William Yang

Materials Used in Lower-Limb Prostheses Fabrication

Modern-day lower limb prostheses utilize a combination of various materials including
plastics, semimetals, metals, and even biodegradable materials. The inherent nanoscale structures
of these materials affect the macro-scale mechanical properties that provide the necessary
structural support and stability, cushion, flexibility, and mobility for a viable prosthetic limb.
Plastics are widely used in fabricating limb prostheses. One class of plastics includes
thermosetting plastics; examples include epoxy, polyester, and acrylic (Uellendahl 1998). In the
fabrication process, heat and catalysts are added to the liquid resin of these plastics, and then the
liquid is poured and cast over a positive cast (Dante, Santamaria, and Gil, 2009). Upon cooling,
the plastic sets, making crosslinks between polymer chains (2009). These crosslinks add to the
strength of the material, but also makes the polymer unable to be reshaped after setting (2009).
Thus, in prosthetic limb fabrication, thermosets offer strength and durability at the cost of
lacking the ability to be reshaped or readjusted. On the other hand, thermoplastics, which contain
no crosslinks, can be reshaped but are not as strong since intermolecular forces hold the polymer
chains together instead of covalent bonds (lgschemistry.org.uk 2005). Common examples of
thermoplastics that were used firsthand include Plexiglas, polypropylene, and polyethylene in
creating the socket of the prosthetic limb (2005).
Metals are also very common in fabricating prosthetic limbs (Uellendahl 1998). At the
nanoscale, metal atoms form tight, closest packing structures (Clark 2000). Coupled with grain
boundaries, which are irregularities in the packing structure, these nanoscale structures
contribute to the strength and durability of metals, which is important for the structural integrity
of the prosthesis and often used for the joint components (2000). In addition, the inherent nature

of metallic bonding allows for metals to be ductile and malleable, allowing for customization of
the macro-scale shape and structure (2000). On the other hand, metals have high atomic weight
and are heavier relative to other materials such as plastics. The most commonly used metals in
prosthesis fabrication are steel, which is very strong, but very heavy, and aluminum, which is
lighter, but less strong than steel (Uellendahl 1998).
Other nonmetal, lattice solids can also be used in the fabrication process (Uellendahl
1998). Silicone rubber is a popular choice used for padding and absorbing shock while acting as
an interface between the socket and skin, since it lowers shearing friction (1998). Due to
silicones low intermolecular forces, high affinity for coiling (Shin-Etsu 2005), long bond
lengths, and large bond angles (Baur 1977), silicone polymers are very flexible, elastic, and soft,
which is why it is oftentimes used to absorb shock. Another nonmetal lattice solid is carbon fiber.
The sp2-hybridized carbon-carbon covalent bonds give carbon fibers high strength per mass,
allowing for the fabrication of very light weight, yet strong prosthetic limbs that are especially
useful for athletes. One disadvantage that is common to all nonmetal solids however includes
their brittleness.
The field of materials applications in limb prostheses is continuing to grow. In addition
to providing structural characteristics to prostheses, carbon is also used to enhance other
functions. Carbon nanotubes have been used to make artificial nerves that are incorporated into
prosthetic limbs, allowing the amputee to feel mechanical and thermal stimuli through the
prosthetic limb (Brown 2010). Fabrication of prostheses has also grown increasingly sustainable
and cheap. Recently, researchers have been able to fabricate prosthetic limbs that incorporate
plant-derived fibers into the structural design (2010).

Technological innovations and discoveries throughout history have provided a plethora of

options in terms of material selection for creating limb prostheses. This variety means that
certain materials may be selected that are tuned to the individual lifestyle of each amputee, which
is of utmost importance in diagnosing a patient and prescribing a treatment. The problems that
patients face are not linear and static, but rather are complex, dynamic, and unique to each
individual.

Works Cited
Baur, W.H. (1977). Siliconoxygen bond lengths, bridging angles SiOSi and synthetic low
trydimite. Acta Crystallographica B33, 26152619.
Brown, M. (2010). Special report: biomaterials revolution. Retrieved from
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues/2010/July/BiomaterialsRevolution.asp.
Clark, J. (2000), Metallic structures. Retrieved from
http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/structures/metals.html.
Dante, R. C., Santamaria, D. A. and Gil, J. M. (2009), Crosslinking and thermal stability of
thermosets based on novolak and melamine. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 114: 40594065.
doi: 10.1002/app.31114
http://www.lgschemistry.org.uk/PDF/Thermosoftening_and_thermosetting_plastics.pdf
Uellendahl, J.E. (1998), Prosthetic primer: materials used in prosthetics. Retrieved from
http://www.amputee-coalition.org/inmotion/sep_oct_98/matinprs.html
Shin-Etsu. (2005), Characteristic properties of silicone rubber compounds. Retrieved from
http://www.silicone.jp/e/catalog/pdf/rubber_e.pdf.