fig. 10. Application of FRP as concrete reinforcement in new structures: (a) bridge deck; (b) underground tunnel

The use of FRP in concrete for anti-corrosion purposes is expected to find applications in
structures in or near marine environments, in or near the ground, in chemical and other
industrial plants, in places where good quality concrete cannot be achieved and in thin
structural elements. The magnetic neutrality of FRP makes them also an ideal reinforcement
solution for concrete in specific areas as railway magnetic levitation systems,
telecommunications stations and hospital building where magnetic resonance imaging
equipment is used.
FRP cables for pre-stressing and post-stressing applications
Composite cable applications in the infrastructure are used in the construction of suspension
and stay cables for bridges, pre-stressed tendons for various concrete structures and
external reinforcements for structural beams. All these applications require materials that
incorporate high tensile strength and, in addition, require characteristics such as corrosion
resistance and light weight [23].
Corrosion of steel pre-stressing tendons can lead to the concrete degradation and the
deterioration of structural integrity. In cable-stay applications, both corrosion and fatigue
make the replacement of conventional cables a significant life cost. FRP composites have
good corrosion, durability and fatigue characteristics and therefore the utilisation of these
materials does make good engineering sense. The initial cost of the cables is higher than
their competitors but this must be weighed against reduced transportation and handling costs,
reduced maintenance and the anticipated longer useful life for individual stay cables and for
concrete structures pre-stressed with FRP composite cables.

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FIBER REINFORCED POLYMER COMPOSITE MATERIALS

FRP cables are unidirectional reinforced structural elements made from glass, aramid or
carbon fibres embedded in the polymer matrix. Different shapes exists, such as bars, cables,
rectangular strips and braided reinforcement.
Carbon fibre and aramid cables are used for pre-tension and post-tension concrete, however
glass fibre cables are not recommended for pre-tension due the low resistance to alkaline
environments.

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SMART & GREEN STRUCTURAL AND REPAIR MATERIALS

5 References
[1]

Lopez-Anido, R.; Karbhari V. M. Ed. Emerging Materials for Civil Infrastructure State of the Art.
American Society of Civil Engineering, 2000.

[2]

Karbhari, V. M.; Seible, F. Fiber-Reinforced Composites Advanced Materials for the Renewal of
Civil Infrastructure. Applied Composite Materials, 7 (2000) 95-124.

[3]

Hollaway, L. C.; Head, P. R. Advanced Polymer Composites and Polymers in Civil Infrastructure.
Elsevier, 2001.

[4]

Cripps, A. Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composites in Construction. CIRIA C564, 2002.

[5]

Cabral-Fonseca, S. Materiais Compsitos de Matriz Polimrica Reforada com Fibras usados na

Engenharia Civil. Caractersticas e Aplicaes. Informao Cientfica e Tcnica do LNEC, Lisboa,
2005 (in Portuguese).

[6]

Bank, L. C. Composites for Construction Structural Design with FRP Materials. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. 2006.

[7]

Halliwell, S. M. Polymer Composites in Construction. BRE Centre for Building Fabric, CRC Ltd,
2000.

[8]

State-of-the-art Report on Fibre Reinforced Plastic Reinforcement for Concrete Structures. ACI
440R-96. American Concrete Institute, 1996.

[9]

Cowie, J. M. G. Polymers: Chemistry & Physics of Modern Materials, Blackie Academic

Professional, 1991.

[10] Karbhari, V. M. Ed. Durability of composites for civil structural applications, Woodhead Publishing
Materials, USA, 2007.
[11] Karbhari, V. M.; Chin, J.; Hunston, D.; Benmokrane, B.; Juska, T.; Morgan, R.; Lesko, J.; Sorathia,
U.; Reynaud, D. Durability Gap Analysis for Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites in Civil
Engineering. Journal of Composites in Construction, ASCE, 7:3 (2003) 238-247.
[12] Bakis, C. E.; Bank, L. C.; Brown, V. L.; Cosenza, E.; Davalos, J. F.; Lesko, J. J.; Machilda, A.;
Rizkalla, S. H.; Triantafillou, T. C. Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composites for Construction Stateof-the-art Review. Journal of Composites for Construction, 6:2 (2002) 73-87.
[13] Guide for Evaluation of Concrete Structures Prior to Rehabilitation. ACI 364.1R.94, American
Concrete Institute Committee 364, USA, 1994.
[14] Guide for the Selection of Strengthening Systems for Concrete Structures. Guideline No. 03742,
International Concrete Repair Institute, 2006.
[15] Rparation et renforcement des structures en bton au moyen des matriaux composites
Recommandations provisoires. Association Franaise du Gnie Civil, Documents Scientifiques et
techniques, 2011.
[16] Externally Bonded FRP Reinforcement for RC Structures. FIB Bulletin 14. Fdration
Internationale du Bton, 2001

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FIBER REINFORCED POLYMER COMPOSITE MATERIALS

[17] Retrofitting of Concrete Structures by Externally Bonded FRPs with Emphasis on Seismic
Applications. FIB Bulletin 35, Fdration Internationale du Bton, 2006.
[18] Guide for the Design and Construction of Concrete Reinforced with FRP Bars. ACI 440.1R-03.
American Concrete Institute, 2003.
[19] FRP Reinforcement in RC Structures. FIB Bulletin 40. Fdration Internationale du Bton, 2007.
[20] Guide for the Design and Construction of Externally Bonded FRP Systems for Strengthening
Concrete Structures. ACI 440.2R-02. American Concrete Institute, 2002.
[21] Prestressing Concrete Structures with FRP Tendons. ACI 440.4R-04, American Concrete Institute
Committee 440, USA, 2004.
[22] Report on Fiber-reinforced Polymer (FRP) Reinforcement for Concrete Structures. ACI 440R-07,
American Concrete Institute Committee 440, USA, 2007.
[23] Hollaway, L. C. The Evolution of and the Way Forward for Advanced Polymer Composites in the
Civil Infrastructure. Construction and Building Materials 17 (2003) 365-378.

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smart & green structural and repair materials

DURATINET PARTNERS
PORTUGAL
Laboratrio Nacional de Engenharia Civil, I.P. (LNEC)
Estradas de Portugal, SA (EP)
REFER, E.P.
TEIXEIRA DUARTE Engenharia e Construes, S.A.
Administrao do Porto de Lisboa (APL)
Fundo para o Desenvolvimento das Cincias da
Construo (FUNDCIC)
FRANCE
Institut franais des sciences et technologies des
transports, de lamnagement et des rseaux
(IFSTTAR)
Universit de Bordeaux
Universit de Nantes
Universit de La Rochelle
Conseil General de la Charente-Maritime (CG-17)
IRELAND
Dublin University- Trinity College (TCD)
National Roads Authority (NRA)
SPAIN
Universidade de Vigo (UV)
Porto de Vigo
Xunta da Galiza
UNITED KINGDOM
Queens University Belfast (QUB)

TECHNICAL REPORT

TR 6 .1
REPAIR AND GREEN CONCRETE