Master

of Computer Science & IT

(MCIT)
Fall Semester 2013
Elec1ve Course (CT-531)
Wireless & Mobile Communica:on

Lecture 2
Dr. Muhammad Mubashir Khan
mmkhan@neduet.edu.pk
September 2013
Department of Computer Science & IT, NED University of Engineering & Technology, Karachi

Background Topics

Informa1on Signals
Frequency and Frequency Bands
Channel Capacity
Mul1plexing
Frequency Division Mul1ple Access (FDMA)
Time Division Mul1ple Access (TDMA)
Propaga1on Modes

Ground wave, Sky wave, Line of sight transmission

Spread Spectrum

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
Code Division Mul1ple Access (CDMA)

Other points will be explained as needed

Electromagne1c signals
Electromagne1c waves can be imagined as a self-
propaga1ng transverse oscilla1ng wave of electric
and magne1c elds.

Frequency and Wavelength

The rela1ve wavelengths of the electromagne1c waves of
three dierent colors of light (blue, green, and red) with a
distance scale in micrometers along the x-axis.
Frequency (f): Rate, in cycles per second,
or Hertz (Hz) at which the signal repeats Greater wavelength Smaller frequency
Peak amplitude (A) - maximum value or
strength of the signal over 1me; typically
measured in volts
Wavelength () - distance occupied by a
single cycle of the signal
Or, the distance between two points of
corresponding phase of two consecu1ve
cycles
Phase () - measure of the rela1ve
posi1on in 1me within a single period of a
signal

Smaller wavelength greater frequency

Analog & Digital Signals

Analog signal - signal intensity varies in a smooth
fashion over 1me
No breaks or discon1nui1es in the signal
Digital signal - signal intensity maintains a constant
level for some period of 1me and then changes to
another constant level
A digital signal waveform:
(1) low level, (2) high level,
(3) rising edge, and (4) falling edge.

Periodic signal - analog or digital signal pa`ern that

repeats over 1me
s(t +T ) = s(t ) -< t < +
where T is the period of the signal

William Stallings Book

Frequency, Spectrum, Bandwidth

Fundamental frequency - when all frequency
components of a signal are integer mul1ples of one
frequency, its referred to as the fundamental
frequency (the lowest frequency of a periodic
waveform)
Spectrum - range of frequencies that a signal contains
Absolute bandwidth - width of the spectrum of a signal
Eec:ve bandwidth (or just bandwidth) - narrow band
of frequencies that most of the signals energy is
contained in
The greater the bandwidth, the higher the informa:on-
carrying capacity

EM Spectrum

EM Spectrum

= Gamma rays
HX = Hard X-rays
SX = Sok X-Rays
EUV = Extreme-ultraviolet
NUV = Near-ultraviolet
Visible light (colored bands)
NIR = Near-infrared
MIR = Moderate-infrared
FIR = Far-infrared
EHF = Extremely high frequency (microwaves)
SHF = Super-high frequency (microwaves)
UHF = Ultrahigh frequency (radio waves)
VHF = Very high frequency (radio)
HF = High frequency (radio)
MF = Medium frequency (radio)
LF = Low frequency (radio)
VLF = Very low frequency (radio)
VF = Voice frequency
ULF = Ultra-low frequency (radio)
SLF = Super-low frequency (radio)
ELF = Extremely low frequency (radio)

Fundamental Frequency
Any electromagne1c signal can be shown to consist of a
collec1on of periodic analog signals (sine waves) at
dierent amplitudes, frequencies, and phases
The period of the total signal is equal to the period of the
fundamental frequency

A`enua1on
The gradual loss in intensity of any kind of signal
(wave) through a medium.
sunlight is a`enuated by dark glasses,
X-rays are a`enuated by lead, and
light and sound are a`enuated by water.

In electrical engineering and telecommunica1ons,

a`enua1on aects the propaga1on of waves and
signals in electrical circuits, in op1cal bers, as well
as in air (radio waves).

Rela1onship b/w Data Rate and Bandwidth

The greater the bandwidth, the
higher the informa1on-carrying
capacity
Conclusions

Any digital waveform will have

innite bandwidth
BUT the transmission system will
limit the bandwidth that can be
transmi`ed
AND, for any given medium, the
greater the bandwidth transmi`ed,
the greater the cost
HOWEVER, Limi1ng the bandwidth
The only way to get nest steep
creates distor1ons making it
is by adding an innite
dicult to interpret the received edge
number of harmonics.
signal

Data, Signal, Transmission

Data - en11es that convey meaning, or informa1on
Signals - electric or electromagne1c representa1ons
of data
Transmission - communica1on of data by the
propaga1on and processing of signals
Analog data
Video
Audio

Digital data
Text
Integers

Analog Signals
A con1nuously varying electromagne1c wave that
may be propagated over a variety of media,
depending on frequency
Examples of media:
Copper wire media (twisted pair and coaxial cable)
Fiber op1c cable
Atmosphere or space propaga1on

Analog signals can propagate analog and digital data

Digital Signals
A sequence of voltage pulses that may be
transmi`ed over a copper wire medium
Generally cheaper than analog signaling
Less suscep1ble to noise interference
Suer more from a`enua1on
Digital signals can propagate analog and digital data

Dierent combina1ons are possible

Digital data, digital signal
Equipment for encoding is less expensive than digital-to-
analog equipment

Analog data, digital signal

Conversion permits use of modern digital transmission
and switching equipment

Digital data, analog signal

Some transmission media will only propagate analog
signals
Examples include op1cal ber and satellite

Analog data, analog signal

Analog data easily converted to analog signal

Analog and Digital transmission

Transmit analog signals without regard to content
A`enua1on limits length of transmission link
Cascaded ampliers boost signals energy for longer
distances but cause distor1on
Analog data can tolerate distor1on
Introduces errors in digital data

Digital Signal
Repeaters achieve greater distance
Repeaters recover the signal and retransmit

Analog signal carrying digital data

Retransmission device recovers the digital data from analog
signal
Generates new, clean analog signal

Channel Capacity
Channel (A specic radio frequency, pair or band of
frequencies)
Impairments, such as noise, limit data rate that can be
achieved
For digital data, to what extent do impairments limit data
rate?
Channel Capacity the maximum rate at which data can be
transmi`ed over a given communica1on path, or channel,
under given condi1ons
Related concepts

Data rate - rate at which data can be communicated (bps)

Bandwidth - the bandwidth of the transmi`ed signal as
constrained by the transmi`er and the nature of the transmission
medium (Hertz)
Noise - average level of noise over the communica1ons path
Error rate - rate at which errors occur
Error = transmit 1 and receive 0; transmit 0 and receive 1

Signal to Noise Ra1o

Ra1o of the power in a signal to the power
contained in the noise thats present at a par1cular
point in the transmission
Typically measured at a receiver
Signal-to-noise ra1o (SNR, or S/N)

A high SNR means a high-quality signal, low number

of required intermediate repeaters
SNR sets upper bound on achievable data rate

Shannon's Capacity Formula

Equa1on:
Represents theore1cal maximum that can be
achieved
Spectrum of a channel between 3 MHz and 4 MHz ;
SNRdB = 24 dB

Using Shannons formula

Transmission Media
Transmission Medium

Physical path between transmi`er and receiver

Guided Media

Waves are guided along a solid medium

E.g., copper twisted pair, copper coaxial cable, op1cal ber

Unguided Media

Provides means of transmission but does not guide

electromagne1c signals
Usually referred to as wireless transmission
E.g., atmosphere, outer space
Transmission and recep1on are achieved by means of an
antenna
Congura1ons for wireless transmission
Direc1onal
Omni-direc1onal

General Frequency Ranges

Microwave frequency range
1 GHz to 40 GHz
Direc1onal beams possible
Suitable for point-to-point transmission
Used for satellite communica1ons

Radio frequency range

30 MHz to 1 GHz
Suitable for omnidirec1onal applica1ons

Infrared frequency range

Roughly, 3x1011 to 2x1014 Hz
Useful in local point-to-point mul1point applica1ons
within conned areas

Terrestrial Microwave
Descrip1on of common microwave antenna
Parabolic "dish", 3 m in diameter
Fixed rigidly and focuses a narrow beam
Achieves line-of-sight transmission to receiving antenna
Located at substan1al heights above ground level

Applica1ons
Long haul telecommunica1ons service
Short point-to-point links between buildings

Satellite Microware
Descrip1on of communica1on satellite
Microwave relay sta1on
Used to link two or more ground-based microwave
transmi`er/receivers
Receives transmissions on one frequency band (uplink),
amplies or repeats the signal, and transmits it on
another frequency (downlink)

Applica1ons
Television distribu1on
Long-distance telephone transmission
Private business networks

Broadcast Radio
Descrip1on of broadcast radio antennas
Omnidirec1onal
Antennas not required to be dish-shaped
Antennas need not be rigidly mounted to a precise
alignment

Applica1ons
Broadcast radio
VHF and part of the UHF band; 30 MHZ to 1GHz
Covers FM radio and UHF and VHF television

Mul1plexing
Capacity of transmission medium usually exceeds
capacity required for transmission of a single signal
Mul1plexing - carrying mul1ple signals on a single
medium
More ecient use of transmission medium

Why Mul1plexing?
Cost per kbps of transmission facility declines with
an increase in the data rate
Cost of transmission and receiving equipment
declines with increased data rate
Most individual data communica1ng devices
require rela1vely modest data rate support

Basic Mul1plexing Techniques

Frequency-division mul1plexing (FDM)
Takes advantage of the fact that the useful bandwidth of
the medium exceeds the required bandwidth of a given
signal

Time-division mul1plexing (TDM)

Takes advantage of the fact that the achievable bit rate
of the medium exceeds the required data rate of a
digital signal

FDM

TDM

Get in touch
Course homepage
h`ps://sites.google.com/site/
WirelessMobileCommunica1on/

Best way to contact me is to

email: mmkhan@neduet.edu.pk