Gender Strengthening Programme For Eastern and Southern Africa Division: Toolkit

Gender Strengthening Programme for
Eastern and Southern Africa Division
TOOLKIT
FOR PRACTITIONERS
Gender and Poverty Targeting

in Market Linkage Operations
November 2002
The study on Gender and Poverty Targeting in Market Linkage Operations and
this Toolkit was financed by a grant from the Government of Norway to IFADs
Gender Strengthening Programme.
The judgements made herein do not necessarily reflect the views of IFADs
Member Countries or the representatives of those Member Countries appointed
to its Executive Board. The contents of this document may be freely reviewed,
quoted, reproduced or translated in part or in full, provided the source is
acknowledged. IFAD does not guarantee accuracy of data included in this
document and accepts no responsibility for any consequences of their use.
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Contents
THE PURPOSE OF THE TOOLKIT
PART 1 DIAGNOSTIC STUDY TOOLS
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN PLANNING AND MANAGING GENDER

AND MARKET LINKAGE VILLAGE DIAGNOSTICS
Purpose of Field Diagnostic Studies with a Focus on Gender and Poverty
Targeting in Market Linkage Operations
Balance between Gender, Poverty and Marketing Focus
PRA Sequencing
Factors to Consider in Selecting Participatory Tools
3
3
3
3
5
PREPARATIONS FOR THE FIELD VISIT

Putting Together a PRA Team
Team Briefing Prior to Visiting the Field
Best Practices for PRA Team Members and Local Facilitators
Advance Preparation of PRA Materials
Contacting the Authorities and the Community
Arranging for Meals
Getting the Right PRA Participants
Meeting with the Community
Avoiding Raised Expectations
Assigning Roles within Each PRA Group
Alternation of Group Work and Plenary Sessions
Wealth Ranking and Household Interview Logistics
Household Interviews
Further Adaptation of PRA Tools to Gender Concepts
9
9
9
10
11
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12
13
14
15
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PRA TOOLS FOR MARKET ENVIRONMENT DIAGNOSTIC STUDIES

1. Enterprise Ranking Module
2. Price Differences by Season and Location Module
3. Enterprise Trends Module
4. Markets and Mobility Map
5. Timeline of Village Money Sources and Markets
6. Problem Analysis Module
21
23
29
33
37
39
43
TOOLS FOR POVERTY ANALYSIS AND TARGETING

1. Wealth Ranking Module (with card sorting)
2. Group Profiles Module
3. Household Interviews
Household Data Analysis by Wealth Category - Illustration
49
51
59
63
67
GENDER DIAGNOSTIC TOOLS

1. Main Income Sources and Expenditures of Men and Women
2. Main Expenditures of Men and Women
3. Seasonal Activity Calendar
4. Cash Inflow and Cash Outflow Calendar
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75
77
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87
iii
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5. Access and Control Profile

6. Gender Roles in Marketing Module for Leaders
7. Responsibilities of Husband and Wife as Family Providers
8. Gender Roles in Marketing Checklist for Womens and Mens Groups
PART 2 STAKEHOLDER WORKSHOP TOOLS
111
STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS TOOLS

Stakeholder Analysis - Dummy Table 1: Stakeholder Listing
Stakeholder Analysis - Dummy Table 2: Ranking by Impacts and Influence
Stakeholder Analysis - Dummy Table 3: Plan for Stakeholder Consultation
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TOOLS FOR PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION AND PARTICIPATORY PLANNING

1. Using a Problem Tree to Identify Key Issues
2. Linking Problem Trees to the Problem Analysis Matrix
3. Using the Problem Analysis Matrix to Formulate Action Plans
4. Moving from Sub-Focal Area Planning to Focal Area Planning
5. SHEMPs Tool for Integrating a Gender Dimension in Focal Area Planning
6. SHEMP Guidelines for Selection of Members of Focal Area Resource Groups
7. Enterprise Prioritisation Tools for Stakeholder Workshops
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123
127
129
131
133
135
PART 3 GENDER AND POVERTY SENSITIVE M&E
137
GENDER AND POVERTY SENSITIVE IMPACT ASSESSMENT

Site Selection for Rapid Impact Assessments
1. Change Matrix - Before/After and Without and With Project
Comparisons
2. Before/After or Without and With Project Wealth Ranking
139
139
TOOLS FOR ANNUAL STAKEHOLDER EVALUATION WORKSHOPS

1. SWOT Analysis
151
151
ATTACHMENT
TEMPLATES
Main PRA Module (Focus Groups of Women and Men)
Key Informant PRA Module (Village Leaders)
Household Interview Checklist
iv
91
99
103
107
141
145
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TOOLKIT FOR PRACTITIONERS
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations
FAPP
Focal Area Planning Process
FARG
Focal Area Resource Group
FHH
Female-headed household
HH
Household
MoA
Ministry of Agriculture (generic)
NAADS
National Agricultural Advisory Services, Uganda
NGO
Non-Governmental Organization
PAMA
Agricultural Marketing Support Project, Mozambique
PCO
Project Coordination Office
PRA
Participatory Rural Appraisal
SHEMP
Smallholder Enterprise and Marketing Programme, Zambia
SWOT
Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats
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THE PURPOSE OF THE TOOLKIT

The Toolkit is designed for practitioners who will be involved in planning and
implementing village-level gender and market linkage diagnostic studies, facilitating
stakeholder workshops and carrying out participatory impact assessments. It is
designed to complement the information presented in the Sourcebook, by
providing a detailed inventory of the tools available and how to use them. It also
complements the Field Diagnostic Study Manual published in a separate volume by
IFADs Gender Strengthening Programme in Eastern and Southern Africa.
The overall purpose of the Toolkit is to explain to practitioners: what participatory
tools are available for rapid market problem diagnosis, socio-economic and gender
targeting and for each tool - how to use it, how to analyze the information and how
to use the findings in designing, implementing and evaluating projects. Each section
and tool is meant to be self-standing, so that it can be detached from a loose-leaf
binder for use in fieldwork. The English versions of the templates used for the
Participatory Rural Appraisals (PRAs) and the household interviews are appended
as attachments. An electronic version of the templates in Portuguese is also available
on request from IFAD.
The Toolkit is divided into three parts: (a) Diagnostic Study Tools, (b) Stakeholder
Workshop Tools and (c) Gender and Poverty-sensitive M&E Tools.
Part 1 of the Toolkit Diagnostic Study Tools capitalizes on the teams experience
with participatory gender and market linkage diagnostic studies in nine sites in
three countries. It is divided into two parts.
The first section on Diagnostic Study Tools provides hands-on practitioners with
an overview of the factors to consider in planning and implementing participatory
gender and market linkage diagnostic studies. It should be read in conjunction
with the Sourcebook section on participatory diagnostic studies.
1 The team for the Gender Focus/Targeting in Market Linkage operations are the following: Vibecke Kubberud,
Coordinator of IFADs Gender Strengthening Programme for Eastern and Southern Africa; Alice Carloni, Senior Rural
Sociologist from FAO Investment Centre; and Howard Johnson, institutions specialist and team leader. Four other
experts worked with the team in the three countries visited between January and May 2002: Stephen Tembo in
Zambia; Paola Idelson and Carmen Ramos in Mozambique; and Catherine Barasa in Uganda.
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The Sourceboo k covers for managers the timing of diagnostic studies in the IFAD project cycle,
their potential contribution to design and implementation, their cost, team composition, selection
of representative sites, the three-day module and the sequencing of PRA tools. It identifies three
different ways of using participatory diagnostics at different stages of the project cycle from
project design to focal area planning to community and enterprise group level planning.
The Toolkit on the other hand focuses on logistical issues concerned with planning and
implementing participatory diagnostic studies. It documents the methodological lessons learnt
from carrying out PRAs in Zambia, Mozambique and Uganda in connection with the Gender and
Poverty Targeting in Market Linkage Operations study and draws implications for future studies of
the same type.
The second section of the Diagnostic Study Tools presents PRA tools designed for
rapid diagnosis of: (a) village-level marketing issues; (b) poverty-targeting issues
and (c) gender issues.
Part 2 of the Toolkit focuses on participatory tools for stakeholder workshops. It

should be read in conjunction with the Sourcebook section dealing with Focal Area
Planning Processes. (FAPPs) It also has two main sections.
Stakeholder Analysis Tools; and
Tools for Problem Identification and Participatory Planning. The latter section
also spells out procedures for selecting focal area representatives in a democratic
and equitable way.
The Sourceboo k section on stakeholder workshop tools for focal area planning is aimed at project
managers, whereas the Toolkit section on stakeholder workshops which presents the actual
workshop tools - is aimed primarily at workshop facilitators. However, many of the techniques
described could interest project managers in addition to practitioners concerned with workshop
planning and management.
Part 3 of the Toolkit Gender and Poverty Sensitive M&E Tools focuses primarily
on tools for participatory impact assessment. It should be read together with the
Sourcebook section on gender and poverty-sensitive M&E. The Toolkit section on
M&E has two parts.
The first section presents factors to consider in planning and implementing rapid
impact assessments; and
The second section presents the impact assessment tools and discusses how to use
them.
The Sourceboo k section on M&E - aimed at managers and supervisors of market linkage projects includes tools for gender and poverty-sensitive project logical frameworks, gender and povertysensitive indicators, reporting, beneficiary tracking, participatory M&E, and rapid impact
assessment. The Toolkit section on M&E aimed at practitioners participating in evaluation
teams - is intended to complement the former. It includes two linked PRA tools designed for rapid
impact assessments and a third tool designed for use by market linkage projects during annual
stakeholder evaluation workshops.
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DIAGNOSTIC STUDY TOOLS
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN PLANNING AND MANAGING

GENDER AND MARKET LINKAGE VILLAGE DIAGNOSTICS
Purpose of Field Diagnostic Studies with a Focus on Gender and Poverty
Targeting in Market Linkage Operations
The purpose of Field Diagnostic Studies is to improve the effectiveness of market
linkage projects by increasing our understanding of how people in rural
communities interact with the market. They provide the foundation for designing
and delivering projects and services that address the most important needs and
interests of poor women and men in rural communities.
Balance between Gender, Poverty and Marketing Focus

Diagnostic studies for market linkage projects should place roughly one third of
their emphasis on rapid market diagnostics, one third on poverty diagnosis and
targeting, and one third on gender analysis and options for gender mainstreaming.
Gender and poverty-focused diagnostic studies are more interesting and useful for market linkage
project managers when they also include a rapid market diagnostic. The diagnostic study should
contribute to the projects core work in addition to their contribution to targeting.
PRA Sequencing
The PRA sequence designed for gender and market linkage diagnostic studies has
three pillars: (a) a core PRA sequence for groups of women and men focused on
gender roles in relation to markets, complemented by (b) a series of tools for socioeconomic analysis and poverty targeting, and (c) for rapid diagnosis of marketrelated issues at village level. It involves a three-ring circus with three separate
activities taking place in parallel in the same village at the same time.
The reason for doing three exercises simultaneously is to: reduce study costs;
minimize the time burden on villagers; and to take advantage of opportunities for
women and men and leaders to learn from one another by sharing their
perspectives in plenary session. The full PRA sequence for a typical village is given
on the next page.
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Day 1 Village PRA Sequence
Introduction - Purpose of Consultation (Plenary)
Leaders
Women
Men
Enterprise ranking:
importance, $, ease of selling
Main income sources of

women and men

women and men
Price differences by season

and location
Main expenditure of
women and men
Main expenditure of
women and men
Trends: prices, production

sales and profits
Seasonal activity
calendar
Seasonal activity
calendar
Village Markets and Mobility

Map
Cash inflow and outflow

calendar
Cash inflow and outflow

calendar
Gender roles in marketing

by site
Gender roles in
marketing
Gender roles in
marketing
Timeline: money sources

and markets of village
Wealth Ranking and

Household Selection
Optional:
if time permits
Access and Control of

Resources by Gender
Access and Control of

Resources by Gender
Problem Analysis - Women
Problem Analysis - Men
Group Profiles
Problem Analysis - Leaders
Wrap-up in plenary - approx: half an hour
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Day 2 Household Interviews
(5-6 hrs including travel time)
3 team members
(4 x 3 = 12 interviews)
Sub-Team A
Sub-Team B
Sub-Team C
Household 1
(less-poor)
Household 5
(less-poor)
Household 9
(middle-poor)
Household 2
(middle-poor)
Household 4
(middle-poor FHH)
Household 10
(poor)
Household 3
(middle-poor)
Household 7
(poor)
Household 11
(poor)
Household 4
(poor - FHH)
Household 8
(poorest)
Household 4
(poorest - FHH)
Factors to Consider in Selecting Participatory Tools

As a basic principle, all PRA tools to be used in the diagnostic study should
contribute to answering questions about how gender and socio-economic status
affect rural households relationship with markets. Tools that tell us about gender
but not how gender affects marketing are of relatively little use. To be useful for
market linkage analysis, most PRA exercises need to be focused on marketingrelated issues. Hence the local participatory facilitator needs to guide the PRA
process more than s/he would in an ordinary PRA.
Comments on a standard range of PRA tools and their utility in market linkage
diagnostics follow.
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Standard PRA Tool1

1. Daily activity profile of men and
women in peak and slack season
2. Main income sources and uses of
money by men and women
3. Access and control of resources by
women and men
4. Problem analysis
5. Likes and dislikes of being a

woman/man
6. Seasonal activity calendar
7. Gender division of labour in crop and
livestock production, processing,
storage and marketing
8. Village map
9. Village history timeline
10. Trendlines for top 5 income sources

11. Wealth ranking
12. Group profiles
13. Household interviews
Utility for Market Linkage

Projects?
Utility of Comparing Mens and

Womens View
Not relevant for market linkages
Not relevant
Very useful use as first exercise to

warm up the groups
Useful if list of resources is guided to
ensure mention of key commodities
marketed
However needs
Useful but analysis must be wellfocused on problems related to marketing
of inputs and outputs
Not relevant
Very useful (and fun) to compare women

and men in plenary session
Useful. Facilitators need steer process
to ensure that both men and women
mention the key commodities marketed
Useful if well-focused on marketing in

relation to timing of the harvest
Detailed information on gender roles from
harvesting to post harvest processing,
storage, sale and control of income is
useful; details of gender roles in
production is less useful
Needs modification to show the village in
relation to the main markets for inputs
and outputs, distance to market, types of
transport, cost of transport, who
(male/female) goes to which market and
how frequently
Useful if well-focused on documenting
changes in market access, marketing
systems, products and terms of trade
Essential for analysis of market trends
Useful to compare mens and womens

perspective if time permits
Useful to compare womens and mens
perspective if time permits (see Gender
roles in marketing checklist)
Essential for poverty targeting and

selection of HHs for HH interviews
Essential for assessing outreach of
existing groups to women and the poor
Essential for getting the point of view of
the rich and of the very poor (both of whom
tend to be absent from PRA sessions)
Very useful if both men and women focus

their analysis on problems related to
marketing of inputs and outputs
Not relevant
1 map (leaders) is enough

Not much added by comparing maps of
men and women
1 timeline (leaders) is enough. Little

value added by comparing men and
womens view of marketing history
Could be useful to compare men and
womens view if time permits
Separate wealth rankings by men and
women dont add much value
Not necessary to repeat with women
and men
Comparison between female and maleheaded HHs adds value
1 Examples of many of these tools may be found in IFAD (2002) A Field Diagnostic Manual for Genday and Poverty
Analysis, Rome: Gender Strengthening Programme, Eastern and Southern Africa Division, IFAD
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In particular, the access and control of resource profile (see number 3 - above) is
only useful for market linkage diagnosis if both the women and the men include the
main marketed commodities among the resources that they list. Moreover, the team
found that the Access and Control Profile is a rather blunt instrument for learning
about who markets and who controls the income from the sale of commodities such
as maize, vegetables and small ruminants and how commercialization might affect
it. The profile therefore had to be supplemented by a gender and marketing
checklist to find out how commercialization affects who (men or women) does the
marketing and who controls the income.
New tools developed for use in the market linkage-oriented PRAs are listed below.
Tools for Womens and Mens Groups
Tools for Key Informants/Village Leaders
1. Cash inflow and outflow calendar

noting who (male/female) earns the income (from what
source) and whose money is used for the main expenses
1. Enterprise ranking ranking of marketed products by

importance for the village
economic importance (brings the most money)
ease/difficulty of marketing
2. Gender roles in marketing checklist:

who (women/man) decides when, how much and where to
sell, who sells (when, where and how), who controls the
income and who decides how to spend it
2. Price differences by season and location

3. Enterprise trends
4. Gender roles in marketing (including differences in
who sells and who controls income from sale depending
on the commodity, the location of market and the means
of transporting the product to market)
The most interesting tools for the PRA participants and also the most useful tools
for diagnosing market linkage issues proved to be:
Most Useful PRA Tools for Market Linkage Diagnostics

Tools used by Key Informants
(village leaders)
Core PRA tools

(used in parallel by men & womens groups)
1. Main income sources and expenditures of men
and women
2. Access and control of resources
3. Problem listing and ranking
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Enterprise ranking
Price differences by season and location
Enterprise trends for top 5 marketed products
Wealth ranking
Group profiles (including socio-economic and sex
composition of group membership)
7. Problem listing and ranking
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The most problematic tools to use were the seasonal calendars and the second part
of the problem analysis. Problem identification and ranking can be fun and
challenging for the participants (although time consuming) but the identification of
coping mechanisms and of possible solutions either tends to be superficial (wish lists)
or to become tedious. It needs skillful facilitation to get villagers to focus on what
they can do to solve their own problems without waiting for help from government.
For instance, facilitators need to be firm in responding to villagers requests for
government handouts and in encouraging them to consider what they themselves
can do to solve their own problems with minimal outside assistance.
Problematic Tools
Core PRA tools (used Men & Womens groups)
Solutions to Problems
1. Seasonal activity calendar (women tended to get lost in

details of planting, weeding and harvesting and to focus
insufficiently on timing of marketing or to conclude it can be
sold at any time of year.
1. Record only time of planting, harvesting and selling.

Show the two cropping seasons separately in areas with
bimodal rainfall. Focus on reasons for timing of sales.
2. Cash inflow and outflow calendar (women could not do it

unless they had already done the seasonal activity calendar;
then it became redundant).
2. Do not do cash inflow and outflow calendars as a freestanding exercise; identify the months of peak cash
inflow and outflow as the final part of the seasonal
activity calendar.
3. Marketing checklist (some questions could not be answered

because each HH is different).
3. Focus on what is the cultural norm (cover variations in

household interviews).
4. Problem analysis (the problem ranking exercise is fun but the

analysis of causes of problems, coping mechanisms and
possible solutions becomes tedious for the participants and
is only valuable when the focus is on what villagers can do to
solve their own problems not wait for government to bring
solutions. This requires a long discussion to weed out wish
list type solutions).
4. Put more emphasis on initiatives that villagers could

take to solve their own problems. Where literacy rates
are very low, skip the step of asking someone to write
each individuals problems onto slips of paper.
Tools used by Key Informants (village leaders)
5. Prices of top 5 items 1997-2001 (tedious - key informants

cannot remember).
5. Drop the exercise. Collect price time series information

from traders.
6. Village marketing history replies are often too superficial

to be of much use; exercise can take too much time (village
elders tend to reflect on the good old days).
6. Structure the exercise by dividing the flip chart into 4

distinct historical periods. Hold it later in the PRA
sequence (make the exercise optional).
7. Marketing map gives only a rough idea of the location of

markets and transport costs.
7. Make it a very short and simple exercise. Do it after the

price differences by location. Always record distances
when traveling by vehicle. Cross-check transport costs
in HH interviews.
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PREPARATIONS FOR THE FIELD VISIT

Putting Together a PRA Team
Team composition depends on the skills and experience of the project staff
conducting the study, and their availability. In certain circumstances, it may be best
to draw on the skills of local consultants. However, this should not be at the expense
of project staff having the opportunity to gain first-hand experience of the interests,
needs and priorities of their target communities. Team members may also be
recruited from local service providers (such as governmental bodies or NonGovernmental Organizations (NGOs)).
A well-balanced team would consist of a core of three to four members plus three to
four local facilitator/translators (50% male) with a mixture of the following:
skills in community mobilization, group work, Participatory Rural Appraisal

(PRA) methods and livelihood analysis with gender and poverty focus;
technical expertise in agriculture (extension, marketing), community

development, monitoring and evaluation, or rural sociology; and
language skills relevant to the local community.
Team Briefing Prior to Visiting the Field

The following roles and responsibilities should be allocated to the appropriate team
members:
team leader and facilitator of the initial meeting with the community;
one member should take responsibility for working with village leaders, another
with women (preferably a female) and with men (can be male or female);
each group should have a local translator (if necessary);
each group should designate one individual to act as participatory facilitator and
another a team member to record the information on the templates; since the
PRA flip charts are left with the village, the recorder needs to ensure that all
relevant information from the flip charts is entered into the templates and that
an English version of the templates is available for the PRA team;
a coordinator for the plenary session; and
a report-writer to compile field notes.
A work plan should be drawn up, identifying key activities, their components and
duration, and any linkages between them. Responsibilities should be assigned and
any necessary materials or resources identified.
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On arriving in a new site for instance on the afternoon of the day prior to the
PRA a briefing session should be held for the whole PRA team including the local
facilitators (e.g., extension workers) and the persons who will act as interpreters.
The purpose of the briefing session is to explain the work plan for the next day, go
step by step through of the PRA exercises and to agree on how team members are
going to translate key concepts such as access and control into the local
language. The local facilitators and translators should receive appropriate
compensation2 for their services.
Best Practices for PRA Team Members and Local Facilitators

Best practices should be observed while doing fieldwork at village and household
level.
The purpose and scope of the study should be explained clearly, to avoid raising
expectations among community members.
Interviewers should listen, observe, probe and learn, rather than dominate
discussions.
Interest and respect should be shown, and awkward answers handled tactfully.
An awareness of body language is helpful.
It is important to impose an appropriate time limit on interviews and to provide
opportunities for questions from informants.
An awareness of information priority is vital, so that if time is short, it is possible
to focus on the priority areas.
Interviewers should encourage discussion, and step back and observe.
Discussions should involve all those present and be structured so that quieter
people can make contributions and proceedings are not dominated by a few.
All viewpoints should be recorded, not just those of the more articulate.
Findings should be shared and explored with the community in plenary.
Materials prepared by the groups (for example, maps, diagrams, and seasonal
calendars) should be left with the community and copies made for the use of the
FDS team.
Before ending the exercise, the purpose of the study should be reiterated, the
community thanked for their cooperation, and an opportunity provided for
questions.
The rights of the interviewee must be recognized (see Box below).
During individual household interviews, the presence of neighbours and nonfamily members should be minimized.
It is important to find ways for helping interviewees feel relaxed and interested.
Interviewers should keep discussions on track and avoid being distracted by
other peoples agendas.
Biases should be avoided during the data collection process.
Leading questions (where questions lead to a specific answer) and closed
questions (where answers are either yes or no) should be avoided, as should
repetitive questions.
Interviewers should review the data collected and seek clarification, if necessary.
2 In line with locally established rates for extension workers or NGO facilitators
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Rights of PRA Participants and Household Interviewees
Any interviewee has the right to:
freedom from being asked personal questions about someone other than a very close dependant,
freedom from being subjected to enumerator behaviour that is ill-mannered, overbearing,

threatening or patronising
not having his/her courtesy, tolerance and patience strained by excessive questioning and
too frequent visits, and
privacy, including the right to withhold personal information.
Advance Preparation of PRA Materials

Any materials and stationery necessary for the fieldwork (for example, flip charts,
marker pens, masking tape and notebooks) should be obtained. Other locallyavailable materials such as stones or seeds (for proportional piling) should be
collected prior to the start of the session. Sufficient quantities of the templates for
recording data from PRAs and household interviews should also be made available
to the teams.
It can save considerable down-time during the PRAs, if PRA team members
working with local translators - copy the blank templates onto the flip charts in the
local language - prior to the PRA sessions. This is best done in the late afternoon of
the day prior to the PRA, following the briefing session for local participatory
facilitators and translators. The PRA sequence is quite demanding and cannot be
achieved in the time allotted unless the templates are copied onto flip charts ahead
of time.
Contacting the Authorities and the Community

Before commencing the fieldwork, it is advisable to seek permission from the
relevant authorities. The proposed fieldwork should also be discussed with
community leaders prior to the PRAs. The preliminary meeting should be
scheduled so that all relevant members of the community can attend.
On arrival in the community, the study coordinators meet the village representatives
or community leaders to explain the purpose of the study and confirm fieldwork
arrangements. They should also provide an overview of the proposed activities,
make provision for refreshments, identify translators and an appropriate location for
conducting the community meeting (with shade or shelter, and sufficient seating).
Appropriate timing is crucial as the availability of community members is determined
by their daily work patterns and also by weekly events, such as markets. The timing
of the meeting should enable a representative cross-section of the community, both
women and men, young and old, poor and less poor, to participate.
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During this process, potentially supportive community members can be identified

who may be called upon to encourage community participation in the fieldwork.
Village leaders who assist the team to mobilize the local population are usually
compensated for their contribution.
Arranging for Meals

Since the PRA session requires local participants to work for the entire day, a meal
needs to be served halfway through the day. The provision of a hearty meal is
especially important for ensuring that a cross-section of villagers can participate in
the PRA exercise, especially when PRAs are carried out during the hungry season,
when granaries are empty and poor people have no money to buy food. During the
hungry season, the poor usually are too busy to participate in PRAs because they
need to work on other farms in exchange for cash and meals.
The preparations for a meal will require a trip to the village, prior to the PRA
(usually on the afternoon before the PRA) to make arrangements for food, for
cooking and for dishes and cooking utensils. Different approaches were tried in
different locations in the three countries. In all cases, a menu was negotiated
beforehand with village leaders and local authorities (to ensure that local food
taboos and preferences were fully reflected). The PRA team leader paid for the food
and for the meal preparation. In some sites in Zambia, the PRA team used its
vehicles to purchase maize meal, vegetables and a live goat and a couple of chickens
from the nearest local market centre and to bring it to the village. In other sites, the
chickens and goat were purchased directly from villagers. In most cases, a group of
local women not those to be involved in the PRA but other women were hired
to cook a meal for the whole village. In Uganda, on two occasions, the team was able
to hire a womens group that does catering as an income-generating activity. This
greatly reduced the amount of effort required of the PRA team, since the contracted
womens group procured all the food and the utensils themselves. If the PRA is to
have 60 participants (including local facilitators and translators), it is wise to plan for
about 80 or even 100 people. For instance, in several cases the meal was planned for
about 60 people but over 100 eventually showed up meaning that there was not
enough food for everyone.
The PRA team initially thought it might be better to schedule all the group PRA work
in the morning, release the villagers for lunch and use the afternoons for household
interviews. This idea did not work properly and had to be abandoned, for several
reasons. First, since the PRAs were all done at the height of the hungry season, village
leaders said that they could not ensure participation in the PRA unless we provided
a meal. Secondly, if we spread the PRAs over two mornings, this would have required
us to provide a meal on both days. Thirdly, because the food was almost never ready
on time (not until 3-4 p.m.) which also meant that there was too little time for
household interviews. For this reason, we recommend doing all the PRA exercises on
the first day and serving a meal only on that day. On the second day, a meal is not
needed because the household interviews only involve 12 households each for
1 hour of their time, and the interviews are undertaken at the respective homesteads.
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Getting the Right PRA Participants

Whole Village or a Section? It is preferable to work with a village having no more
than 100 households. If the village is too large, it is preferable to convene
participants from one section of the village instead of calling leaders from each
section to come to the meeting. When the meeting is mainly attended by leaders of
different sections, it is difficult to get a cross-section of participants ranging from less
poor to poor.
Numbers of Participants. Ideally, the participants in the PRA should be about
50 people who stay for the entire day. There should be 20 ordinary women and
20 ordinary men in the womens and mens groups and around 10 key informants
in the village leaders group (ideally with a mix of male and female leaders if
culturally appropriate). The reason for separating the leaders from other men and
women is - in addition to collecting supplementary information from key informants
- to reduce the risk that the leaders will be too dominating in the mens and womens
group. It is important to avoid letting the groups become too large. The larger the
group, the greater the risk that a few highly vocal participants will dominate and the
others will be silent.
Village Leaders. The village leaders PRA module includes many more tasks than
the womens and mens module. Therefore the facilitator of the leaders group must
be careful to keep to schedule. It works best when the participants in the leaders
group are better educated and more articulate than the average villager. However,
in several cases, the people who came to the leaders group were village elders who
were less articulate than the average villager. Moreover, most were so old that they
were no longer actively involved in marketing, and were therefore inappropriate as
key informants on marketing. Most of the younger, better educated and more
dynamic villagers were in the mens group. To solve such a problem, request the
elders to invite a few of the better-informed younger men to join their group.
Women. It is important to get a cross-section of women participants from all socioeconomic strata and all age groups. This means that the women invited to
participate in the PRA should include:
women of all ages;
women in poor and less poor households;
female household heads and married women;
womens group members and women who are not members; and
wives of people in the mens group - not just female headed households or
women perceived by villagers as loose women.
One way of assuring the participation of normal village women might be to talk
about it with the leaders on the day before the PRA exercises take place, and to explain
to the leaders the content of the exercises, the purpose of the meeting, and why it is
important also to get the views of all different types of women including their wives. It
may also help to explain that the womens group will be close to the mens during the
whole session, and that the men will be able to keep an eye on their women.
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Men. It is equally important to get a cross-section of men participants from all socioeconomic strata and all age groups. This means that the men invited to participate
in the PRA should include:
men of all ages, from youths to elders;
men in poor and less poor households;
mens group members and men who are not members of groups; and
some men who are engaged in shopkeeping, petty trading and agricultural
marketing as well as a few who are not.
Meeting with the Community

Personal introductions. At the start of the PRA, the PRA team leader should make
a short (5 minute) introduction. Each member of the PRA team including local
facilitators should introduce themselves to the villagers.
Explain purpose of meeting. Having confirmed that the timing of the meeting is
convenient, the community should be informed of why it has been selected and how
the survey findings will be used. Community members will be more willing to
participate in the study if it is relevant to them.
Community members should be told how the community session will be organized
in terms of division into sub-groups, and reconvening in plenary at the end of the
day to share experiences. An overview of the topics to be covered should be
provided. Community members should also be given an indication of the expected
duration of the meeting.
Particular care should be taken to ensure that participants understand that the
gender and marketing diagnostic study is only a study. The PRA team is not
bringing any assistance to the community as a whole or to the PRA participants.
Community members should also be encouraged to be as honest as possible in
answering the questions posed during the group exercises. The explanation below
is a helpful way to get the message across to participants.
Why it is important for participants to

share their true feelings?
If you go to the doctor because you have a pain in the belly, but when the doctor examines you, you
tell him that you have a pain in the head, you may think you are cheating the doctor, but you are
actually cheating yourself. If you tell the doctor that you have a pain in the head, he will give you
medicine for a pain in the head and you will have to keep your belly ache.
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Avoiding Raised Expectations

Community members should not be given unrealistic hopes about the nature or
outcome of the exercise. It is therefore advisable to:
use the correct channels (for example, local government) to approach the
community;
hold a briefing meeting with community leaders to explain thoroughly the

purpose of the study (particular clarity is needed with regard to the relationship
of the study to potential project interventions);
set the study in the context of relevant national programmes;
provide feedback to the community on information gathered and data analyzed

that may be used to guide community development initiatives; and
provide feedback to other organizations (local government, NGOs) working in

the study area in order to develop their information base.
Assigning Roles within Each PRA Group

Self Introductions. In the leaders group, at the start of the PRA exercise, each
participant should introduce himself/herself and explain why they are attending the
leaders group. This gives the team a good opportunity to identify who is from the
village and who might be from outside; and within villagers, identify who is the
village head, the local council chairman, the political party secretary, the traditional
chief, the section heads, the womens and mens and youth group leaders, the
religious leaders, etc.
Selecting a Recorder and a Rapporteur. Each group of women, men and leaders
should identify a person among the participants to serve as a spokesperson for the
group at the plenary session. If possible, this same person should assist in recording
the PRA on the flip chart in the local language. If the person selected cannot read
and write, a second group member can assist with the writing. If no one in the
group can read and write, a literate person (often a youth who is in secondary
school) can be asked to join the group to assist with recording.
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Alternation of Group Work and Plenary Sessions

At the start of the day, the introduction to the PRA is done in plenary session, with
all the PRA participants gathered in one place. Then the groups split into three, and
each goes off to its own working area under a tree or (if rain threatens) under a
separate roof. The work spaces should be out of the earshot of the other groups but
within shouting distance so that the groups can ask for help if they get stuck. Most
of the day is spent in group work, separately by women, men and leaders. However
at the end of the day, the three groups come together again, in a central place for a
plenary session in which the spokesperson for each group speaks for the group as a
whole, presenting their findings to the rest of the participants.
The purpose of meeting groups of women and men separately is to explore
similarities and differences in their use of time, access to and control over resources
and markets, sources and uses of money; and the main problems they face related
to input and output marketing. During this process, participants are asked to reflect
on the information that is being gathered with a view to stimulating some discussion
about the differences between women and men and the related marketing
constraints and opportunities in their community.
Once the individual groups have completed their data collection activities, the
community reassembles in plenary. Each groups information and ideas are shared,
and community members explore how income sources, expenditures and access
and control of resources vary between women and men, and between the poor and
others. This represents the first step in raising awareness about gender, poverty and
marketing issues in the community. Full data analysis takes place on completion of
the fieldwork.
At the end of the plenary session, the PRA team should roll up the flip charts
separately for women, men and leaders and leave them with the appropriate
spokesperson for the group.
Wealth Ranking and Household Interview Logistics

The gender and market linkages study adopted a method of wealth ranking
involving card sorting. It requires the leaders to make (or preferably bring) a full list
of all households in the village and to write the name of each on a slip of paper. After
characterizing the resource base and standard of living of each socio-economic
stratum (same procedure as above), the leaders would sort the households into piles
corresponding to A, B, C and D (A = above average/non-poor, B = average or
middle, C = below average or poor and D = very poor.) The card sorting
technique takes longer but has several advantages. First, it results in greater
accuracy in estimating proportions of households in each wealth category and in
identifying female-headed households; and second, the same cards can later be used
to identify input and output traders (by name) and to analyze the gender and socioeconomic composition of community-based organizations involved in marketing.
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Wealth ranking and selection of households for household interviews presented

several challenges: (a) most villages were too large to use card sorting techniques
(ideally card sorting should be done with 30-60 HHs whereas some villages had
300-500 households); (b) leaders had been convened to represent the point of view
of different sections of the village. In large villages, this problem can be addressed
by selecting 2-3 sections of the village for the card sorting exercise. However, in
some cases the village sections may be too small to be used as a basis for wealth
ranking (e.g., only 8-12 households per section). In such cases it may be preferable
to attempt card sorting with the full population. However, when selecting
households for household interviews in large villages, it may be preferable to focus
on a few geographically contiguous sub-sections, to reduce travel time to and from
the homesteads.
Although experienced interviewers can work from a simple checklist, local team
members often feel the need for a more structured interview schedule into which
they can insert the replies (the household interview checklist is attached at the end
of the toolkit). Hence the adoption of a detailed interview schedule can greatly
improve the accuracy of interviews conducted by local staff and ensure
comparability between interviewers.
The household interviews revealed that village leaders designation of femaleheaded households was often misleading. Many female-headed households
identified in the wealth ranking were old widows who were not independent heads
of households but rather a member of a married son or daughters household.
Although they lived in a separate hut and sometimes cooked separately, they no
longer had their own independent crop fields. They assisted on the sons fields
and were largely supported by their son or daughters family.
A number of problems occurred with the household interview schedule itself or
with the interview process. In a number of cases, the husband was not at home and
the wife was interviewed instead. However, this led to incomplete information
because many wives did not know the details of farm input use or the selling price
of products sold by the husband. Several villagers had difficulty ranking their
household livelihood sources in order of priority. Farmers tend to say that
production for home consumption is always the most important livelihood
source even when the economic value is low.
Further Adaptation of PRA Tools to Gender Concepts

The PRA team discovered at the end of the Zambia country visit that several of the
standard PRA tools have gaps when it comes to the study of intra-household
dynamics. They often leave key questions unanswered about: (a) the relative
importance of household versus personal fields; (b) the extent of income pooling;
and (c) the responsibilities of husband and wife as household providers. Some of
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the key questions that were not fully captured in Zambia are given below.
The Access and Control Profile is a blunt tool that does not fully capture the nuances of gender roles
in the context of intra-household relations. The PRAs failed to fully answer questions about
household versus personal crop fields, income pooling and husbands and wifes responsibilities as
providers.
Household versus Personal Fields

Do women and men have separate (personal) plots under their individual control,
in addition to jointly-owned household fields 3, whose produce is meant for the
subsistence of the household as a whole?
Does responsibility for buying inputs on household plots differ from that of
personal fields? Does the husband buy the inputs and hire labour for the
household plots, whereas the owner of the field does it for personal fields?
Who husband or wife controls the produce from household fields?
Is produce from personal fields treated by women and men as their personal
produce? Are the earnings from its sale treated as personal spending money?
Is the husband or wife under any obligation to use the produce or the money
from its sale for the benefit of the household?
Income pooling
Do men and women have separate money purses or is there only one jointlyshared purse? Or are there three purses: a jointly-shared one for pooled income
and two individual ones for personal income?
Do women have an income under their own exclusive control?
Do husbands and wives pool all their income or do they hold some of it back to
meet personal expenses?
Do unmarried adult children pool all their income or keep some for spending
money?
To what extent do husband/wives/adult off-spring contribute to the family cooking

pot?
If, through commercialization, the husband takes over responsibility for

marketing, will this increase the personal spending money under mens control at
the expense of pooled family income?
How will changes in control of income affect womens and mens ability to meet
their responsibilities as providers for their families?
3 In the Gambia, the distinction is expressed in the local language (Mandinka) as between maruo (household) fields
and kamanyango (personal) fields; in Niger, in the Hausa language, as between gandu (household) fields and
gamana (individual) fields. In Swaziland, the household plot is referred to as "grandmothers fields."
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Responsibilities of Husband and Wife as Household Providers
Ranking of expenditure items of men and women does not tell us who has primary responsibility for
what type of expenditure.
Is the wife responsible for certain expenses (such as food) and the husband for
others (such as non-food items)?
Are some responsibilities separate for husband and wife and others jointly shared?
Is the income from the main household fields treated as joint income to be used
for the benefit of all household members?
Is the income from personal fields treated as personal pocket money?
Under what circumstances are wives/husbands expected to dip into their own
pocket money to help one another meet their responsibilities?
Womens responsibilities
Mens responsibilities
Growing staple foods (maize, cassava, beans)

Growing or buying relish ingredients groundnuts, squash,
pumpkins, salt, kapenta (dried fish) and cooking oil
Cooking utensils: pots, water jugs, matches
School fees (primary school)
Medical expenses of children
Own and childrens clothing
Inputs for own fields
Helping to buy staple food in case of shortfall
Helping to buy inputs if husband has no money
Farm inputs
Earning cash from selling crops and livestock
Hired labour for growing market crops
More costly schooling (middle, secondary)
Clothing
Farm equipment apart from hand tools
House construction
Means of transport
Radio (etc)
Looking for farm inputs looking for markets for own of HH
crops (information seeking/gathering)
Helping wife with school fees in case of a shortfall
Helping wife with relish if necessary
Are the responsibilities of husband and wife separate (as illustrated below)?
Joint household responsibilities

(pooled income)
Family food: staple and condiments
School fees, uniforms and books
Medical expenses
Farm inputs
Farm equipment
Womens responsibilities
(personal income)
Own and childrens clothes
Own toiletries
Inputs for own fields and livestock
Inputs for childrens chickens and goats
Mens responsibilities
(personal income)
Own beer, cigarettes, girlfriends
Inputs for personal fields
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In most cases in the study area, women and men had distinct responsibilities as
providers (as in the first table above). There was not a strong distinction between
joint household income and personal income (but in West Africa it is more
common). In Metuge (Cabo Delgado, Mozambique) nearly all income was joint and
women did not have a personal income (although men did).
Do men and women have separate responsibilities as household providers? Evidence from the PRAs
shows that often both pay for food, schooling and medical expenses, but expenditure ranking for men
and women misses the issue of who (husband or wife) bears the prime responsibility for providing
different items for the household.
Who controls the family food stocks for home consumption who keeps the key to
the granary? Do husband and wife have separate granaries? Are there several
granaries: a big one for the production from household fields and a series of smaller
ones for production from personal plots? Who controls the household granary if the
smaller granaries are controlled by the owner of the field?
In polygamous households, is each wife expected to provide for her own childrens food, schooling,
medical expenses and clothing? What is the husband expected to contribute?
The three sets of questions outlined in the sections above can be addressed by:
(a) weaving new questions into the PRA sessions dealing with womens and mens
main income sources and expenditures; (b) asking key informants about household
and personal fields, income pooling and responsibilities of husband and wife as
providers, and (c) by adding additional questions to the household interviews.
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23
29
33
37
39
43
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In this section, the PRA tools developed for capturing (a) village level marketing
issues, (b) poverty-targeting issues and (c) gender issues are presented, step by step.

Participants: around 10 village leaders, male or female. Time required: 1/2 hour.
Getting Started. Draw a 5-column table as shown below (Ranking of Local Products
by Importance for Village, Economic Contribution and Ease of Marketing).
Headings should be written in the local language.
Product
Ranking in Order of Importance

Brings the
Importance
Easiest to
most money
for village
sell
Reasons
Step 1 First villagers make a list of the most important products that are produced
and sold in the village, as follows. The farmer-recorder writes them down in the lefthand column of the table, in the order that farmers mention them. At least 10 but
no more than about 20 products should be mentioned. (5 minutes to make the
whole list).
Step 2 Village leaders rank the products in order according to their importance
for the village. A product is important if it is a main staple produced and consumed
by all types of people poor and less poor throughout the year. It can also be a
product like cotton that is not eaten but is widely grown and brings in a lot of cash.
Villagers should be invited to identify which product is number 1 in importance?
Which comes next? Which comes after that? Do we all agree?
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If farmers agree that maize is the number one product, the farmer-recorder puts a
1 in the space next to maize, in the column importance for the village. If beans
rank second, s/he puts a 2 next to beans. If cattle are third, s/he puts a 3 next to
cattle. The exercise continues until at least 10 items have been ranked. If a crop like
sorghum is not mentioned among the top 10 items, leave it blank. Fill in the reasons
that farmers give for ranking one product higher than another. (This should take
no more than 10 minutes with discussion).
Product
Maize
Beans
Sorghum
Sugar cane
Sesame
Tomatoes
Onions
Cattle
Chickens/eggs
Goats
Cotton
Charcoal

Brings the
Easiest to
Importance
most money
sell
for Village
1
2
Reasons
Staple
All HHs eat
8
5
7
3
6
4
9
10
Marriage
Ceremonies
Step 3 Farmers are asked to identify which of the products on the list brings the
most money to the most people in the village. This is not merely a matter of which
has the highest price, but which is sold in the largest quantities by the largest
number of households. Why is maize number 1? After that, which product is next
(2nd) in terms of the money it brings? Which is third? Does everybody agree? What
is the reason why maize is first and tomatoes are second and goats are third?
If maize ranks first in terms of the money it brings, the farmer-recorder puts a
1 next to maize in the second column under brings the most money and records
the reason (e.g. maize is the main cash crop even though the price is low). 1
1 Farmer-recorders are usually unfamiliar with tables and matrices. Often they prefer to recopy the names of the top
5 or 10 items in each column. This should be discouraged for three reasons: (a) it takes too much time; (b) it
makes it impossible to record the reasons on the line corresponding to the crop; and (c) it makes it makes it
difficult to analyze and discuss why one crop should rank first on importance but only 10th on ease of selling.
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Product
Maize
Beans
Sorghum
Sugar cane
Sesame
Tomatoes
Onions
Cattle
Chickens/eggs
Goats
Cotton
Charcoal

Brings the
Importance
Easiest to
most money
for village
sell
1
1
6
2
8
5
7
3
6
4
9
10
9
5
2
7
10
8
3
4
Reasons
Staple; many sell even if price is low

All HHs eat, sell only small quantity
High value, traders come to buy

Marriage
Ceremonies
Sell for holidays
Main cash crop of village but price low
Step 4 Farmers rank products according which are the easiest to sell and which
are the most difficult to sell. Start with the easiest and after ranking the top five or
six, ask which is the most difficult to sell and why. If cattle are the most difficult to
sell, the farmer-recorder should insert hardest to sell next to cattle and record the
reason. Which is the second most difficult to sell and why? Which is the third most
difficult to sell and why?
Product
Maize
Beans
Sorghum
Sugar cane
Sesame
Tomatoes
Onions
Cattle
Chickens/eggs
Goats
Cotton
Charcoal

Brings the
Importance
Easiest to
most money
for village
sell
1
1
1
6
2
7
3rd hardest
9
8
5
5
6
2
7
2
7
10
3
Hardest
8
6
4
3
4
5
4
9
3
10
2nd hardest
Reasons
Eaten by everyone, ready market in village

Grown by all no buyers
No market
Traders buy for oil
Traders come to buy, big urban demand
Difficult to transport, market is far
Ginnery collects in village

Difficult to transport, no local market
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How to Analyze the Results

The first level of analysis is done directly in the village. Go through the table
commodity by commodity, looking at how the item ranks on the different
parameters. Why is maize number one in importance? In money it brings? In ease
of selling? Why is beans second in importance but only sixth in the money it brings?
Why is it difficult to sell? If tomatoes bring so much money, why is their importance
so low? What are the reasons?
The diagnostic team does the second level of analysis. It involves comparing
villagers ranking of the enterprises that bring the most money with that of other
market players: how well does the enterprise ranking of the District Agriculture
Officer fit with the villagers enterprise ranking?
Village leaders ranking compared with MoAs ranking;
Village leaders ranking compared with local government chairpersons ranking;
Village leaders ranking compared with national farmer association ranking;
Village leaders ranking compared with a local crop traders ranking; and
Village leaders ranking compared with that of poor women and men (from
The questions asked of the data should be:
Do villager leaders and MoA have the same priorities or do they differ? Do they
differ a lot or a little? Are any of the enterprises at the top of MoAs list at the
bottom of village leaders list? If so, what is the reason?
Are the priorities of the national farmers association the same as those of village
leaders? If not, which what is the reason? Whose priorities are closer to those of
national farmers association? - The villagers? Or MoA?
How close are the enterprise rankings of traders to those of villagers? Whose
ranking is closer to that of the villagers: the traders or MoA?
Are the priorities of poor men and women the same as those of the village leaders?
If not, do the village leaders appear to be out of touch with the poor?
Cross-cutting Analysis
The third level of analysis is to pull the five top-ranked products from different sites,
to facilitate comparison between different sites in the same country. Is there a
pattern? Do most sites in the same region of the same country agree on the most
important products? On those that bring the most money? On those that are easiest
or hardest to sell? Do areas with a similar market environment such as peri-urban
or cotton-growing areas have a similar pattern?
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Easiest to Sell
Hardest to Sell
Most Important
Product
Brings the Most Money
Muvwela
(Mazabuka)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Maize
Cattle
Chickens
Goats
(not done)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Chickens
Goats
Cabbage
Sunflower
Irish potato
1. Maize
2. Cattle
Libuko (Chongwe)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Maize
Sweet potato
Cassava
Groundnuts
Rape
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Rape
Tomato
Cabbage
Chickens
Goats
1.
2.
3.
4.
5
Chickens
Rape
Tomato
Cabbage
Goats
1. Cattle
2. Sorghum
Kanyenda
(Mpongwe)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Maize
Sorghum
Sweet potatoes
Pumpkins
Cassava
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Maize
Groundnuts
Sorghum
Chickens
Goats
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Maize
Sweet potato
Chickens
Goats
Groundnuts
1. Paprika
2. Pigs
Case Study
The fourth level of analysis involves comparisons between sites in different

countries. The questions are similar: do enterprise rankings vary mainly by country?
Or by site within countries? Are there common patterns shared by cotton-growing
areas in different countries? By peri-urban areas?
How to Use the Information
The market linkage project design team should use the information to cross-check
whether its own analysis of the top priorities and opportunities fits with that of the
villagers. Are the project design teams priorities closer to those of MoA? Or the
national farmers association? Or are they closer to those of the traders? If the
design teams analysis leads them to differ with the opinion of villagers, how can
this be justified? What adjustments in the basic project concept are needed to
make it more responsive to the needs of farmers?
Use the rankings to let MoA and the local branch of national farmers association
know when their priorities are out of step with those of local farmers.
Feed the information into focal area planning and the priority setting process for
the project.
If the priorities of poor women and men are not the same as that of village
leaders, or MoA or the local national farmers association, how low are they on the
ranking? How many enterprises do you need to put on the list to make sure that
both the poor women and the poor men get at least one of their top priorities?
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Participants: 10 village leaders (male or female). Time required: 1/2 hour.
Linkages: to Enterprise Ranking (Leaders Module - Table 1) and to Gender Roles
in Marketing (Leaders Module - Table 6)
Getting Started. Lay out the table on flip chart paper below, writing headings (and
later the names of crops) in the local language.
Item
marketed
Price outside Village
Price in Village
Unit
Harvest
Peak
Harvest
Peak
Location
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Step 1 Start by entering the top 10 enterprises from the previous exercise, in
order of which brings the most money.
Step 2 Ask farmers for each product in what quantities and containers do you
usually sell it? Do you sell your cassava fresh or dried or both? If both, when you
sell it fresh, do you sell by the heap or the tin? How many kgs per tin? How many
heaps per tin? How many tins per bag? What is the conversion rate from fresh to
dry: how many bags of fresh do you need for one bag of dry? If cassava is sold both
fresh and dry, make two lines one for fresh and one for dry.
Step 3 For each item (one row at a time): Do you sell it in the village? If so, what
is the price per bag or per mound at the harvest time? What is the price at the time
when little is found on the market? Do you sell it outside the village? If so, where?
What is the price in that market at the harvest time? What is the price late in the
season? When and where do the majority of farmers sell? At the harvest time or
later? In the village or outside? Why?
Step 4 Link to Gender Roles in Marketing Module Enter the replies on what
crops are sold where into Table 6 in the Leaders PRA Module. If the product is sold
in the village, who male or female is most likely to sell? If the product is sold in
town, who husband or wife is most likely to take it to market? If the product is
sold in the village who controls the income from the sale. If the product is taken
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to town by the man to sell, who controls the income? If the product is taken to town
by the woman, who controls the income?
An example of a fully completed template is shown below, for Mpongwe District
(Zambia). The prices are recorded in the local currency. Note that a separate line
was used to record the prices of groundnut seed as opposed to normal groundnuts,
and for rainfed and irrigated tomatoes.
Price Differences by Season and Location in Kwatcha

Kanyenda (Mpongwe), Zambia
Item
marketed
Maize
Sorghum
Sweet potatoes
Groundnuts
Groundnut seed
Cassava
Cabbage
Pumpkins
Beans
Rape
Tomatoes
- Rainfed
- Irrigated
Cabbage
Chickens local
Goats
Pigs
Paprika
Price outside Village
Price in Village
Unit
50-kg bag
50-kg bag
25 kg
20 litres,
unshelled
Harvest
12 000
12 000
3 500
1 500
Peak
84 000
84 000
7 500
2 500
Harvest
15 000
15 000
10 000
2 000
Peak
90 000
90 000
15 000
2 500
Location
25 kg
50 kg
50 kg
50 kg
50 kg
50 kg
75 000
7 000
3 500
4 000
100 000
3 500
75 000
12 000
not sold
8 000
125 000
10 000
not sold
20 000
7 000
8 000
not sold
2 000
not sold
25 000
7 000
12 000
not sold
10 000
ZAMSEED
Luanshya
Luanshya
Luanshya
No sales
Luanshya
18-kg box
18-kg box
50 kg
Each
Each
Each
1 kg
3 500
4 000
10 000
7 500
30 000
80 000
4 000
10 000
8 000
16 000
7 500
30 000
80 000
4 000
2 000
8 000
20 000
10 000
45 000
200 000
not sold
10 000
12 000
25 000
10 000
45 000
200 000
not sold
Luanshya
Luanshya
Luanshya
Luanshya
Luanshya
Luanshya
Cheetah
Luanshya
Luanshya
Luanshya
Luanshya
How to Analyze the Information

Step 1 Transfer the price information from the table above into a larger table or
preferably a computer spreadsheet to make it easier to compare the difference
between the price in the village when the supply is plentiful (at the harvest time) and
when the supply is scarce (usually during the hungry season). Subtract the low
harvest price from the peak price and divide by the harvest price to calculate how
big a difference is due to price seasonality. Identify which products sold in the village
have the largest seasonal price differences and which have the smallest.
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Step 2 Do the same for seasonal differences between prices in the outside market
where the item is sold. Calculate whether seasonal price differences are greater in
the village or in town.
Step 3 Compare the difference between the harvest price in the village with the
harvest price in town in the peak harvest time when the supply is greatest and at
the time of year when the supply is smallest. Which products have the greatest
differences between village and town prices? Which have the smallest? What is the
reason?
Step 4 Compare whether the difference between seasons are greater or less than
the differences between the village and town. Identify which products villagers have
the greatest advantage to store and sell when the price rises.
Step 5 Identify which products have the greatest price differences between the
village and town. Investigate how much it costs to transport them to town. Do the
margins in town justify the outlay on transport?
Price Differences by Season and Location in Kwatcha

Kanyenda (Mpongwe), Zambia
Item
marketed
Maize
Sorghum
Rape
Tomato rainfed
Tomato irrig.
Sweet potato
Cassava
Groundnuts
Cabbage
Beans
Chickens
Goats
Pigs
Unit
50- kg bag
50- kg bag
50 kg
18 kg box
18 kg box
25 kg
50 kg
20 litre tin
50 kg
50 kg
bird
head
head
Price Seasonality Village to Town

Price in Town
Price in Village
Harvest Peak Harvest Peak Harvest Peak Harvest Peak
7%
25%
500%
600%
12000 84000 15000 90000
7%
25%
500%
600%
12000 84000 15000 90000
0%
-43%
2000 10000
400%
186%
3500 10000
0%
-43%
2000 10000
400%
186%
3500 10000
50%
100%
8000 12000
50%
8000
100%
4000
100%
186%
50%
7500 10000 15000
114%
3500
108%
186%
25%
71%
7000 12000 20000 25000
0%
33%
2000
25%
2500
67%
1500
2500
56%
100%
25%
60%
10000 16000 20000 25000
not sold
25%
100000 125000
33%
33%
0%
7500 10000 10000
0%
7500
50%
50%
0%
0%
30000 30000 45000 45000
150%
150%
0%
0%
80000 80000 200000 200000
Step 6 Compare prices for the same products in different sites in the same
country. Are there patterns? Do peri-urban sites enjoy similar price advantages in
comparison with sites that are far from urban markets?
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Step 7 If relevant, convert first to kgs and then convert local prices into USD/kg
and compare prices for the same products across international boundaries.
How to Use the Analysis
Use the data to identify whether the key problem for the site seems to be price
seasonality or whether it is something else.
32
Cross-check with information coming from the problem analysis to confirm

whether the problem is seasonality or something else. Do farmers say that their
main problem is that they have to sell at the harvest time when the prices are the
lowest and buy back food later in the season when the prices have tripled or
quadrupled?
Cross-check whether the project design teams analysis is consistent with the
analysis coming from the analysis of seasonal price differences. If there are
inconsistencies how can they be reconciled?
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Time: 1/2 hour.
Participants: about 10 village leaders (male and female).
Getting Started. Lay out the table on flip chart paper in the local language. Enter
the top five enterprises (those that bring the most money) from the Enterprise
Ranking Module, in order of priority.
Product
Prices
Production
Sales
Profits
Reason for Changes
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Step 1 For the first item, ask the farmers what is happening to prices. In the past
five years, have prices been going up? Have they been going down? Have they
stayed the same? Have they been going up and down erratically? Have they
increased a little? Decreased a little? What is the reason for the changes? When
consensus is reached, the farmer-recorder should put an arrow in the direction of
the trend and record the reason.
Step 2 Continue commodity by commodity and line by line. Is production going up
or down? (Insert an arrow). Are sales going up or down? (Insert an arrow). Are profits
going up or down? An arrow going up indicates an increase, an arrow going down
denotes a decrease; a horizontal line means that there is no change; two arrows, one
up and one down means that profits are increasing from some people and declining
for others; a zigzag arrow indicates that trends within the year are erratic.
An example of a completed table is given below.
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Income Source
Maize
Page 40
Prices
Production
Sales
Profits
Reason
Production decreasing due to
excessive rain
High price of inputs
Late delivery of fertilizer
Death of oxen (corridor disease)
Doesnt need fertilizer
Cost of inputs low, profit high
Groundnuts
Cabbage
Erratic
Erratic
Demand high
Price low due to perishability/
difficulty to store
Stable
Goats
Tomatoes
High demand
Do not require feed
Profit declining because input
prices are increasing
Kanyenda village, Mpongwe district, Copperbelt province

How to Analyse the Data
Step 1 the first level of analysis is done by the villagers. For each crop, explain
what is causing the profits to go up or own. Is it the world price? Or is there a
problem with production? Or is profit affected by something else (for instance, low
sales, or the rising cost of purchased inputs)? Why are prices and profits for some
products improving and others are getting worse?
Step 2 Members of the diagnostic teams combine data on trends for different sites
in the same country. Are the trends uniform across sites or do they differ? If so, why
do they differ? Is it due to price or production, or something else?
Enterprise
Beans
(site 1)
Beans
(site 2)
Beans
(site 3)
Beans
(site 4)
Cassava
(site 1)
Cassava
(site 2)
34
Prices
Decreasing
Production
Big increase
Sales
Decreasing
Profits
Decreasing
Fluctuating
Increasing
Increasing
Fluctuating
Fluctuating
Fluctuating
Fluctuating
Fluctuating
Rising
Rising
Rising
Rising
Decreasing
Increasing
Increasing
Decreasing
Fluctuating
Fluctuating
Fluctuating
Fluctuating
Reason
Price is low; sales down
No buyers
Price fluctuation affects profit;
consumed only locally
Supply and demand, no export,
perishability
Good market needs no
purchased inputs
No ready market; consumed only
locally; sell it raw
Supply and demand, no export,
perishability
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Step 3 If relevant, compare trends across countries of the same region. Are the
trends similar in all cotton-growing areas? In all coffee-growing areas? If not, why
not?
How to Use the Findings
Compare the villagers analysis of trends with those reported by national sources
such as MoA or crop buyers or produce exporters. Are the analyses consistent?
Are the profits declining for any of the commodities that the national authorities
(MoA, national farmers association, IFAD project, etc.) are trying to promote? If
so, are farmers still interested in the crop? If not, does the programme design
need to be adjusted to take account of declining farmer interest?
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Participants: 10 village leaders (male and female) time required: 1/2 hour.
Linkages: with Leaders Module Table 2 Price Differences by Season and Location.
5 km to town market by road
Step 1 Villager leaders draw a map, on the ground, with a stick, showing the
location of the village in relation to roads, other lines of communication and
markets. Make sure that all the market places mentioned in Table 2 Price
Differences by Season and Location are shown on the map.
Step 2 Copy the map on a piece of paper (see examples in Market Environment
Case Studies).
Step 3 Show on the map the routes that villagers use to sell their produce and
mode of transport (whether on foot, bicycle, boat or by public transport). Record on
the map the distance from the village to each market.
Step 4 Record on the map the cost of transport from the village to the various
markets. If the price by hired oxcart differs from the price by bush taxi record both.
Step 5 Record, on the map, who male or female usually goes to market, on
what route and with what means of transport. How often does the average man or
woman visit that market (Daily? Weekly? Fortnightly? Once a year?)
Step 1 In the village, with the villagers, discuss what are the constraints related to
physical access to markets. Is it a problem with road access during the rainy season?
Is public transport available? How often and what cost?
Step 2 In the village, with villagers, discuss what factors determine who goes
where to sell their products -what quantity do you need to make it worthwhile to
take the produce to town? What factors (such as taboos on bicycle riding) limit
womens physical mobility?
Is villagers information consistent with the design missions conclusions from
other sources about constraints related to road access and transport?
Does the programme require a road component? If so, on average, how long a
stretch of road needs to be improved?
An example of a completed map is given on the next page.
37
38
Travel to Mazabuka
Leaders 2-3 times/month
Upper stratum 3-4 times/year
Middle stratum 1 time/year
Lower stratum rarely
Farmers sell maize, goats and

chickens and buy farm inputs.
Women visit supermarkets, banks and
district administration.
Mazabuk
71 km by road
from Muvwela
Muvwela village
Malabo
5 km
6 km
Market, maize mill: men visit daily; women go

two or three times per week to sell produce,
take maize for grinding and buy HH
70 Households: main marketed products

are maize, sunflower, cabbage, Irish
potatoes, sweet potatoes, groundnuts,
chickens, goats and vegetables
K1 000 per
bag by Ox cart
Transport cost Malabo-Mazabuka:

K16 000 (USD 3.72) per person
round trip + K5 000 (USD 1.16)
per 50-kg bag
Kafue junction
Women sell Irish potatoes,

bananas, vegetables to
mission hospital
Chikankata
8 km
5 km
FTC
10:54 AM
Co-op members hired truck, took

maize to industrial maize mill
Lusaka
1/1/03
HHs wanting to sell cattle walk

them to Kafue junction to wait
for trucks going to Lusaka
Muvwela Mobility and Markets Map, Mazabuka District, Zambia
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Participants: 10 village leaders (male and female) Time required: 1/2 hour.
Linkages: with Leaders Module Table 3 Enterprise Trends for the top
5 enterprises.
Getting Started. Copy the table on a flip chart paper in the local language.
Subdivide the area available into three to five periods in history, depending on local
circumstances.
Positive Events (+)

Colonial times
Year
Negative Events (-)
Independence
Civil war
Post-war economic
liberalization
2002
Step 1 Ask the oldest person present in the group to tell the group what life was
like in colonial times. How did people get their income? What products did they
sell? Were the prices good or bad? Was it easier or harder to sell back in those days?
How well could people live with the money from selling.
Step 2 Go on to the next historical period and ask other group members to say
whether the village income sources remained the same and whether the market
outlets or prices changed. What was good about it? What was bad about it? Go
through the list of enterprises in the enterprise module and identify years when the
newer enterprises were introduced.
Step 3 Repeat for the third historical period.
Step 4 Repeat for the most recent historical period.
An example of a filled-out template is given on the next page, from Metuge District
in Mozambique.
Adapt the main historical headings to fit with the broad history of the area where the PRA is to be carried out.
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Illustration of a Historical Timeline Ocua (Chiure District)

Mosambique
Positive Events (+)

Colonial period
Maize, rice, beans, sorghum and vegetables were
grown mainly by women due to shortage of male
labour and women controlled all aspects of food
production and utilization.
Independence war
Led to independence from Portugal.
Peace/Economic liberalization
Roads, schools and hospitals were reconstructed.
The economy grew.
Consumer goods were readily available (but very
expensive)
Men had no time to produce their own food, as they

were required to do forced labour on colonial estates.
Men were forced to work at low wages for the
landowners to earn enough money to pay taxes.
1940s to
1975
1964 to 1975
War disrupted farming and trade.

Infrastructure was destroyed.
Lives were lost.
Government gave low priority to the family farm

sector; public expenditure on smallholder agriculture
was limited (Ministry of Agriculture weak).
Means of production (hand tools) were in short
supply.
Low prices were paid to farmers.
Independence (FRELIMO period)

Farmers were freed from forced labour.
Men had time to grow food.
Farmers could keep their entire crop for themselves.
Farmers sold to state stores (lojas) or bartered for
consumer goods.
Civil war (FRELIMO vs RENAMO)
There was nothing good.
Negative Events (-)
Year
Infrastructure was destroyed (bridges, roads,

schools, clinics).
Property was looted, destroyed.
Farming and marketing were disrupted.
Farmers were afraid to clear new land because
RENAMO rebels might be hiding in the forest.
1978 to 1992
1992
to
2002
Lack of state stores

Lack of farm produce buyers
Shortage of means of production (tractors, hoes,
slashers)
No market
No public transport (necessary to headload products)
High prices for transport and farm inputs
Price of farm output does not keep pace with rising
cost of consumer goods
Shortage of fishing gear (nets, hooks, lines)
Shortage of rice dehullers

Step 1 In the village, villagers explain how the main products sold by the village
have changed over the years and the reasons for the changes. Then ask villagers
why they find it easier or harder today to market their products than they did in the
past historical periods. Which was the worst period for marketing? Which was the
best and why?
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Step 2 Members of the diagnostic team compare historical trends for different sites
in the same region. Are there patterns? Do all sites in the same country have the
same trends or are there differences? In case of differences, are there similarities
between sites with similar market environments?
Step 3 If relevant, compile information on trends from sites in different countries
and compare. Are villagers reactions to liberalization similar? Do all countries
where the state formerly fixed agricultural input and output prices differ from those
that never had such a large degree of state control?
Use the information to assess whether villagers views of market liberalization fit
with those of the national policymakers. Do villagers think they have gained or
lost? Has liberalization helped them or hurt them? Do they want to continue with
liberalization or return to previous policies?
Is Government fully aware of what villagers think about market liberalization?
Is the market environment project design teams analysis of the costs and benefits
of market liberalization consistent with the view that is coming from the villagers?
If not, what adjustments are needed to bring the two points of view closer
together?
Does the programme need a component for policy studies and dialogue?
Do the villagers need to be educated about how free markets work or about the
benefits of liberalization?
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Participants: 10 village leaders (male and female) Time required: 1/2 hour.
Linkages: with Leaders Module Table 3 Enterprise Trends for the top
five enterprises.
Subdivide the area in four columns with space for four to five problems.
Problem
Cause of Problem
Coping Mechanism
How Can the Village

Solve It?
Step 1 If time permits and a few villagers are capable of writing, pass out slips of
paper to all villagers present and invite them to list up to three problems they have
related to selling their crops and livestock or buying goods. Collect all the slips of
paper and have a local leader read them out loud. Group similar problems in piles.
Count the number of pieces of paper in each pile.
Step 2 Enter the problem with the greatest number of mentions (votes) as
problem number 1 in the table. For the illiterate, make a symbol to stand for each
problem such as roads, transport, low producer prices, high prices in hungry
season, shortage of hand tools, etc.
Step 3 Start with the first problem and work across each row before going to the
next problem. Clarify the nature of the problem. Is it that there is no road or
vehicles cannot use the road during the rainy season, or that the road is there but it
is not maintained? Is the transport problem due to availability or to affordability?
Step 4 How do villagers cope with the problem?
Step 5 How could villagers that is, villagers, not government nor a project solve
the problem? What could they do to solve the even without any outside assistance?
If the problem cannot be fully solved without outside assistance, what outside
assistance is needed?
An example of a problem analysis is given below. It is a good illustration of a
problem analysis that focuses on initiatives that local people could take to solve their
own problems without depending on government for solutions.
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Problem Analysis Leaders

Province: Southern; District: Mazabuka; Area: Chikankata; Village: Muvwela
Problem
Cause of Problem
Coping Mechanism
How Can the Village

Solve It?
1. No proper organized market

for crops (13 votes)
Markets are far

Traders cannot come poor
road
Local people have no money to
buy
Sell crops jointly (maize

marketing coop)
Grow crops with high demand
Complete produce shed

constructed by maize
marketing cooperative
Improve knowledge learn to
grow crops in high demand;
knowledge of marketing
2. Shortage of cash/no money

for farm inputs (9 votes)
Laziness
Lack of start-up capital for
business
Lack of knowledge on how to
make business
Piecework on other farms

Sell firewood
Sell chickens or goats
Produce goats and chickens

for sale
Improve cooperative
organization
3. Transport expensive and in

short supply (2 votes)
Few transporters
High cost of transport
Bad road
Bicycle, hire ox cart

Grow crops to sell to nearby
hospital
Cooperate with people who

own ox cart
4. Debts (1 vote)
Poor money management; lack

of budgeting
Didnt repay fertilizer loan
Diverted loan to a use that
generated little income
Repay little by little
Learn to manage money

Learn how to manage credit
Priorities:
(1) Improve cooperation

(2) improve knowledge of cooperative management and money management
In the village, village leaders should go back to the problem ranking. Which problems
affect the most people? Which are the most urgent? Which problems are the easiest
for the villagers to solve from their own resources and which are the most difficult?
Cross-cutting Analysis within the Village. In a plenary session at the end of the
PRA, compare the problem listing and analysis of village leaders with that of women
and men. Do leaders identify the same problems as men and women? Are they fully
in touch with the problems of their constituency? Are leaders biased in favour of
mens problem analysis? Are womens problems fully reflected?
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Cross-cutting Analysis. Diagnostic team compiles problem analysis for different

sites in the same country. Are problems site specific or are there patterns? Do areas
with the same type of market environment have similar problems? Do they propose
similar solutions?
If relevant, the diagnostic team should complete problem analyses for different sites
in different countries and compare whether there are patterns. Are problems
country specific or not? Do sites with similar market environments have similar
problems? Do women have the same problems as men and leaders or not?
Synthesis of Problem Analyses Cabo Delgado, Mozambique
Item
Chiure District
Ocua village
Metuge district
25 Junho village
Chiure District
Manrasse village
Main problems (leaders)
1. Low producer prices

(esp. for cotton)
2. No buyers in village
3. Markets are far: no
transport
1. Lack of transport
2. No agricultural produce
buyers in village
3. Lack of money to buy
consumer goods
1. Low producer prices for farm

products
2. Lack of transport
3. No good traders come to buy
4. No jobs in area
Main problems (women)
1. High prices of cotton

inputs
2. Low cotton price
3. Delayed purchase of cotton
4. No fixed cotton price in
Cabo Delgado province
1. Beans: low producer price;

high consumer price
2. Low producer price of chickens
3. Lack of stores (lojas) in village
4. Lack of farm tools
1. Low selling prices of farm

products
2. There is no place to sell
3. Traders cheat on measures
4. High prices in hungry season
Main problems (men)
1. Low cotton prices

2. Low sesame prices
3. Lack of farm tools
4. Lack of local trader
1. Low prices for agricultural

produce
2. Lack of buyers in the village
(not done in Manrasse)
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Possible Ways of Solving Marketing Problems Three Sites
Item
Chiure District
Ocua village
Metuge district
25 Junho village
Chiure District
Manrasse village
Solutions (leaders)
1. Form association to sell

jointly and to negotiate
better prices
2. Govt. should put a trader in
the village
1. Farm association to bulk

produce and rent transport
to market
2. Informal traders form
association, seek credit for
working capital for produce
buying
3. Credit to shop owners for
working capital
1. Govt should put a trader in

the village 1
2. Same as above
3. Same as above
4. Govt to start joint venture
company
Solutions (women)
1. Join together and lobby

government
1. Big traders should open 2-3

stores in village
2. Need a project or company to
help with chickens
3. Tools: no solution
1. Traders who can buy produce

(reopen abandoned lojas)
2. Sell at high price
3. Learn to read so we dont get
cheated
4. Have to produce and sell in
this village
Solutions (men)
1. Need more cotton companies

in area to increase
competition
2. Govt should put a trader in
the village
3. Need trader to come and sell
tools
4. Improve information flow
inform outside people that
we have produce so buyers
will come
1. Diversify agricultural produce

and keep animals in addition
to crops
2. Form associations to grow
crops jointly and sell and
invest money in commercial
activities
1 Owing to shortage of time, the team could only record village leaders replies as given by the leaders themselves,
without entering into a two-way dialogue that might have encouraged villagers to suggest some ways that they
themselves could try to solve their problems instead of depending on government for solutions.

Check whether the key issues emerging from the market linkage project design
missions analysis are consistent with the villagers own problem analysis.
Investigate the reasons for inconsistencies between villagers perceived problems
and solutions and those of the mission. Adjust the programme design to make the
two more consistent.
46
Cross-check whether governments analysis of the problems and solutions is in

line with the villagers problem analysis or not. Assess what is needed to bring the
governments position closer to that of the missions and the villagers position.
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Is the analysis of the design team and that of government responsive to the full
range of problems of poor women and men or only those of the less poor? Is it
responsive to the needs of both women and men or only men?
Identify which problems are shared by everyone in the project area female and
male, poor and non poor and which are the special problems faced mainly by
women and the poor.
Using the key file matrix, for each of the main problems identified by villagers,
state how the project proposes to address the problem. Which project components
and/or activities will address the problem?
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51
59
63
Household Data Analysis by Wealth Category - Illustration
67
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Participants: 10 village leaders (male and female) Time required: 1 hour for
wealth ranking, 1/2 hour for household listing + 1/2 hour for household selections.
Linkages: with Leaders Module Enterprise Trends and History of Village Markets
and Money Sources.
Getting Started. Copy the table on a flip chart paper in the local language. Decide
whether to subdivide the area into three or four columns following a discussion with
villagers of how many wealth categories there are in the specific village.
Province: __________ District: _________ Village: _________ Participants: (leaders)_____ Date: ______
Least poor
Poorest
Characteristics
Characteristics
Characteristics
Characteristics
HHs (#)
%
HHs (#)
% of HHs
HHs (#)
No.
%
HHs (#)
No.
%
FHHs:
No.
%
FHHs:
No.
%
FHHs:
No.
%
FHHs:
No.
%
Trend
Trend
Trend
Trend
Commercial activities
HHs with commercial

activities (% of HHs in
stratum)
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Step 1 On the day prior to the PRA, ask the village secretary to bring a list of all
households in the village (if there is one otherwise try to find out whether the
primary school teacher or the community health worker or somebody else has a list).
Give the secretary a pile of cards one for every household in the village and ask
him/her to write the name of each household head on one card and to bring the
cards to the meeting on the next day. NOTE: the card-sorting exercise is only
manageable for a maximum of around 100 households. If the village has more than
100 households, ask the village secretary to select one or two sections of the village
for the exercise (minimum 35 maximum 100 households) and to only make cards
for the heads of household living in that section.
Step 2 Ask villagers to identify how many categories of wealth there are in the
village. Are there only three (less poor, poor, very poor?) or are there four, or five?
What terms do the villagers use to refer to these people? When villagers agree on
the number of categories and the name to be given to each category, draw columns
on the flip chart.
Step 3 Ask villagers to describe a typical household in the middle category. How
would people recognize them? How big would the household be and how many
wives? What kind of house and compound would they have? What livestock and
assets would they own? How many months would the family be able to eat with its
own production? What kind of clothes would they have? What kind of schools would
the children attend? Where would they get most of their money?
Step 4 Ask villagers to describe a typical household in the least poor category.
What does that household have that an average household does not have?
Step 5 Ask villagers to describe a typical household in the poorest category. What
makes the households conditions worse than the average household?
Step 6 Complete for any intermediate wealth categories.
Step 7 Village leaders get out the cards and read out a household name and place
the card with the name on it in a pile on top of the column that corresponds to the
category that best fits the household. Then they read out the name of the second
household and so on, until all households have been sorted into a pile. During the
card sorting, individual leaders are free to suggest reclassification on the basis of
their knowledge. (Care should be taken to ensure that this step is undertaken with
tact and discretion).
Step 8 Label the categories A, B, C, D, starting from the less poor to the poorest.
Count the number of households (cards) in each pile and enter the totals in the
table. Write A on all of the households in the upper category, B for the households
in the middle category, C for the households in the lower category and D for the
truly destitute households.
Step 9 Sort each pile into two piles according to whether the household is headed
by a man or a woman and count the total number of female-headed households in
each socio-economic category. Put a F on the cards with the female-headed
households so that they can be easily recognized.
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Step 10 For each category, ask villagers to say whether the level of living is getting
better over the years or it is staying the same or getting worse. Or is it getting better
for some and worse for others? If it is getting worse, what are the reasons?
Step 11 For each socio-economic category, ask villagers to identify what
commercial activities they have. What categories are the consumer shop owners in?
The kiosk owners? Those with roadside market stalls? (Identify the households and
note it on their cards). Are there any village-based traders who buy crops from
farmers and resell them in town? What group are they in? What about the villagebased transporters? What about the people who make local brew for sale? What
category are they in? At the end, count and record the number of households in
each category who are shopkeepers, traders, brewers, etc.
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Wealth Ranking Illustration Kanyenda village,

Mpongwe district, Zambia
Least poor
Poorest
A
Less Poor
54
B
Middle Poor
C
Very Poor
Characteristics
House with iron sheet roof
Oxen or tractor or vehicle or grain mill
or shop or bar
Produce surplus
Farm size >10 ha
Cultivate 4-5 ha
Food self-sufficient even in a bad year
Characteristics
Thatch house
Vegetable garden or goats, pigs or
chickens
Bicycle
Food self-sufficient except in bad
years
Characteristics
No crops or fields
No livestock
Aged, sick, disabled, young orphans,
old widows
No labour force
Always food insecure
No. of households: 65 (35% of total)

Female-headed households: 3
(5% of total FHHs; 5% of total HHs
in A category)
No. of households: 71 (38% of total)

Female-headed households: 28 (46% of
total FHHs and 39% of total HHs in
B category)
No. households: 51 (27% of total)

Female-headed households: 30 (49% of
total FHHs and 59% of total HHs in
C category)
Living standard trend

Stable with some decline due to loss
of oxen (corridor disease)

Declining

Declining
Types of commercial activities

Sale of maize, groundnut seeds,
sweet potatoes, sorghum, chickens,
rape, tomatoes, paprika, cabbage,
goats
Grain milling
Transport
Shops
Farm input sales

Sale of maize, groundnut seeds,
sweet potatoes, sorghum, chickens,
rape, tomatoes, paprika, cabbage,
goats
Women buy and sell farm produce
Buy and sell roots ordered from
people living in the hills; resell locally

None
Percentage of Category A households

with commercial activities:
Nearly all (capital-based commercial
activities but not all in agriculture)
Percentage of Category B households

Most households (crop and livestock
marketing; many women engaged in
petty trading, except urban retirees)
Percentage of Category C households

Most households not engaged in
commercial activities due to old age
or labour shortage
Potential to participate in market

linkage activities
Good

linkage activities
Good

linkage activities
Little or none due to old age, lack of
family labour, lack of saleable surplus
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Step 12 Use the information on the cards to select 12 households for interviews
on the next day. The number selected for household interviews should be skewed
in favour of those socio-economic categories that have the most commercial activities
because the main focus of the diagnostic study is to learn about households with
commercial activities. Make certain that at least one crop trader and one shopkeeper
is included (if there are any). Select female-headed households to reflect their
proportion in the overall population. If there are only five households in category
D and none grow or sell any agricultural products one interview is enough. An
illustration is given below, but diagnostic teams need to use their judgement.
Category
Total HHs in category
24
58
11
Crop sales
1 crop trader
3 shops
(others = retirees)
Crop sales
Market stalls
Petty trade
Brewing
Petty trade
None
17
Total = 2
FHH = 0
Total = 4
FHH = 1
Total 5
FHH = 2
Total 1
FHH = 1
Female HH heads
Interviews

Step 1 Villagers themselves analyze.
Which categories of households are upwardly mobile and downwardly mobile?
Why?
Are female-headed households over-represented among the poor? What are the
reasons? What happens to women when their husbands die?
Ask the villagers to identify some households that are falling into poverty and to
analyze the reasons why this is happening.
Ask the villagers to identify some households that are moving up the social ladder.
What makes this happen? What have they got that helps them to move up?
Step 2 Diagnostic team members compare and contrast wealth rankings between
sites in the same country.
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Comparison of Wealth Rankings Cabo Delgado Province, Mozambique
Parameter
Chiure District
Ocua village
Metuge District
25 Junho village
Wealth categories
Category A
households
Category B HHs
5%
Shop (Barraca)
1-2 bicycles, 2 Radios
15 goats; 30 chickens or ducks
>50 cashew trees
Food surplus
Crop marketing (>10 bags)
Fenced compound, house with cement block walls,
iron roof, cement floor
Wood furniture (bed, table, chairs)
Can send children to secondary school
70%
Bicycle and/or radio
Crop sales: <10 bags
Supplementary income from house building,
tailoring, handicrafts
Few animals: poultry, 1-2 goats
Few cashew trees or fruit trees
Unfenced compound; mud and wattle house;
thatch roof; dirt floor
Food secure (12 months average)
Can send children to primary school
Able to buy clothes for whole HH
25%
Bicycle and/or radio
Market stall (banca); petty trade
Crop sales: <10 bags
Additional income from house building, baking,
tailoring, handicrafts, fishnets
Few animals: poultry, 1-2 goats
Few fruit trees
Can send children to primary school
Able to buy clothes for whole HH
Category C HHs
25%
No animals
Engaged in piecework (ganho-ganho) or
traditional brewing
Many children, often not in school
Cant afford clothes (wear rags)
70%
Unfenced compound; mud & wattle house;
No animals
Main cash source is piecework (ganho-ganho) or
brewing traditional drinks
Many children, often not in school
Cant afford clothes (wear rags)
Causes of poverty
Low cotton price; high input costs

Lack of crop & produce buyers active in village
Stores (lojas) shut since civil war (not reopened)
Barraca owners do not trade in agricultural products
Long distance from Namapa
Low producer prices for agricultural products; high
consumer prices
Trend
56
5%
Shop (Barraca) or
Fishing boat and gear
Motorbike or 1-2 bicycles
2 Radios, wristwatch
1 ha bananas, >50 fruit trees
Sell >30 bags of rice + tomatoes, beans, maize
Fenced compound, house with cement block walls,
iron roof, cement floor
Wood furniture (bed, table, chairs)
Children in middle school
All categories improving
Poor transport to markets

Few traders come to village
Barraca owners do not trade in agricultural products
Prices in Pemba do not justify cost of transporting
products to market
Low buying prices to producers who sell in Pemba;
high consumer prices (collusion/ market
imperfections)
A & B improving; C stable or deteriorating
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Step 1 How do the different sites rank in relative wealth? To what extent do the
wealth categories in one village coincide or overlap with those used in another
village? Arrange different sites on a continuum according to type of housing or
material possessions.
Country
District
Modern
house with
iron roof
Brick house + Mud house + Mud house +

iron roof
thatched roof
iron roof
Zambia
Mazabuka
Chongwe
Mpongwe
A
A
A
B
C
B
C
C
C
Mozambique
Chiure
Metuge
A
A
C
B, C
Uganda
Mpigi
Hoima
Apac
B
B
C
C
A
A
A
No house
(rented)
D
D
D
B, C
Step 2 Compare the proportion of households in each wealth category across sites.
Are the sites that classified the majority of households in the Category B better off
than those that classified the majority as Category C?
How to Analyze Illustration: Summary of Wealth Rankings
Village
A
Number of Households
C
D
B
Total
Percentage of Households
B
C
D
Total
Muvwela (Mazabuka)
16
29
23
70
23%
41%
33%
3%
100%
Libuko (Chongwe)
43
51
2%
14%
84%
0%
100%
Kanyenda (Mpongwe)
65
71
51
187
35%
39%
27%
0%
100%
Ocua (Chiure)
10
140
50
200
5%
70%
25%
0%
100%
25-Junho (Metuge)
11
30
43
5%
25%
70%
0%
100%
Lunyerere (Mpigi)
55
25
20
106
6%
51%
24%
19%
100%
Buraru (Hoima)
26
98
133
3%
20%
73%
4%
100%
Otorongole (Apac)
29
56
13
105
7%
28%
53%
12%
100%
Step 3 Analyze the distribution of female-headed households by wealth. Are the

majority of female-headed households found among the poor and poorest or not?
What proportion of total households in each stratum do the female-headed
households represent?
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How to Analyze Illustration from Mozambique:

Distribution of Female-headed Households by
Socio-economic Status Two Sites
Parameter
Ocua
25 Junho
Female headed HHs (FHHs) as a %age of total households
26%
40%
FHHs as a %age of HHs in each socio-economic stratum

- Category A (less poor)
- Category B (poor)
- Category C (poorest)
10%
25%
30%
0%
0%
57%
Distribution of FHHs by socio-economic stratum

- Category A (less poor)
- Category B (poor)
- Category C (poorest)
100%
2%
69%
29%
100%
0%
0%
100%
Step 5 Among the members of diagnostic team, analyze commercial activities

across villages: which socio-economic categories are currently involved in
commercial activities such as agricultural processing and marketing? Which
categories have sufficient human and physical resources to respond to new
opportunities in the sector? What proportion of the total population are likely to
want to participate?
Step 6 Use household interview data to cross-check whether the wealth ranking is
accurate. Do the households in category B and C belong in that category? Do they
have commercial activities? Do they have the capacity to participate in a market
linkage project?
Which socio-economic categories are currently involved in commercial activities
such as agricultural processing and marketing? Which categories have sufficient
human and physical resources to respond to new opportunities in the sector? What
proportion of the total population are likely to want to participate?
How can the information be used to make the project as inclusive of the poor as
possible? Do Category C households sell crops and livestock? Do they sell at the
same time of year as everybody else, in the same markets at the same price? What
problems do Category C households have that prevent them from responding?
What activities stand to benefit Category C households the most?
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Participants: 10 village leaders (male and female) Time required: 1/2 hour
Linkages: with Leaders Module with card sorting exercise in Wealth Ranking.
Getting Started. Copy the table on flip chart paper in the local language.
Group
Type
Activity
Year
started
Members
SES 2
Is it
active
Initiator Source Ranking

3
of
(impact
support on village)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
1 Formal, informal, registered, cooperative, etc.
2 Socio-economic status of members (from wealth ranking number of As, Bs, Cs)
3 MoA, NGO, donor project, village leader, etc.
Step 1 Leaders list all the groups present in the village that have economic
activities. For each group listed they specify the type of group (co-op, womens
group, formal/informal, registered/unregistered). What activities does the group
have? How many members are there? How many are men? How many women?
When did the group start? Is it still active? Who started the group? Does the group
have any outside support? If so, from what sources?
Step 2 Take the household cards from the wealth ranking. Identify the households
that are members of group 1. Sort them into piles. Count the number of households
in A, B and C category. Count the number of female-headed households. Enter the
numbers of A, B and C and FHHs into the flip chart under the SES (socio-economic
status) column.
Step 3 Repeat the exercise for each group in the village.
Step 4 Villagers rank the groups in order of importance according to which group
has made the greatest contribution to the village as a whole and to the well-being of
the group members.
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An example from Muvwela village in Mazabuka District, Zambia is given below. In

this case, card sorting from the wealth ranking was also used to examine overlap
between groups. It revealed that three village groups were controlled by members
of a single household: the husband is the chairman of the new Cooperative society,
his wife is chairperson of the affiliated womens group and the son of the youth
group. The overlap between other members was also substantial, while the majority
of households did not belong to any village group.
Group Profiles An Illustration Mazabuka District, Zambia

Group
Type
Year
Still
Started Active?
SES
25
A 13
B8
C 11
30 1
42
A8
B5
C3
1999
Garden;
borehole;
tree planting
10
A8
B4
C2
Indepen- Sunflower oil

dent
pressing,
selling oil and
cake;
sunflower
growing
10
Mabwetuba Womens Sewing (for

sale)
womens club IGP
20
Marketing
N/A
Nadomba
Farmers
Coop
Coop
Maize selling
Nadomba
womens
group
Coop
affiliate
Poultry
Nadomba
Coop
youth group affiliate
Muvwela oil
club
Mabwetuba
Primary
Cooperative
Society
Coop
1
2
60
Members
Activity
Nov. 1998 Active
Initiator Outside Contrib.

support to village
devel.
3 Farmer
leaders
GTZ
Active
Coop
chairman
and wife
GTZ
1999
Active
Coop
chairman
RIF
A5
B3
C2
1992
Active
Local man
JICA
A4
B9
C7
1989
Active
Old coop
Coop
society
Dept of
(disbanded) GoZ
N/A
N/A.
1980s
Disband
ed
GoZ Coop
Dept
Includes women from neighbouring villages

Men assist with maintenance of the womens group chicken house
Coop
Dept of
GoZ
none
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How to Analyze the Data

In the village analysis. Ask leaders to explain why some groups have had more
impact and others have had less. Ask villagers why they think some groups have
more households in Category C than others.
Cross-cutting Analysis by the Diagnostic Team. Is group membership widespread?
Do nearly all households in all socio-economic strata belong to at least one group?
Or do the same upper stratum households belong to all the groups?
Use the data to answer the question: is there a potential for the project to use the
existing groups or should they organize new enterprise groups afresh? Are
existing groups sufficiently inclusive of Category B and C households? How is the
gender balance of existing groups? Are the groups village-based or does their
membership span several villages? What proportion of poor households does not
belong to any organized groups? How can the project reach people who are not
members of any organized group?
The diagnostic team, in connection with project design, could visit sites where
potential service providers, like CLUSA, are active and analyze what socioeconomic strata are participating in their enterprise groups, as a basis for figuring
out how to ensure greater participation of the poor.
Service providers can also use the same techniques (wealth ranking with card
sorting followed by identification of group members cards) to prepare a socioeconomic baseline on the membership of enterprise groups at the time they enter
the project. This can be used to track beneficiary contacts and to monitor the
projects outreach to the poor (see beneficiary tracking under M&E).
Repeat surveys could be done on a sub-sample of enterprise groups at the midterm and at project completion to assess the projects impact on poverty (see
Impact Assessment under M&E).
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Trade-offs between Group Profiles versus

Venn Diagrams
Venn Diagrams are the PRA tools that are most frequently-used to analyze villagers perceptions of
local institutions. In Venn diagramming, villagers make different size circles to denote the
importance of different formal and informal groups in the village. The larger the circle, the larger or
the more important the group. The position of the circle closer to the centre or far from the centre
denotes how close villagers feel that the group is to their own concerns. Lines are drawn from the
groups toward the edges of the paper to show how groups are linked to outside sources of support.
However, the size of the circles in Venn diagrams ultimately depends on the villagers subjective
assessment of the importance of one group relative to another. As such, Venn diagrams are not the
most useful tools for investigating group membership by sex and socio-economic status. Although
overlapping circles may be used to denote overlap between the membership of groups, the exercise
needs expert facilitation to ensure that when villagers actually draw their circles overlapping one
another to show overlapping membership. Card sorting based on a wealth ranking affords a much
more accurate picture of overlapping between group members than Venn diagramming. Venn
diagrams are no substitute for (but can be enhanced by linking to) group profiles.
Venn Diagram an illustration
Community
Development Dept.
National Farmers
Association
CARE
Functional
Adult Literacy
group
Womens income
generating project
(sewing)
Womens bureau
62
The village
Drinking water
source management
committee
Donor Project
NGO self-help
group
Paprika
growers
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Household interviews are to be conducted with a purposive sample of 12 households identified by other villagers as less poor, middle-poor, poor and very poor.
The household interviews will cover the following topics (among others).
Household Interview Topics on

Gender & Marketing
What is produced by the household?
Which products are controlled by the wife? By the husband?
What proportion of each crop is marketed (good year, bad year)
Who (husband, wife) decides when to sell?
Who (husband, wife) decides how much to sell?
Who (husband, wife) decides where to sell?
Who (husband, wife) controls the income from the sale?
Who (husband, wife) decides how to spend the money?
When (month) is the product sold?
What is sold in what form? (fresh or dry, shelled or unshelled)
Where is the product sold?
Unit sold and quantity last year
Selling price last year
Means of transport and transport cost
Have there been any changes in what products are sold by husband and wife? If so, what?
Are there any recent changes in what the HH sells, or where or to whom? If so, explain.
What factors determine how much to produce?
What factors determine the %age sold (versus the %age kept for home consumption)?
What factors determine the prices received from buyers?
What risks are faced in selling? In buying?
What strategies are used to reduce risk?
What problems are experienced in selling? In buying?
What are the causes of the problems?
What are the coping mechanisms?
How could the problem be solved?
What opportunities are there for making money?
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An analysis plan for household interviews is shown on the next page.

Step 1 Analyze the relationship between a households resource base (including
land, livestock, physical and human assets), its production system and its livelihood
strategy.
Step 2 Analyze the interface between gender roles and marketing activities
(including risk management) within each household.
Step 3 Analyze the households market-related problems and priorities in the light
of their resource base and gender roles in marketing.
Step 4 Group household interviews by socio-economic stratum and to examine
whether there are similarities between households in the same wealth category with
regard to marketing activities, gender roles and market-related problems.
Step 5 Use household interview data to answer key questions outlined in the
conceptual framework that follows after the initial analysis plan.
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Household Interview Analysis Plan
Household Typology (from wealth ranking)

Less Poor
Households
Middle-Poor
Households
Poor
Households
Composition
Composition
Composition
of less-poor HHs
plus
of middle-poor HHs
plus
of poor HHs
plus
Assets
Assets
Assets
of less-poor HHs
of middle-poor HHs
of poor HHs
Influence on
Influence on
Influence on
Production Sys te m
Production Sys te m
Production Sys te m
(farm + off-farm)
of less poor HHs
and
(farm + off-farm)
of middle-poor HHs
and
(farm + off-farm)
of poor HHs
and
Livelihood
Strategies
Livelihood
Strategies
Livelihood
Strategies
of less poor HHs
of middle-poor HHs
of poor HHs
Influence on
Influence on
Influence on
Food Security
Food Security
Food Security
of less poor HHs

and
of middle-poor HHs
and
of poor HHs
and
Gender Roles
Gender Roles
Gender Roles
in less poor HHs

and
of middle-poor HHs
and
of poor HHs
and
Market-related
Activities
Market-related
Activities
Market-related
Activities
of less poor HHS
of middle-poor HHs
of poor HHs
Risks &
Risk Management
Risks &
Risk Management
Risks &
Risk Management
Influence on
Influence on
Influence on
Problems &
priorities
Problems &
priorities
Problems &
priorities
of less poor HHS
of middle-poor HHs
of poor HHs
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Conceptual Framework Key Issues for Analysis of Household Interviews
PRODUCTION
Who (husband,
wife, other)
owns the
product?
Whose field is it grown on?

Who
grows it?
Who
harvests it?
MARKETING DECISIONS
Who decides
when to sell?
66
Who decides
how much to
sell?
Who decides
where to
sell?
Whos
stores it?
Does the physical act

of producing or
storing a product
give women a voice in
decisions regarding
its sale?
Are marketing decisions the

prerogative of "owner" of the
product or are they
culturally determined?
Case 1: Sold in
village
Case 1: Sold in
town
How does commercialisation affect the

selling place and the quantity sold?
Who (husband, wife,

other) sells?
Who (husband, wife,

other) sells it?
How does the selling place and means of

transport affect who takes the product
to market?
Who controls the

income?
Who controls the

income?
Who decides how to

spend the money
Who decides how to

spend the money
How does the physical act of selling

influence control of income? Does it
matter who sells? Is control of income
determined by culture or by de-facto
power through selling?
EXPENDITURE DECISIONS
Who spends the

money
Who spends the

money
If control of income passes from women to

men, will this affect womens ability to
meet their responsibilities as providers?
Outcome: What
difference does it
make for HH well
being?
Outcome: What
difference does it
make for HH well
being?
Do changes in control of income by women

and men affect household spending on
basic needs? On luxuries (sex and
alcohol)? Is it the same for different
socio-economic strata or does it vary?
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Household Data Analysis by Wealth Category Illustration

Table 1 Household Demographic Characteristics
Demographic Characteristics
Age of HH head
HH size
Labour force
Education of HH head (highest grade)
Education of wife
Children's education (to date)
Total
Average
B
43
6
3
3
2
3
33
7
2
6
3
5
46
6
3
2
2
3
C
46
5
3
2
2
2
Source: Summary tables from household interviews, Mozambique
Table 2 Land and Physical Base
Resource Base
Arable dryland (ha)
Cultivated land (ha)
Wetland, garden
Coconut palms
Mango trees
Cashew trees
Papaya trees
Pear trees
Lemon trees
Banana stems
Total
3
2
0
2
4
7
4
1
0
125
A
5
4
1
2
7
17
8
2
1
167
Average
B
4
3
1
3
5
4
8
3
0
280
2
1
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
1
Table 3 Percentage of Households Owning Animals
Type of Livestock
Cattle
of which oxen
Sheep
Goats
Pigs
Chickens
Ducks
Pigeons
Total
Average
B
8%
0%
0%
12%
8%
46%
4%
12%
17%
0%
0%
17%
17%
50%
17%
17%
13%
0%
0%
0%
0%
50%
0%
25%
C
0%
0%
0%
17%
8%
42%
0%
0%
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Table 4 Percentage of Households Owning Farm Equipment
Item
Plough
Hoe
Machete
Axe
Sewing machines
Other
Boat
Fishing equipment
Granary
Total
0%
88%
54%
12%
15%
8%
0%
4%
27%
A
0%
83%
83%
33%
17%
17%
0%
0%
17%
Average
B
0%
88%
75%
0%
25%
13%
0%
13%
25%
0%
92%
25%
8%
8%
0%
0%
0%
33%
Average
B
Table 5 Percentage of Households Owning Assets
Asset
Fenced compound
House
Walls cement
Roof iron
Floors cement
Wood furniture
Bamboo furniture
Beds
Tables
Chairs
Radio
TV
Motorbike
Bicycle
Clock, wristwatch
68
Total
31%
135%
23%
8%
19%
73%
77%
127%
65%
212%
112%
4%
8%
52%
31%
A
83%
217%
50%
33%
50%
100%
0%
217%
133%
383%
233%
17%
17%
117%
50%
25%
100%
38%
0%
25%
125%
100%
150%
100%
325%
113%
0%
13%
63%
50%
8%
117%
0%
0%
0%
25%
100%
67%
8%
50%
50%
0%
0%
13%
8%
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Table 6 Crops Grown and Use of Farm Inputs by Socio-economic Stratum
Percentage of Households Growing Crop Using Input

B
C
A
Total
75%
63%
73%
83%
25%
0%
15%
17%
58%
0%
35%
33%
25%
0%
23%
50%
75%
50%
54%
17%
17%
0%
19%
50%
42%
100%
54%
17%
58%
63%
62%
67%
0%
25%
15%
33%
0%
25%
8%
0%
0%
25%
8%
0%
0%
25%
8%
0%
0%
13%
19%
33%
25%
63%
50%
83%
0%
13%
8%
33%
Crops Grown
Maize
Sorghum
Groundnuts
Sesame
Cassava
Cotton
Rice
Beans
Tomatoes
Sweet potato
Sugar cane
Banana
Tractor use
Bought seed
Fertilizer
Table 7 - Ranking of Livelihood Sources by Socio-economic Stratum

Livelihood Sources
Own food production
Crop sales
Shop (barraca)
Transfers, gifts
Livestock sales
Brewing local drinks
Piecework
Knit/sew/tailor
Remittances from outside
Bakery
Salary or pension
Trading (banca; ambulante)
Fishing
Construction
Charcoal/firewood/hunt
Handicrafts
Sale of assets
Other
Weighted Score
Total
Total
4
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
4
5
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
3
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
4
3
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
107
78
35
18
17
15
14
13
11
10
8
5
5
5
3
2
0
0
15
21
27
0
5
0
0
5
2
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
39
23
3
9
8
3
5
4
0
5
0
0
5
5
3
2
0
0
53
34
5
9
4
12
9
4
9
5
5
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
69
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Table 8 Percentage of Households with Income from

Different Non-farm Sources
Income Source
Transfers, gifts
Piecework
Shop
Brewing local drinks
Bakery
Knit/sew/tailor
Pension
Salary
Trading
Construction
Handicrafts
Fishing
Firewood/charcoal
Total
35%
31%
31%
23%
15%
12%
12%
4%
4%
4%
4%
4%
2%
0%
A
0%
0%
100%
17%
0%
0%
17%
0%
17%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
Average
B
63%
38%
13%
25%
13%
25%
13%
0%
0%
0%
13%
13%
6%
0%
33%
42%
8%
25%
25%
8%
8%
8%
0%
8%
0%
0%
0%
0%
Table 9 Food Self-Sufficiency by Socio-economic Stratum
Food self-sufficiency (months)

Last year
Normal year
Good year
Bad year
70
Total
8
8
11
4
A
7
6
8
3
Average
B
8
9
11
5
7
8
11
5
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Table 10 Items Sold, Percentage of Households Selling and Value of

Crop Sales by Socio-economic Stratum
Resource Base
Total
2
27%
15%
12%
12%
38%
38%
8%
12%
0%
15%
12%
8%
4%
12%
0%
8%
15%
19%
8%
4%
3,546,504
Items sold (avg.)

Maize
Groundnuts
Sesame
Cassava
Beans
Rice
Sorghum
Tomatoes
Onions
Cotton
Chickens
Ducks
Charcoal/firewood
Clothes
Cigarettes
Bananas
Local brew
Barraca goods
Bread
Crafts
Value of crop sales (Meticais)
Average
B
3
38%
0%
0%
25%
63%
75%
0%
13%
0%
0%
13%
13%
13%
13%
0%
25%
13%
0%
13%
13%
3,488,125
A
3
50%
17%
33%
0%
33%
17%
0%
33%
17%
33%
33%
17%
0%
33%
0%
0%
0%
83%
0%
0%
8,953,542
C
2
8%
25%
8%
8%
25%
25%
17%
0%
0%
17%
0%
0%
0%
0%
17%
0%
25%
0%
8%
0%
881,904
Table 11 Gender Roles in Marketing from Household Interviews
Commodity
Beans (n=10)
Cashewnut (n=1)
Cassava (n=5)
Cotton (n=4)
Groundnuts (n=3)
Maize (n=10)
Rice (n=10)
Sesame (n=5)
Sorghum (n=4)
Tomatoes (n=2)
Vegetables (n=1)
Who decides how

much to sell?
M
W
3
0
2
2
3
2
5
0
3
0
0
7
10
8
8
7
8
5
10
7
10
10
Who decides
when to sell?
M
W
1
0
0
3
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
9
10
10
7
10
9
10
10
10
10
10
Who decides
where to sell?
M
W
1
0
0
3
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
9
10
10
7
10
9
10
10
10
10
10
Who does the

selling?
M
W
2
0
4
2
7
1
2
0
0
0
0
9
10
6
8
3
9
8
10
10
10
10
Who controls the

income from sale?
5
0
4
3
3
4
6
2
3
5
0
5
10
6
7
7
6
4
8
7
5
10
71
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75
77
79
87
91
99
103
8. Gender Roles in Marketing Checklist for Womens and

Mens Groups
107
73
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Participants: 20 women in one group. 20 men in a separate group, sitting at
sufficient distance from one another that they cannot overhear or disturb one
another. Time needed: 1/2 hour.
Main Income Sources of Women
Main Income Sources of Men
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Step 1 Women brainstorm and make a list of all the ways that women in the village
earn money. Men do the same in the mens group, but starting with how they earn
money.
Step 2 Women rank their top five income sources in order of priority. Which
brings the most money to the most women. Which is second most important for
women in the village. (Men do the same for mens top five income sources).
Step 3 Women list all of mens income sources (and men do the same for women).
Step 4 Women rank mens top five income sources in order of priority (and men
do the same for women).
An illustration of a completed template is shown below.
Main Sources of Money of Villagers According to Women Illustration

Men
Women
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Maize and groundnuts

Banana sales
Vegetables and sweet potatoes
Chicken
Beer brewing (dry season)
Other: clay pots, buns (3 women), buy and sell roots from
hills (for brewing sweet beer), sell goats, knitting
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Maize
Sunflower oil
Irish potatoes
Firewood
Goats
Other: blacksmithing, selling bark/fibres from trees
1 = highest; more than one item listed indicates those items are ranked equally
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sufficient distance from one another that they cannot overhear one another or
disturb one another. Time needed: 1/2 hour.
Main Expenditures of Men
Main Expenditures of Women

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Step 1 Women list all the items that they buy with their own money. (Men do the
same starting with themselves and then moving to women).
Step 2 Women rank their top five expenditure items in order of importance.
Step 3 Women list all the items on which men spend their money. (Note probe
about whether men spend money on drinking, women and smoking)
Step 4 Women rank mens top five expenditure items in order of how much of the
total money each absorbs.
Step 5 Probe: is it true that only men spend their money drinking or do women
also drink? If men spend their money on prostitutes, then isnt prostitution an
income source for some women? Women should go back and revise their ranking if
they have any changes to make in the light of these insights.
Main Items of Expenditure (according to women) An Illustration from

Mazabuka District, Zambia
Men
Women
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Mealie meal and salt

School fees and buying books
Medical expenses
Maize grinding
Household necessities (soap, Vaseline)
Other: clothes, chicken, goats
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Money spent on girlfriends

Fertiliser loan
Blankets and household goods (soap/maize)
School fees and cattle rearing
Beer drinking
Clothes for wives and children
77
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Step 1 In the village, with the villagers. Are the expenditure items reported by
women for women the same as those reported by men for women? Conversely, do
women and men agree on what are the top five expenditures of men? Where are
the differences? What are the reasons for the differences?
Step 2 Members of the diagnostic team analyze patterns in different sites in the
same country. Are there common patterns? Do sites in similar market environments
have similar patterns?
Main Income Sources of Women and Men: 3 Sites
78
Metuge District
25 Junho village
Chiure District
Ocua village
Item
women (according to women)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Cassava
Beans
Maize
Sorghum
Sesame
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Beans
Tomatoes
Maize
Rice
Bananas
Cassava

women (according to men)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Pottery
Traditional brew
Thatch grass
Cassava
Bananas
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Beans
Rice
Pottery
Bread baking
Fishing from shore
Main income sources of men

(according to women)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Sugar cane
Farm tools
Wood chairs
Wood beds
Bamboo products
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Fish
Tomatoes
Goats
Chickens
Charcoal
Main income sources of men

(according to men)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Cotton
Sesame
Cashew nuts
Groundnuts
Beans
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Rice
Beans
Maize
Vegetables (tomato, onion)
Coconut
Chiure District
Manrasse village
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Sesame
Groundnuts
Cassava
Beans
Maize
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Local brew
Chickens
Goats
Bananas
Crafts
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Participants: 20 women and 20 men (in parallel in separate groups). Preferably
ordinary women and men not exclusively members of farmer or womens groups.
Time required: 1 hour (takes longer if many crops are mentioned).
Linkages: with the Cash Inflow and Cash Outflow Calendars.
Getting Started. Copy the matrix (next page) onto the flip chart and enter the main
headings in the local language. Adjust the headings on the calendar to fit the local
farming system. Make space for irrigated crops if necessary. Show first and second
season crops separately if there is bimodal rainfall with two cropping seasons. Allow
villagers to decide what month of the year they prefer to use to start the year, and
enter the names (or numbers) of the months .
79
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Seasonal Activity Calendar
Months
Rainfall
No road access
Rainfed farming and crop sales
1st season (long rains):
2nd season (short rains)
Irrigated farming and crop sales
Livestock sales
Non-Farm Activities
Hungry season Avg. year

good year
poor year
Peak labour - women
Peak labour - men
80
5 6
8 9 10 11 12
Gender Divn of Labour
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Step 1 Rainfall. When does the rainy season start and when does it end in an
average year? Agree on what month to use to start the calendar. If the rains start in
December and all farming activity revolves around the onset of the rains, farmers
usually opt to start the calendar in the 12th month and end in the 11th month. Fill
in the months at the top of the calendar. Then record the time when the rains start
and when they stop by shading the boxes at the top of the calendar.
Step 2 Road access. When it rains, does this affect transportation in and out of
the village? If the road becomes impassable at certain times of year, put an x or
darken the boxes corresponding to the month when road access is impossible.
Step 3 Rainfed crops. What are the five most important crops? Which of these is
the first crop to be planted? What month does planting start and when does planting
end? Insert the name of the crop on the first line under rainfed crops and indicate
with a P when planting starts and in all months when people plant. Then indicate
the month when harvesting starts and when it ends. (Put an H in each box). Then
indicate when crop selling starts and how long it usually continues (considering the
time of year when most of the harvest is sold not the exceptions to the rule). In the
far right column, indicate who (man or woman) does the work. (Enter MW if the
work is equally shared, W(M), if the woman does more than the man, and M(W)
if the man does more than the woman). If gender roles differ for planting, harvesting
and selling, indicate them separately. Repeat the process for all the most important
food and cash crops. If there are two cropping seasons for the same crop and they
overlap in time on different pieces of land show each on a different line. (In this
exercise we are only interested to know about the timing of planting, harvesting and
selling not land preparation or weeding or other operations).
Step 4 Irrigated crops. Name the top three irrigated crops. Enter the planting and
harvesting and selling dates on the calendar. If the same crop is grown twice in
succession on the same piece of land (e.g., double-cropped vegetables), show them
both on a single line of the calendar. Again, indicate the gender division of labour
in planting, harvesting and selling.
Step 5 Livestock. Record which types of animals or animal products are sold in
order of priority (space for five items). Only record the time(s) of year when selling
reaches a peak. For the gender division of labour record who looks after the animals
and who sells them.
Step 6 Non-farm Activities. What are the main non-farm activities of people in the
village? List the ones that bring the most money (up to five items). They might be
piecework on other farms or house construction or brewing or brick making or
charcoal burning or handicrafts. Indicate the time of year when these items are made
and when they are sold. Indicate who (men, women) make them and who sells them.
Step 7 Hungry Season. Indicate the months of the year when local food stocks
run out and the average household has to buy, beg or work for meals. How many
months does the hungry season last in an average year? A good year? A bad year?
Step 8 Peak labour times for women and men. Indicate on separate lines the
peak season for womens labour and the peak season for mens labour. Note what
crop and tasks it refers to (e.g. maize planting, cotton picking).
81
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A completed template is shown below to illustrate how to fill out the different parts
of the calendar.
Seasonal Activity Calendar with Marketing (according to Men)

An Illustration from Hoima District, Uganda
District: Hoima Village: Buraru Men Date: 23.04.02
Months
M A M J
Rainfall
X X X
No road access
A S O
Gender Divn of Labour
X X X X
X

1st season: Banana 1
Sweet potato
Coffee 2
Beans
Groundnuts
Maize
Tobacco
2nd season: Banana
Sweet potato
Coffee
Beans
Groundnuts
Maize
PHS PHS
p
P P
P P
S PS
P P
p
HS HS
(H) HS
S
S
S
S
HS HS HS HS HS HS HS HS HS HS
p
HS HS HS
HS HS HS S
HS HS HS S S
PS S HS HS S S S S S S
HS HS HS S S
H HS HS HS HS S S
HS HS HS PHS PHS HS HS HS HS HS
P P
HS HS
p p p HS HS HS HS
P P HS HS HS S S
S S S PS PS PS HS HS HS S
P P P HS HS HS S
S
M (W)
W (M)
M (W)
W (M)
W+M
M(W)
M (W)
M (W)
W(M)
M (W)
W (M)
W+M
M (W)
Livestock sales
Cattle
Goats
Chicken
Sheep
Pigs
X
X
X
X

good year
poor year
Peak labour - women
Peak labour - men
X X
X X
X X X
X
X
M
W
W
M+W
W
X
X
X
X
X
X X
P = plant; H = harvest; S = sell
82
Banana can be planted in either season, it takes a year to bear fruit, and thereafter fruit can be harvested and sold throughout the year.
The coffee variety that is planted in March and April, needs three years to start producing and can then be harvested from November
onwards. The coffee variety planted in Aug-Oct takes two years to enter into production and is harvested from Dec-Feb.
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Start with the timing of the rains and road access. Are there times of year when the
village is inaccessible by road? Look down at the timing of harvesting and selling of
the main commodities. What if anything do the villagers have to sell at the time
of year when the roads are inaccessible? If there is nothing to sell, how much does
it matter whether or not the village is accessible by road? At the times of year when
farmers sell most of their produce, is road access a problem?
Go to the main rainfed crops. When is the main harvest and when are the main
sales? Are most products sold right after the harvest? Why are they sold at the
harvest time instead of storing them until later in the season? Who men or women
grows the main crops and who sells them? Are any grown and sold exclusively by
women?
Go to the irrigated crops. How many harvests per year can farmers get? When are
most of the sales? Who men or women grows and who markets irrigated
vegetables?
Look at the timing of livestock sales. Do they coincide with the main holidays and
feasts (when prices and demand are likely to be high) or do they occur mainly
during the hungry season? Are livestock sales driven by market considerations or by
hunger and shortage of cash?
Look at the timing of off-farm activities in relation to the labour peaks in agriculture
and food supply during the hungry season. Do the off-farm activities fill up down
time in the slack season for cropping? Or are people going out for work in the
hungry season because they have nothing to eat? Who men or women is
engaged in the off-farm activities?
Look at the hungry season. Is there wide variation between the duration of the
hungry season in good and bad years?
Look at the peak times of year for mens and womens labour. At the time of year
when most of the sales take place, what are women doing in the fields? What are
men doing? Who has time to go to town to market the crops? Or would it be
preferable to attract traders to come and buy directly in the village.
83
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Synthesis of Seasonal Activity Calendar 3 Sites Illustration

from Mozambique
Rainfall
Poor access
Beans 1st season
Bean 2nd season
Cashew
Cassava
Cotton
Groundnuts
Maize
Pumpkin
Rice
Sesame
Irrig. veget.
Bay fishing
River fishing
Salt making
Crafts
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
H/S
P
S
P
H
S
S
H
H/S
H/S
H/S
S
S
H
S
S
H/S
H/S
S
S
H
H/S
S
S
H
S
S
H/S
H
H/S
S
H/S
H
P
X
H/S
H/S
P
X
C
X
C
XX
H/S
H/S
H/S
X
X
Pr/S
XX
S
PHS
P
P
P
P
P
P/S
S
H/S
X
X
Pr/S
X
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
X
X
P
S/P
P
P
P
S
P
P
P
P/S
S
P/S
S
X
Pr/S
X
S/P
S/P
X
P
X
P
X
C
P
S
S
H/S
X
X
Pr/S
X
S
S
H/S
X
X
Pr/S
X
* P = plant, Pr = prepare, H = harvest, S = sell

In the Village. Use the information on rainfall and road access to lead into a
discussion with the villagers of whether or not road access during the rainy season
is a serious problem for the village. Look at the timing of harvests and sales: what if
any products are harvested and sold at the time of year when road access is poor?
Are access problems sufficiently important to justify fixing the road?
Use the information on the gender division of labour in crop and livestock
production to lead into a discussion on who women or men produces the
products that are most important for the village.
Use the information on the timing of crop sales to assess what proportion of the total
harvested crop is sold at the time when prices are lowest (right after the harvest) and
what proportion is sold later in the season when prices are higher. Use this to lead
into a discussion of the differences between households who sell at the harvest time
when prices are lowest and those who hold their produce for sale later in the year.
Ask villagers the reasons why some people are forced to sell when the price is low
and others can afford to wait until prices rise.
Analysis by Project Staff. Compare sites within the same country to assess whether
the majority of farmers in all sites are selling when prices are lowest. If farmers in
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some sites are able to hold onto their produce until prices rise and others are not,
what explains the difference? What drives people to sell at the harvest time a
desperate need for cash? How could the project assist farmers to hold onto their
produce until prices rise? Is there need for an upstream policy change for
instance, so that taxes or school fees could be paid at the time of year when farmers
have money rather than during the hungry season?
Use information on the timing of sales together with information on price
differences by season and location (leaders PRA module) to assess whether the
project should try to tackle the price seasonality as one of its priority actions.
Use information on peak and slack labour times for women and men to determine
what time of year farmers are most available to attend training courses.
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This activity is usually done at the end of the seasonal activity calendar as the final
steps in an uninterrupted process. It can also be done as a free-standing PRA
exercise using a separate bar graph drawn onto flip chart paper, but requires a
minimum of 1/2 hour to 1 hour fotr the exercise. Therefore, the team preferred to
tack it onto the Seasonal Activity Calendar exercise to save time and avoid
overburdening the participants.
Step 1 Prepare six cards three for cash inflow and three for cash outflow
(preferably two different colours). On the first (e.g. the yellow cards) draw a big star,
on the second a medium-sized star and on the third a small star. Tell villagers that
the big star is for the month or period of the year when the biggest amount of
money is coming in. The middle star is for the period of the year when moderate
amounts of money are coming in. The small star is for the third most important
period of the year when cash is coming in. Villagers come up to the calendar and
put the card with the biggest star next to the month when the most money is coming
in, the card with the middle star next to the month(s) when the second greatest
amount of money is coming in and the third card with the smallest star in the box
corresponding to the months(s) that the third most money is coming in. The stars
are recorded on the calendar, together with the name of product that is bringing in
the money. The question about what brings the money is followed by a question
about who brings the money: is it the husbands money or the wifes money or
joint earnings?
Step 2 On the other three cards (for instance, green ones) make a big storm cloud
to symbolise money going out on expenses, a middle-sized storm cloud on the
second and a small storm cloud on the third. Invite participants to place the card
with the big cloud in the box corresponding to the month when villagers have to
spend the most money. Ask what is the money used for and record the answers (for
example, school fees, taxes, buying farm inputs, hiring labour or seasonal festivities).
Then ask whose money is being spent. Is it mainly the husbands money? Or the
wifes money? Or is it joint earnings?
Transcription onto Graphs. The diagnostic team prepares calendar with 12 months
across the top and a space for a stacked bar graph. Using the information from the
previous steps, enter the information on the bar graph. Which are the months with
the highest cash inflow? Which have the second highest cash inflow. Which are next?
On the line below the stacked bar, indicate the source of the money sale of cotton,
maize, chickens, etc. Below that line, record whose earnings are referred to (M
for man and W for woman; M+W for both).
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Cash Inflow Calendar

The cash outflow calendar looks almost identical to the cash inflow calendar.
Month
10
11
12
11
12
High
Medium
Low
Item
Maize Maize
Beans
M+W M
Vegetables
M
Whose earnings?
Dry
beans
W
Cash Outflow Calendar
Month
10
High
Medium
Low
Item
Whose earnings?
School Taxes
fees
M+W M
Labour
M
School
fees
W
Xmas
Inputs
M+W
M = men, W = women

Compare the peak months for cash inflow with the peak months for cash outflow. At
the time of year when farmers need the most money, what (if any) money is coming
in? At the time of year when farmers have the most money, what expenses do they
have? Does the timing of selling correspond to the time when most money is
available or are the two out of synchronisation?
Take a look at the timing of hungry season on the Seasonal Activity Calendar. What
if any money is coming in during that season and from what sources? Whose
money is it womens or mens?
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In Plenary Session. Compare what women and men say about the timing of the
peak months of cash inflow and outflow. Do men and womens analysis coincide or
not? If not, probe to discover the reasons.
Cross-cutting Analysis. Compare the timing of peak cash inflow and outflow for other
sites in the same country and for sites in similar market environments across countries.
Is seasonality of cash inflow and outflow a more significant problem in the farming
systems that only have one cropping season per year? In areas of relatively low and
unreliable rainfall in comparison with those with higher and more reliable rainfall?
Triangulation. Is the information on cash inflow and outflow consistent with the
information in at the table on Price Differences by Season and Location (from the
Leaders PRA)? What proportion of the harvest is being sold when prices are lowest?
What proportion of the households in the village are later forced to buy back food
during the hungry season when prices are highest?
Peak Months of Cash Inflow and Cash Outflow Eight Sites An Illustration
According to Women
Cash inflow
Cash outflow
Village
According to Men
Cash inflow
Cash outflow
Mazabuka District, Zambia
August
Dec-Jan, April, Aug
June-Sept
(peak August)
Dec-Jan, Nov, Feb,
Chongwe District, Zambia
May-Sept
(peak July)
Dec-Feb
June-Sept
(peak Aug)
Jan, Dec, Oct
Mpongwe District, Zambia
July-Oct
Nov-Jan
August, May,
July, Sept
Nov-Feb
Ocua, Chiure District, Mozambique
August/Sept
August/Sept
August -> Nov
Aug, Nov
Metuge District, Mozambique
July/Aug
July/August
August -> Nov
Aug, Nov, Jan
Mpigi District, Uganda
Dec-Jan;
Jul-Aug
Dec-Jan; Sept;
Feb; April
April; Nov;
March; May
Dec; Feb; Aug;

April
Hoima District, Uganda
Nov-Jan; June;
Apr-May
Nov-Jan; Jun-Jul;
Mar-Apr
Nov-Dec; Oct
Dec; Aug; Mar;

Feb, Apr
Apac District, Uganda
Dec/Jan;
Aug-Sept
Dec/Jan, Oct,
Aug-Sept
Dec-Feb
Jan-March

In combination with information on price seasonality and the timing of the hungry
season, use the information to answer the following question: is seasonality of food
supply, income and prices a big issue in this site or is it a rather insignificant issue?
Is seasonality of cash inflow and outflow more important in certain types of sites?
Does the project need a special strategy for such sites (to help farmers cope more
effectively with seasonality)?
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sufficient distance from one another that they cannot overhear or disturb one
another. Time required: 1 hour.
Linkages: with the leaders gender roles in marketing module and with womens
and mens gender roles in marketing checklist.
Resources
Who has Access to It?

Women
Men
Who Controls It?

Women
Men
Others1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1 For instance, a third party or the owner of the land or resource
Step 1 Clarify Definitions. (a) Explain what is meant by a resource. A resource

can be anything that can be owned and used by villagers, such as land, animals,
tools, crops, money and human resources such as children. (b) Explain what is
meant by access and control. A person who has access to a resource can use the
resource. A person who has control owns the resource and can decide whether or
not to sell it. Some resources belong to individuals, some to households and some
to the community or the state. The ownership and control of a resource need not
rest with either husband or wife, but with an outside person such as the landowner,
or an extension service. Ask the participants to give examples of access and
control.
Step 2 Villagers make a list of resources that are important in their village
especially for buying and selling and getting money. (The facilitator should try to
steer the groups attention toward the products that constitute the main income
sources and expenditures of women and men from the first exercise. Try to ensure
that the crops and enterprises that bring the most money to the village are included
on the list. The list should also cover items like land, tools, inputs and labour as well
as assets like means of transport and communications that influence households
income-earning capacity. The facilitator should try to avoid spending too much time
on resources that are not directly relevant to market linkages such as household
utensils or furniture or clothing).
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Step 3 Explain Proportional Piling. Get 10 stones ready and place them on a table
or on the ground in front of the flip chart. Draw a small circle on the paper or on
the ground and make a drawing of a woman. Draw a second small circle (it must be
the same size) and draw a picture of a man. Or put a symbol to stand for a man and
for a woman. Pick up the stones and place five stones in the womens circle and
five stones in the mens circle. Explain that when the number of stones in the
womens circle is equal to the number of stones in the mens circle, this means that
women and men have equal access to the resource. If nine stones are in the womens
circle and one is in the mens, it means that women have much more access to the
resource than men. Make certain that participants have understood.
Step 4 Start with the first item on the list. Ask one participant to come forward to
the front, hand them the stones and ask them to distribute the stones between the
two circles according to which family members women or men have more access
to the resource. After the volunteer places the stones in the circles, read out the
numbers to everyone in the group. Do they agree or not? If they agree, the farmerrecorder should record the corresponding numbers in the column for women and
men on the flip chart.
Step 5 Next, pick up the stones and hand them to a second participant. Ask the
participant to come forward and to distribute the stones between the two circles,
depending on who man or woman controls the resource.
Step 6 Do the same for the next resource. First, ask a participant to place the
stones in the circles according to who has more access. Discuss the answer and
record it if people agree. Then ask someone else to do the same according to who
controls the resource. Eventually, when the participants understand the exercise,
the same participant can be asked to do both access and control. The facilitator
needs to guide the process firmly to ensure that the replies do not fall into a
stereotyped pattern in which all resources are given the same score. They should
also encourage the participants to use the full range of values available not just 5:5
and 0:10 but also 3:7 and 6:4.
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An illustration of a completed template is shown below. The example is particularly

good because most of the key enterprises are covered.
Access and Control of Resources (according to men) An Illustration

from Uganda
District: Hoima Village: Buraru Men Date: 23/04/02

Women
Men
Resources
Banana
Tobacco
Cattle
Coffee
Pigs
Chicken
Groundnuts
Sweet potato
Cassava
Beans
Maize
Goats
Land
Hand hoe
Axe
Bicycle
Radio
6
3
2
5
8
7
6
8
6
8
8
8
5
5
2
1
5
1
4
7
8
5
2
3
4
2
4
2
2
2
5
5
8
9
5
Women
Who Controls It?

Men
1
1
0
2
8
5
3
8
7
6
2
3
1
4
2
1
3
9
9
10
8
2
5
7
2
3
4
8
7
9
6
8
9
7
Others1
For instance, a third party or the owner of the land or resource
Note: Always use proportional piling with ten stones to arrive at scores for women
and men. Do not simply place an X on the flip chart next to women and another
next to men, as both women and men are likely to be ticked on nearly all resources,
and tells us nothing about the relative power of women and men. The use of 10
stones allows villagers to accommodate exceptions to the rule for instance, cases in
which a resource is always controlled by men except in female-headed households
where there is no man. They can assign 9 points to men and 1 point to women to
allow for what happens in female-headed households.
Step 1 In their respective PRA groups, women and men (separately) identify and
discuss cases in which they have equal or even greater access to a resource than men
but they do not have much control. What is the reason for the discrepancy between
access and control?
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Step 2 In the village, women present their access and control profile in plenary
session with all PRA participants. Then the men present their access and control
profile.
Step 3 Facilitators identify discrepancies between the scores that women gave
themselves on control and those that men gave women and vice versa. Villagers
are asked to comment on which view is more likely.
Cross-cutting Analysis. Diagnostic team members compare access and control

profiles for the same village according to women and according to men.
Step 1 Paste the access and control profiles from the different sites into excel
spreadsheets, marking the village name in a separate column on the right hand side.
Sort alphabetically to compare what scores men and women gave each other for the
same items.
Step 2 Combine profiles from different sites and sort alphabetically to enable
comparison of differences in how womens and mens control of the same
commodities such as beans - varies between sites.
Step 3 Sort the data items in descending order according to womens view of
which items women control the most. Do the same for mens view of which items
women control the most. Compare the scores that women gave themselves to the
scores that men gave them.
Item
Beans
Beans
Beans
Beans
Beans
Beans
Beans
According to Women
According to Men
Access
Control
Control
Access
Women Men Women Men Others Women Men Women Men Others
17
8
6
8
10
3
2
0
7
2
4
Site
Mpigi
Hoima
Hoima
Apac
Apac
Ocua
25-junho
Step 4 List the items that are mainly controlled by women and mainly controlled
by men and which are jointly controlled in a table of the type presented below.
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Access and Control of Resources by Gender Summary
Ocua (Chiure)
Resources
25 Junho (Metuge)
According to women
According to men
According to women
According to men
Resources controlled
mainly by women
Pottery 10
Straw 10
Thatch grass 10
Cassava 8
Beans 10
Maize 8
Axe 10
Bamboo basket 10
Bread baking 10
Pottery 10
Sickle 10
Fish frying 9
Chickens 10
Cassava 6
Resources controlled
mainly by men
Fish 10
Maize 10
Sesame 10
Bed 10
Bicycle 10
Cashew 10
Fishing nets 10
Goats 10
Groundnuts 10
Hand hoes 10
Pigs 10
Radio 10
Sewing machine 10
Bamboo mat 9
Beds 9
Fishing nets 9
Sewing machine 9
Bicycle 9
Boat 9
Banana 10
Coconuts 10
Farm tools 10
Oxen 10
Sesame 10
Tomato 10
Goats 8
Rice 7
Maize 7
Beans 7
Land
Alcohol
Hand hoe
Fish
Handicrafts
Groundnuts
Resources controlled by
either men or women
Step 6 If relevant, repeat the exercise combining information from sites in

different countries - to compare whether there are patterns in what women and
men control in the different countries.
Step 7 Analyze whether there are patterns for sites witch similar market
environments or similar ethnic origins. Compare womens access and control in
matrilineal-uxorilocal versus matrilineal-virilocal versus patrilineal-virilocal sites in
search of patterns.
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Summary of Scores Given by Women (W) and Men (M) to Men

on Control of Resources
Zambia
Resources
Axe
Banana
Beans
Bicycle
Cassava
Cattle
Chickens
Coffee
Cotton
Goats
Groundnut
Hoe
House
Land
Machete
Maize
Motorbike
Pigs
Plough
Radio
Sesame
Sew mach
Sickle
Sorghum
Sunflower
Sw. potato
Tomato
Mazabuka
W
8
7
8
8
10
8
10
8
8
-
M
10
10
10
10
10
-
Chongwe
W
0
7
9
8
10
10
7
10
10
6
M
6
5
5
5
5
6
9
Mozambique
Mpongwe
W
8
10
7
10
8
10
6
7
8
-
M
8
8
8
8
8
-
Chiure
W
2
10
10
-
M
0
10
9
8
10
10
10
10
2
10
10
9
10
-
Uganda
Metuge
W
10
7
4
5
10
0
-
Mpigi
10
7
4
0
8
6
7
10
10
10
6
6
2
2
6
8
8
6
-
M
8
1
2
9
0
9
5
9
10
7
5
8
9
5
Hoima
W
7
2
8
2
8
5
8
3
5
8
8
10
3
8
7
2
-
M
8
9
4
9
3
10
5
8
7
7
6
9
8
2
7
2
-
Apac
W
6
1
4
6
6
6
5
6
7
5
8
6
6
9
6
8
10
6
1
5
-
M
7
2
7
7
7
10
9
8
7
8
9
9
8
8
8
1
1
8

Use the information to identify whether there are any commodities under
womens exclusive control that the project could target.
96
Use the findings to verify and dispel commonplace assumptions about which
activities in Africa are typically womens crops and activities and mens crops or
activities.
Use the information in combination with that coming out of the marketing
checklist to assess the likely impact of smallholder commercialization on the
control of income of women and men.
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Use the information above on control of income in combination with other

information on womens and mens responsibilities as family providers. Is there a
risk that if the project does not intervene to strengthen womens control over
former womens crop, that womens access to cash income under their personal
control could be undermined? How can the project guard against possible
negative impacts on women and through changes in the control of income on
the well being of rural households?
Use the information on gender differences in access and control over means of
communication such as radios to rethink the projects communication strategy.
Control of Resources by Men and Women Agreement and

Disagreement by Commodity
Resources
1. Axe
2. Banana
3. Beans
4. Bicycle
5. Cassava
6. Cattle
7. Chickens
8. Coffee
9. Cotton
10. Goats
11. Groundnut
12. Hoe
13. House
14. Land
15. Machete
16. Maize
17. Motorbike
18. Pigs
19. Plough
20. Radio
21. Sesame
22. Sewing machine
23. Sickle
24. Sorghum
25. Sunflower
26. Sw. potato
27. Tomato
Total
Overall
Pattern of
Control
M
M+W
M+W
M
M+W
M
M+W
M
M
M+W
M+W
M+W
M+W
M
M
M+W
M
M+W
M
M
M
M
M+W
M+W
M+W
W
M+W
Agreement
Disagreement
Between
Sites
Within Sites
(M/W)
X
X
Between
Sites
Within Sites Disagreement

(M/W)
(cases)
X
X
1
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
1
1
1
1
X
X
1
18
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Participants: About 10 village leaders (male and female). Time required: 1/2 hour.
Linkages: This is the second half of the Price Differences by Season and Location
module and is also linked to Responsibilities of Husband and Wife as Providers
module. Cross-check results with findings from the Gender Roles in Marketing
Checklist done in the womens and mens groups. Compare responses with those
coming out of household interviews.
Getting Started. Copy the matrix onto the flip chart in the local language. Enter
the crops and livestock products shown on the Price Differences by Season and
Location matrix in the left-hand column. Enter the locations where crops are sold,
in the village and outside, in the second column.
Product
Where sold
Who sells the

product?
Women
1.
Men
Who controls the

earnings?
Women
Men
Does s/he consult

spouse before
selling?
(location 1)
(location 2)
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Instructions. Start with the first product on the list. If the product is sold in the
village, who (husband or wife) sells? Who controls the income from the sale? Does
the seller have to consult his or her spouse? If the same product is sold in town, who
does the selling? Who controls the income from the sale? Do the same for each
commodity on the list (or at least for all the ones ranked as important or bringing
substantial earnings on the Enterprise Ranking module).
An example of a completed gender roles in marketing module for village leaders is
shown on the next page. Note that gender roles in marketing change according to
whether the product is sold in the village or in the district town. This shows the
importance of analyzing how gender roles in marketing and the control of income
change between the village and urban markets.
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Gender Roles in Marketing from Village Leaders Module

An Illustration from Hoima District, Uganda
District: Hoima Sub-county: Kyabigambire Village: Buraru Leaders Date: 23/4/02
Product
1. Tobacco
2. Matoke
3. Sweet potatoes
4. Beans
5. Cassava
6. Milk
7. Pigs
8. Maize
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Onions
Groundnuts
Tomatoes
Chickens
Coffee
Where sold
Village
Bulindi BAT store
Village
Hoima
Village
Hoima
Village
Hoima
Village
Hoima
Village
Village
Village
Hoima
Village
Village
Village
Village
Village
Who sells the

product?
Women
2
7
0
7
4
8
1
5
5
5
4
4
5
0
Men
8
3
10
3
10
6
10
2
10
9
5
5
10
5
6
6
5
10
Who controls the

earnings from sale?
Does s/he consult

spouse before
selling?
Sometimes
Uncommon
Women
3
7
3
6
Men
7
3
7
4
Some do
Sometimes
0
5
5
10
5
5
No consultation
Consulted
Not consulted
0
5
5
5
0
10
5
5
5
10
Consulted
Not consulted
Not consulted
Not consulted
Consulted
Some do

Solicit village leaders opinion on the following questions: When products are sold
in town rather than in the village, does this affect the gender balance in selling? Is
control of income affected by the physical act of selling? Does the person who sells
usually control the income? Or is control of income independent of who goes to
market and who does the selling?
Cross-cutting analysis. The diagnostic study team compares findings across
different sites (in the same country and in other countries if relevant). Are the
patterns similar? Does it matter whether the husband or wife goes to market? Does
the person who sells the produce usually control the income? Or is control of income
independent of who goes to market? Do wives sometimes sell products on behalf of
their husbands or vice versa?
Triangulation. Cross-check results with findings from the Gender Roles in Marketing
Checklist done in the womens and mens groups. Compare responses on gender
roles in marketing with those coming out of the household interviews. The table
below illustrates how to do cross-cutting analysis of gender roles in marketing by
combining information from three sites in the same country (in this case, Uganda).
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Gender Roles in Marketing Synthesis of Seven Locations in Uganda

An Illustration
Product
Beans
Cassava
Cattle
Chickens
Coffee
Cotton
Ginger
Goats
Groundnuts
Maize
Matoke
Milk
Millet
Onions
Pigs
Sesame
Sugar cane
Sunflower
Sweet potato
Tobacco
Tomato
Where sold
Lunyerere village
Buraru village
Hoima town
Otorongole village
Aduku town
Buraru village
Hoima town
Otorongole village
Aduku town
Awach
Lunyerere village
Buraru village
Otorongole village
Buraru village
Otorongole village
Lunyerere village
Lunyerere village
Otorongole village
Aduku town
Buraru village
Buraru village
Hoima town
Otorongole village
Aduku town
Lunyerere village
Buraru village
Hoima town
Buraru village
Otorongole village
Aduku town
Buraru village
Lunyerere village
Buraru village
Otorongole village
Otorongole village
Aduku town
Lunyerere village
Otorongole village
Aduku town
Buraru village
Hoima town
Bulindi BAT store
Lunyerere village
Buraru village
Who sells the

product?
Women
6
4
0
9
9
8
0
3
1
0
6
5
5
0
1
3
7
4
4
4
5
0
3
2
7
7
0
1
8
8
5
5
5
2
7
7
9
4
4
7
0
2
2
4
Men
4
6
10
1
1
2
10
7
9
10
4
5
5
10
9
7
3
6
6
6
5
10
7
8
3
3
10
9
2
2
5
5
5
8
3
3
1
6
6
3
10
8
8
6
Who controls the

earnings from sale?
Women
3
6
6
7
7
5
5
4
4
4
3
5
5
0
2
3
3
3
3
5
5
5
4
4
3
7
3
0
8
8
0
3
5
2
8
8
3
5
5
6
6
3
3
5
Men
7
4
4
3
3
5
5
6
6
6
7
5
5
10
8
7
7
7
7
5
5
5
6
6
7
3
7
10
2
2
10
7
5
8
2
2
7
5
5
4
4
7
7
5
Does s/he consult

spouse before
selling?
Some do
Some do
Yes
Yes
Sometimes
Sometimes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Not consulted
Yes
Consulted
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Not consulted
Not consulted
Not consulted
Yes
Yes
Yes
Uncommon
Uncommon
No consultation
Yes
Yes
Consulted
Yes
Consulted
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Some do
Some do
Sometimes
Yes
Not consulted
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Use the information on changes in control of income between the village and town
to assess the risk that commercialization of marketing could undermine womens
control of income and their ability to meet their responsibilities as providers (see
next tool).
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Participants: 10 leaders male and female. Time required: 1/2 hour (not including
discussion in plenary).
Linkages: (a) with Main Expenditures of Women and Men and (b) with Gender
Roles in Marketing.
Getting Started. Copy the module onto a flip chart in the local language. Or
simply fold the flip chart paper in half, and write wife on the left-hand column
and husband on the right-hand column.
Responsibilities of Husband and Wife as Family Providers
Wifes Responsibilities
Husbands Responsibilities
Step 1 Brainstorm. What items are wives expected to provide for their families?
Make a list in whatever order the items are suggested. Focus the exercise on
consumer goods not services. We do not want to know whether women are
expected to give birth to children, or to provide drinking water, or cook the family
meals. We want to know who is expected to provide the staple foods? Who is
expected to provide the sauce ingredients? Who buys condiments like salt and oil?
Are women expected to buy these items with their own earnings? What happens
when the household runs out of staple food? Who husband or wife is expected
to buy maize meal?
Step 2 What items are husbands expected to provide for their families?
Step 3 Which income is the husband expected to use to provide these items for
his family only pooled household income? Or is he also expected to use some of
his personal spending money? Under what circumstances would a man be expected
to use his personal spending money to buy food for the family? To pay school fees?
To pay for medical care?
Step 4 What happens in the case of polygamous households? Is it the same as for
monogamous households or is it different? What things is the wife supposed to
provide to her own children? What things is the husband expected to provide to all
of his wives?
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In the village, during the plenary session, compare the response to this exercise with
what is coming out of the womens group and the mens group on Main
Expenditures of Women and Men. Are they similar, or are they not? If there are
discrepancies, what is the reason?
Cross-cutting analysis. Diagnostic team compares responsibilities of husband and
wife between different sites (in the same country or between countries). Are
responsibilities of husband and wife the same across different sites within the
country? Or do they vary between sites and between ethnic groups? Are there
differences between Moslem and Christian areas? Are there any patterns? How
equal is the relative burden of husband and wife? Are there some sites where most
of the burden is on the wife and others where it is mainly on the husband?
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Responsibilities of Husband and Wife as Providers Synthesis of Six Sites
Ocua village,
Chiure District,
Mozambique
Feeding the family

Decide jointly on household expenses
Childrens schooling
Medical expenses
Control the money
Control the wife
Gives wife money to spend for an agreed purpose
Manrasse village,
Chiure District,
Mozambique
Food for family

Woman sells buys for household
Woman saves money gives money to husband to pay
childrens school fees
Women can go to Chiure to buy and sell without husband
(in this case the woman decides how to spend but must
buy something for her husband or give some money to him)
Men are responsible for everything else

- schooling
- medical expenses
Woman tells husband what foods they need he buys
in Chiure
25 Junho village,
Metuge District,
Mozambique
Feeding the family

- growing staple foods
- growing or buying condiments
- kitchen and HH utensils
- help husband with school fees, health care, clothing if
needed
In polygamous marriages, each wife is expected to feed her
own children
Both wives cook separate meals for the husband (husband
eats twice)
The husband is responsible for everything else:

- childrens schooling (including books and uniforms)
- family health care
- clothing for whole family (including wife and kids)
- big expenditures (bicycle, radio, furniture)
- fishing gear (if any)
Lunyerere village,
Mpigi District,
Uganda
Grow food for family

Look after children and husband
Work in market (selling produce)
School fees
Take care of home
Pay taxes
Medical care
Look for income
Look after cattle
House construction
Buy household necessities
Buy agricultural inputs
Buraru village,
Hoima District,
Uganda
Food for family

Childrens clothing
Own clothing
School fees
Tax
Husbands clothes
HH necessities: salt, soap, paraffin
Medical expenses
Build house
Entertain guests
Farm inputs
School uniform, exercise books
Bedding
Otorongole village,
Apac District,
Uganda
Feed her family

- grow staple food
- grow condiments
- buy salt, cooking oil
- buy utensils needed for meal preparation
Help husband with childrens schooling
Pay health care expenses for children and self
Buy much of childrens clothing
Buy some of own clothing
Pay tax
Pay school fees
Pay for school uniforms
Buy clothing for family
Buy blankets and bedding for family
Pay for hospital
Buy bicycle, radio, etc.
Build house for family
Entertain guests
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Use the information to improve understanding of the responsibilities of husband
and wife towards household expenditure. Compare responses with those coming
from the Main Expenditures of Women and Men module. The leaders module is
about what is expected of husband and wife in an ideal situation their moral
obligations. The Main Expenditures module is about actual expenditure patterns
not ideals. To what extent do actual expenditure patterns reflect the ideal?
Consider how commercialization of marketing is likely to affect womens and mens
ability to fulfil their responsibilities as providers. Are responsibilities of husband and
wife changing? If so, in which direction? Are women expected to contribute more
or less? What are the reasons for the change? If women have more income under
their personal control, are they expected to contribute more? If the income under
the husbands personal control increases at his wifes expense, is he expected to help
her meet her obligations?
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8. Gender Roles in Marketing Checklist for Womens and Mens Groups

Participants: 20 women and 20 men (in parallel in separate groups); preferably
ordinary women and men not exclusively members of farmer or womens groups.
Time required: 1/2 hour (longer if done as a full PRA exercise with a flip chart and
proportional piling of stones).
Linkages: with the Leaders Gender Roles in Marketing Module; household
interviews; and Access and Control Profile.
The gender roles in marketing checklist can either be done as a free-standing PRA,
with its own matrix copied onto a flip chart, or the diagnostic team can fill in the
questions on the checklist during a conversation with participants. The latter can be
faster when the team is under severe time pressure.
Getting Started. If the exercise is to be done as a full PRA, it is likely take a fairly
long time to copy all the questions onto the flip chart in the local language. The main
advantage of having it done on a flip chart is that the mens and womens answers to
the same question can be compared in the plenary session. It can also be compared
with the responses on the Gender Roles in Marketing module for village leaders.
Question
#1 Money Source for Villagers 1

enter name of crop or enterprise
Women
Men
#2 Money Source for Villagers 1

enter name of crop or enterprise
Women
Men
Who grows it?

Who harvests?
Who stores it?
Who decides when to sell?
Who decides how much to sell?
Who decides where to sell?
Who sells?
Who controls the income?
Who keeps the money?
Who decides what to buy with it?
Who spends the money?
Other questions (not requiring proportional piling to answer them)
Does the husband or wife show the
earnings to the spouse?
Where sold?
Distance
Means of transport
Transport cost
When (month)?
Frequency?
Who buys?
What is the price?
1
Distribute 10 points between women and men according to their share in the activity.
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Step 1 Participants to identify which are the two enterprises that bring the most
money to people in the village. Enter the name of the crop or enterprise at the head
of the column under #1 Money Source for Villagers and #2 Money Source for
Villagers.
Step 2 Start with the product identified as the villagers top income source. Take
10 stones and draw two circles on the ground one for women and one for men.
(Note this exercise is easier to do after the Access and Control Profile when the
principles of proportional piling are already familiar to the participants). Ask who
women or men grows the crop or looks after the animals. Have the participant
place the 10 stones in the circles according to the relative contribution of women
and men to production. Continue with the next questions: who harvests it? Who
stores it? (not relevant for livestock or handicrafts). Who decides when to sell, how
much to sell, where to sell? Who sells? Who keeps the money? Who controls the
income from the sale? Who decides on how to spend the money? Who spends? (If
time is short, the diagnostic team can save time by skipping the proportional piling
and simply ticking only women or only men or both women and men in the
appropriate box in the matrix).
Step 3 Ask the questions on the second half of the checklist for the first crop. Tell
villagers that the team is interested to know what usually happens not the
exceptions to the rule. Where is the crop usually sold? At what distance? What
means of transport do people use? How much does it cost per person and per bag
of produce? What time of year (month) do people sell? Who buys the product? (not
the name of buyer but the type of buyer cotton ginnery, coop, private trader,
consumer, etc.). What is the usual price in that market at that time of year?
Step 4 Repeat the process for the enterprise identified at the villages second most
important money source.
In the village in plenary session. Compare womens and mens responses to the
marketing checklist (more interesting if both women and men mentioned the same
two crops). Compare with the leaders responses to their own Gender Roles in
Marketing Module. If there are contradictions between the three replies, probe in
an effort to reconcile them. (The responses to the marketing checklist in the plenary
session can be omitted if there is a shortage of time).
Cross-cutting analysis. The Diagnostic Team members compare womens and
mens responses to the marketing checklist across sites. Are there similarities across
sites for the same crops or not? Do certain principles hold: does the person who sells
the crop usually control the income? Or is control of income independent of who
sells? How much information-sharing is there between spouses: does the one selling
show the earnings to the other? Does the one buying consult the other on how to
spend the money?
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Summary of Responses to the Marketing Checklist An Illustration

from Mozambique
Case Study Site....

Perspective....
Crop....
Metuge District (25 Junho village)

According to According to Men
Women
Beans, tomatoes
Rice
Who grows it?

Who harvests it?
Who stores it?
Who sells?
Does s/he show the earnings to spouse?
Who decides what to buy with the money?
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Yes
X
X
Cotton
Beans
Questions
X
X
Yes
Chiure District (Ocua village)

According to According to Men
Women
X
X
X
Yes
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Yes
X
X
Cotton
Sesame
X
X
X
X
X
X
Yes
X
X
M
X
X
X
X
X
X
Yes
X
X
Triangulation. Compare the responses to the marketing checklist with the

information coming from the household interviews on who decides when to sell,
how much to sell, where to sell, who sells, who controls the income and who decides
how to spend it. Is the pattern basically similar between the marketing checklist and
the household interviews or is it radically different? Cross-check whether the top
two money-earning enterprises mentioned by the women and men are the same as
those mentioned by the leaders as the ones that bring the most money. Cross-check
the information on means of transport to markets and transport costs with that
recorded on the Markets and Mobility Map and in the household interviews.
Use the findings jointly with information from other sources to assess how
agricultural commercialization is likely to affect the control of income by women and
men and their voice in decisions regarding expenditure.
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PART 2 STAKEHOLDER WORKSHOP TOOLS

Stakeholder Analysis - Dummy Table 1: Stakeholder Listing
113
Stakeholder Analysis - Dummy Table 2: Ranking by Impacts

and Influence
116
Stakeholder Analysis - Dummy Table 3: Plan for Stakeholder

Consultation
118
TOOLS FOR PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

AND PARTICIPATORY PLANNING
121
123
3. Using the Problem Analysis Matrix to Formulate Action Plans 127

4. Moving from Sub-Focal Area Planning to Focal Area Planning 129
5. SHEMPs Tool for Integrating a Gender Dimension in
Focal Area Planning
131
6. SHEMP Guidelines for Selection of Members of Focal Area

Resource Groups
133
135
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STAKEHOLDER WORKSHOP TOOLS

To assist in stakeholder analysis, a series of three linked tools have been developed 1.
They are generally used in small groups at a stakeholder workshop. Participants:
20-30 people (possibly subdivided into smaller working groups).
Getting Started. Copy Dummy Table 1 on a flip chart. Before deciding which
language to use for the table, consider whether some workshop participants might
prefer the local language to the governments official language.
Stakeholder Analysis Dummy Table 1: Stakeholder Listing
Stakeholder
Interests at stake
relative to the
project or
programme
Anticipated impact
on interests
(positive, neutral,
negative)
Importance of
stakeholder for
project outcomes
(high, medium,
low, none)
Influence of
stakeholder over
the project
(high, medium,
low, none)
Step 1 Participants brainstorm to list all stakeholders in the sector.

Step 2 Participants group the stakeholders by category: primary, secondary,
tertiary level, public versus private sector, etc (see the attached dummy tables). The
primary stakeholders are likely to require further differentiation by geographic
zone, farming system, gender and wealth. In the left column of the table, enter the
resulting list of stakeholders.
Stakeholder Analysis - Participatory Tools and Techniques: A Resource Kit for Participation and Social Assessment,
Module II. Compiled by Jennifer Rietbergen-McCracken and Deepa Narayan, Social Policy and Resettlement
Division, Environment Department, World Bank, 1997.
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Illustration: Grouping of Zambia Stakeholders
Stakeholder
Interests at stake
relative to the
project or
programme
Anticipated
impact on
interests
High/low
Primary stakeholders
Village leaders
Ordinary households
Poor farmers
Women farmers
Negatively affected HHs
Secondary stakeholders
Local input suppliers
Local output buyers
Local agri-business
Local NGOs
MOA frontline staff
Implementing NGOs
District local government
FARG members
Sub-FARG members
Tertiary stakeholders
MoA (central)
MoA (district)
PCO team
Service providers
Agribusiness (national)
Input suppliers (national)
Output buyers (national)
Borrower (MOF)
Cooperating institution
Cofinancier
IFAD
Other donors
Other NGOs
Agric. consultative forum
Private contractors
114
+/-
Importance of
stakeholder for
project outcomes
(high, medium,
low, none)
Influence of
stakeholder over
the project
(high, medium,
low, none)
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Step 3 In the second column, identify what interests are at stake, for each of the
stakeholders listed in the left-hand column.
Step 4 In the central column, identify whether the effect of the project on these
interests is likely to be positive, negative or neutral. For instance, in the privatisation
process, a state-owned processing company might be the loser and a foreign multinational corporation the winner.
Step 5 In the fourth column, indicate how important the stakeholders response
is for the achievement of programme objectives. For instance, if government policy
is to diversify out of maize into high-value export crops, and maize is grown
primarily by smallholders, the response of small farmers to policy reform and
economic incentives is crucial for its attainment.
Step 6 In the right-hand column, indicate the stakeholders degree of influence
over agricultural sector programmes. Despite their importance for the achievement
of sectoral goals, smallholders may lack the political power to influence government
decisions affecting them. Some of the other players in the sector may have an
influence that is disproportionate with their importance.
Analysis and Uses
The analytical grid can be used to identify: (a) which stakeholders are most
important for the project; (b) which are most able to make their voice heard and (c)
which important stakeholders are likely to be bypassed unless special efforts are
made to consult them. As a basis for identifying which categories of stakeholders are
important for the project, the following questions should be asked:
What issues are at stake for this category of stakeholder?
How important is marketing of agricultural inputs and outputs for the

stakeholders livelihood?
How important is this stakeholder for the success of the project?
How much influence does this stakeholder have over the project?
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Stakeholder Analysis Dummy Table 2: Ranking by Impacts and Influence

Getting Started. Copy the dummy table on a flip chart and hang it up or lay it out
on a table or the floor as a grid. Do not place it over the previous table as the group
will need to refer to it. Write the names of each stakeholder from the previous
exercise on a coloured card one card per stakeholder. Primary stakeholders could
be assigned cards of one colour, secondary stakeholders a second colour and tertiary
stakeholders a different colour.
Project Impact
Impact high positive
Influence High
Stakeholders Influence
Influence Medium
Influence Low
No Influence
(enter names of key

stakeholders in the
appropriate box
crossing influence with
impact)
Impact low positive

Impact low negative
Impact high negative
Impact negligible
Step 1 Based on the previous exercise, sort the stakeholders into boxes on the grid
according to the projects anticipated impact (high/low positive/negative) on their
interests at stake and the degree of influence over the project. (Simply make a pile
of cards that belong in the same box, piling one on top of the other).
Step 2 Transfer the names on the cards into the boxes on the sheet of paper.
Identify all the stakeholders that are likely to be negatively affected by the project,
starting with row four (high negative impact). How many stakeholders are there in
this category? How do these stakeholders rate on their influence over the project?
How many stakeholders are in row four right-hand column (high negative impact
no influence)? How many people (or households) fall into this category? (Often
there are many more people in the weaker stakeholder categories than in the
stronger ones. For instance, five million poor smallholders negatively affected
compared with five private companies positively affected).
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Do the same with the third row (low negative impact). How many stakeholders are
likely to experience a slight negative impact on their interests. How many people (or
households) fall into this category? How do these stakeholders fare on influence
over the project? Are they able to make their opinions known to project designers
and managers?
Skip to row one (high positive impact). How many stakeholders are in the category?
How many people do they represent? Which of these stakeholders have high
influence over project-related decisions and which have lower influence? Do all
the stakeholders who are important for the project (previous exercise) have an
influence?
Go on to row two (expected impact positive but modest). How many stakeholders
are in this category and how many people do they represent? Which of these
stakeholders have high or low influence? How important are they for project
outcomes?
Finish with row five (expected impact negligible). How many stakeholders are in this
category and how many people do they represent? What level of influence do most
of them have? Do some stakeholders who are scarcely affected by the programme
have a disproportionate influence over project decision-making? What about the
stakeholders who have little or no influence but are hardly affected? Is there any
need to involve them?
The matrix can be used to identify which stakeholders are most vulnerable to being
harmed by the project and how many people they represent relative to others
likely to benefit. Does the number of potential losers exceed the number of
winners?
The matrix is also useful for identifying which stakeholders have a disproportionate
amount of influence relative to the interests at stake.
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Stakeholder Analysis - Dummy Table 3: Plan for Stakeholder Consultation

Getting Started. Copy the table onto a flip chart and enter the list of stakeholders
from the previous exercises. Feel free to omit the stakeholders who were discarded on
the previous exercise as fairly irrelevant to the project (impact negligible and
influence nil). The list need not be as long as the one presented by way of illustration.
Stakeholder
Primary stakeholders
Village leaders
Ordinary households
Poor farmers
Women farmers
Negatively affected HHs
Secondary stakeholders
Local input suppliers
Local output buyers
Local agri-business
Local NGOs
MOA frontline staff
Implementing NGOs
District local government
FARG members
Sub-FARG members
Tertiary stakeholders
MoA (central)
MoA (district)
PCO team
Service providers
Agribusiness (national)
Input suppliers (national)
Output buyers (national)
Borrower (MOF)
Cooperating institution
Cofinancier
IFAD
Other donors
Other NGOs
Agric. consultative forum
Private contractors (roads)
118
How to be
Consulted
Interview
Methods to be used
Workshop
PRA
When to be
Consulted
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Step 1 Start with the stakeholders on which the project is expected to have a
negative impact, especially those with little or no influence over the project (row four
on the previous exercise right-hand column). These are the highly vulnerable
stakeholders who should receive first priority for consultation. Specify: (a) how will
they be consulted and by whom (enter in column two))? (b) What methods are to be
used (Interviews? Workshops? Village PRAs? tick the appropriate box in columns
three to five). Finally, state (c) When are they to be consulted? (Right-hand column).
Go on to the next stakeholder likely to be negatively affected, and repeat the same
exercise. Continue until all stakeholders in row four (high negative impact) have
been dealt with.
Continue with stakeholders in row three of the previous exercise (low negative
impact). For each, specify how they are to be contacted, what methods are to be used
and when they are to be contacted.
Next go to the stakeholders who were classified in rows one and two on the previous
exercise (can expect either a high positive impact or a low positive impact). Sort
them into two piles. Which are the stakeholders in these two categories who have
little or no influence over the project? And which are those that have moderate to
high influence? How many people are in the former category?
Take those with positive impact but low influence. Sort them into two further piles
according to their degree of importance for achievement of project goals. These are
stakeholders who are crucial for project success but whose point of view might not
be heard unless special efforts are made to consult them. How will the project
consult them? What methods will it use and when will it be done?
Examine the second pile of cards. These are the stakeholders who are not very
important for project success and not very influential, and on whom impacts are
likely to be positive. Reflect. Should the project consult them or not? Will it be time
and cost effective to do so? If so, how does the project plan to consult them? What
methods will be used? When will the consultation take place?
Go to the stakeholders who were rated as highly influential for project decisionmaking, and whose interests will either be positively affected or not affected at all.
Sort them into two piles according to their importance for project success. In the
first pile, put those who are highly important for project success and highly
influential. These are the gatekeepers. Gatekeepers always need to be consulted and
kept abreast of new developments. Specify how they are to be consulted with what
methods and when.
Finally, consider those who are not important for project success, and whose
interests are little affected by the project (row five impact negligible), even though
they may be highly influential. Consider whether they need to be consulted or they
simply need to be kept informed. Perhaps they could be reached by other media
(radio, printed messages, etc.).
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Re-examine the entire list of stakeholders who are to be consulted. Are they too
many for the project to handle? Which ones is it crucially important to consult?
Which if any could be dropped or consulted jointly with other stakeholders?
The most important stakeholders for the project to consult are those who are likely
to be negatively affected especially those with little influence. The second most
important category of stakeholders to consult are those who are important for
project success but have little or no influence project-related over decision-making.
These are the very categories of stakeholders that are usually neglected by project
planners and implementers.
Stakeholder analysis allows projects to counteract possible biases in the consultative
process. In the absence of a structured stakeholder analysis of the type proposed,
most projects are likely to limit consultation to the people with high importance and
high project influence i.e. the gatekeepers. Some projects will also make an effort
to consult a sub-sample of the presumed beneficiaries (those on whom the project
expects to have a positive impact).
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TOOLS FOR PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION AND

PARTICIPATORY PLANNING
This section outlines how a moderator may guide participants on how to identify
main problems, effects and causes, using the Problem Tree technique.
In the first step, the moderator gives tips on how to identify the main problem or
key issue. The key issue, say in marketing, may be described as one that:
is unacceptable
is unjust/unfair
is unsatisfactory
affects people concerned
calls for peoples action
is specific
can be unpacked: i.e. broken into sub-problems, causes and effects.
Once the key issue has been identified, its causes and effects can be analyzed using
the Problem Tree. The Problem Tree is presented in Figure 1 below showing the
key issue, its causes and the effects.
Figure 1: Illustration of the Problem Tree
B RANCHES (effects of the key issue)
TRUNK (key issue)
ROOTS
(underlying causes
of the key issue)
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The tree trunk represents a key issue. The roots of the tree represent underlying
causes to the key issue seen in the tree trunk. The leaves and branches represent the
effects of the key issue.
Identifying Key Issues
To stimulate discussion and participation, the participants are divided into groups.
At this point the following should be considered;
The size of the group: sizes of six to 10 persons are considered suitable in order
to allow free discussion;
Primary stakeholders (farmers) should be put into groups according to the

geographic areas they represent (e.g. according to agricultural blocks) so that all
areas are covered;
Secondary stakeholders (agribusiness operators) may have a separate group/or

groups so that they discuss issues of common interest;
Institutions that regulate or facilitate linkages between farmers and agribusiness

operators (e.g. representatives from MoA, NGOs, district councils and
development programmes) are distributed across any of the groups above.
Assigning Tasks to Groups

The groups are assigned the following tasks using the problem tree concept as they
proceed to identify the issues using cards and flip charts:
List the problems being faced in their area.
Choose a maximum of three problems that are considered to be key issues.
What are the effects of each issue?
What are the causes of each key issue?
After this exercise groups present their completed problem trees in the plenary
session through a member nominated by the group. Participants from other groups
are given the opportunity to ask for clarifications and comment on the
presentations. Women are encouraged to present the group findings as a way of
drawing them into participation.
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Why do We Need a Problem Matrix? The purpose of doing a problem analysis is
to find practical solutions to problems. Problem trees are a good starting tool for
problem analysis because they help participants to identify chains of causes and
effects. By unpacking a bigger issue i.e. breaking it down into smaller, more
manageable sub-problems this can make a problem easier to solve. Nonetheless,
problem trees tend to have one serious drawback when they are used as a basis for
planning interventions to address the root causes of the problem: they often lead
participants to focus on unrealistic solutions ones that depend entirely on outside
resources and intervention for their solution. As such they tend to generate vague
wish lists that are not very helpful for project planning.
Causal Flow Chart: Marketing Problems and Womens Needs 1
No markets
No transport
money
Lack of
transport
No chigayo
(grinding mill)
Traders cheat
about prices
Low prices
Lack of bags
for the grains
MARKETING
PROBLEMS
No
storage
WOMENS NEEDS
Contact
ZAMSIF
Clubs own
transport -(truck)
Give us
grant/loan
Drawn by:
No Sweat No Sweet
Womens Club
Nyirenda Farm
CHIBOMBO
Bad feeder
roads
Long Distance
to inputs
Shed
A place to buy
thats nearby
Club selling inputs

and outputs
Key:
Marketing Problems
Womens Needs/Solutions
Source: Possible Initiatives for the Female-focused Market Linkages, Mabel C. Milo, Gender Studies Department,
University of Zambia, 4 September 2001.
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Limitations of Problem Trees. As illustrated by the problem tree (above): for each
problem, the solutions proposed tend to be wishful thinking. They all depend on
government giving the villagers something (for free) for their solution. This type of
solution tends to encourage passive dependency on Government to solve all the
villagers problems. The solutions proposed are not self-reliant or sustainable and
they do not encourage local initiative.
Problem
Solution
Low prices
Give us a grant, give us a truck and a shed and we will be able to get higher prices
Traders cheat us
No markets
The project should build us a crop storage shed
No storage, no storage bags

No transport
No money for transport
Give us grants or loans; give us our own truck
Bad feeder roads
Government should repair the road
Long distance to inputs
Club selling inputs and outputs
No grain mill
Give us a grain mill (as a grant)
The Problem Analysis Matrix (below) is an alternative way of getting participants to

focus on down-to-earth coping mechanisms and solutions that are within the reach
of ordinary people. It puts the participants in the drivers seat by asking them: how
do you cope currently? Are these coping strategies addressing the root causes of the
problem or only the effects? Is there any way that local people could address the
root causes of the problem? How could they do this on their own initiative, relying
as much as possible on locally available resources? (The Problem Analysis Matrix is
almost identical to the PRA Problem Analysis tool the only difference being the
addition of a column to accommodate the effects of problems identified in the
problem tree exercise).
Getting Started. Copy the matrix onto a flip chart. Enter the core problems from
the problem tree (tree truck = a core problem). Enter the causes of each problem
in the second column (the roots of the problem tree). Enter the effects of each
problem in the middle column (the branches of the problem tree).
Step 1 Coping Mechanisms. For the first problem, have the group recorder read
out the causes of the problem and its effects. Ensure that all participants are in
agreement about these factors. Next ask participants what local people do to cope
with the problem. For instance, if the problem is availability and high cost of
transporting their goods to market, do farmers cope by hiring transport or by taking
their products by bicycle? Or do they mobilize the whole family to headload the
goods to town? Enter the coping mechanisms for the first problem into the
appropriate cell in the matrix.
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Step 2 Self-reliant and Feasible Solutions. Ask the participants which root causes
of the problem can local people address? How can local people contribute to solving
the problem? Is there anything local people can do to build on existing coping
strategies? What action can people take (singly or collectively)? Enter possible ways
of solving the problem preferably not just one solution but a couple of alternatives
into the appropriate box in column five of the matrix.
Problem
Causes of
Problem
Effects of
Problem
Coping
Strategies
How Can Local

People Solve It
1.
2.
3.
4.
The information on problems and possible self-reliant solutions should be the
starting point for planning project interventions. Planning could take place either
at the level of the Focal Area or Sub-Focal Area or at the level of individual
communities benefiting from enterprise group formation.
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3. Using the Problem Analysis Matrix to Formulate Action Plans

The workshop planning tool used by SHEMP in Zambia calls for participants to
specify the following for each issue or action area: what strategy should the project
adopt to address it, what action it should be taken, by whom, and who else should
the project involve? However, this way of looking at things tends to encourage
communities to think in terms outside agencies taking all the action to solve the
problems.
Issues & Entry

Points
Strategies
Means
(Courses of Action)
Who will
implement?
Who else to
involve?
Bad feeder road
Repair road
Culvert
ZAMSIP
SHEMP, LG
Low prices
Store crops and

sell when price rises
Build storage shed
Govt (SHEMP)
outsource to private
contractor
Local Govt
Using an additional set of headings on the matrix, there is greater attention to selfreliant and long-lasting solutions to problems. Market linkage projects, such as
SHEMP and PAMA, are not intended to be community development programmes,
and therefore the modality of project contribution might well differ from those of a
community development project. Instead of providing cement and skilled labour
for culverts, they may outsource road rehabilitation to a private contractor. Or
instead of supplying iron sheets for the roof of a produce shed, they may only
provide the services of an enterprise group facilitator and capacity building in
business-related skills.
Problem
How could the

locals solve it?
Bad feeder road
Mobilise labour to
repair road
Low prices
Form a group, bulk

produce, hire transport
to town, sell jointly
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4. Moving from Sub-Focal Area Planning to Focal Area Planning 1
The purpose of the Focal Area workshop used by SHEMP in Zambia is to allow the sharing of experiences
from sub-Focal Areas and to coordinate issues into a common strategy. It is in this workshop where an
outline of the Focal Area strategy and action plan is formulated.
Breaking up Participants into Groups
At the main focal area workshop, there are at least 40 participants. Most of the
participants are identified during the sub-focal area workshops. They are divided
into five or more groups, depending on the number, with each group drawing
members from each sub-focal area.
Assigning Tasks to Groups
The groups are assigned tasks for discussion as follows:
Tasks for Groups One and Two:
Look at all the Key Issues presented from the Sub-area workshops, find common
elements in the Key Issues and collapse them (reduce if necessary) and construct
new problem trees.
For the new/refined Key Issue, identify the causes but do not spend too much time
on the effects.
Tasks for Groups Three, Four, Five and Six:

Look at the entry points and see if some of them can be combined or split into
more entry points.
Look at the strategies for that entry point and bring them together.
Prioritise the strategies for each entry point.
Match the strategies to the activities in the SHEMP menu.
At the conclusion of group discussions, representatives from each group present

what was discussed in a plenary. Questions, comments and additions are allowed
from all workshop participants.
Identifying Intervention Strategies
For participants to identify marketing intervention strategies, they are referred to
the problem trees. It is from the problem trees that they select focal points (or entry
points), that are derived from roots/causes in the problem tree. It is explained that
a focal point should be:
a cause which when tackled can have maximum impact in resolving the problem;
easy to change;
something that is doable and not like natural calamities and other causes which
are unchangeable;
one for which resources will be available. Resources are not only viewed in terms
of money but include human resources;
is supported by other members of the community.
This section was adapted from the SHEMP Focal Area Planning Process (FAPP) Manual
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Identification of Intervention Strategies at Sub-Focal Area Level

Upon identification of the entry points, participants return to their respective
groups. For each entry point identified earlier, they are to discuss:
suitable interventions;
the means (specific courses of action);
who would be responsible for implementing the intervention?
with whom would the implementer need to collaborate during the intervention
A table such as the one below is generated by each group and presented to other
participants in a plenary.
Entry Points
Strategies
Means
(Courses of Action)
Who will
implement?
Who else to
involve?
This process is followed in both the sub-area and main focal area workshops.
Identification of Intervention Strategies at Focal Area Level
Going back into groups, the participants are required to look at the collapsed list of
entry points and come up with intervention concepts. The following questions are
to be answered:
Which problems do we want to address?
For what purpose do we want to solve this problem?
What type of action do we need to take?
The groups are asked to present the elements of interventions as follows:
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Overall goal
Problem statement
Intervention Objectives
Target Group(s)
Implementation Strategy
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5. SHEMPs Tool for Integrating a Gender Dimension

in Focal Area Planning
In order to illustrate and establish the gender dimension of issues, participants are
divided into four groups. Two groups are for men while the other two consist of
women. Then they are given tasks to enable them to analyze issues of gender as they
relate to crop and livestock marketing using cards and flip charts. Tasks are assigned
to the groups as follows (as per the FAPP manual):
Group One Task (men crop issues)
1. Pick one crop that is dominated by men in this District.
2. What input marketing problems are faced in relation to this crop?
3. What output marketing problems are faced in relation to this crop?
Group Two Task (women crop issues)
1. Pick one crop that is dominated by women in this District.
2. What input marketing problems are faced in relation to this crop?
3. What output marketing problems are faced in relation to this crop?
Group Three Task (men livestock issues)
1. Pick one type of livestock that is dominated by men in this District.
2. What input marketing problems are faced in relation to this livestock species?
3. What output marketing problems are faced in relation to this livestock species?
Group Four Task (women livestock issues)
1. Pick one type of livestock that is dominated by women in this District.
2. What input marketing problems are faced in relation to raising this livestock?
3. What output marketing problems are faced in relation to this livestock?
At the conclusion of group discussions, representatives from each group present

what was discussed in a plenary. Then questions, comments and additions are
allowed from the all workshop participants.
How to Use the Tool
This exercise separates men and women FARG representatives and allows the
women to do a problem analysis for womens crops and enterprises and the men to
do a problem analysis for mens crops and enterprises.
The exercise presupposes that there are some commodities dominated by women,
both in the crop and livestock sphere. This may be a mistaken assumption for some
localities (such as northern Mozambique). Key questions to ask are: who women
or men controls the income from the sale of these crops and animals? How is the
project likely to affect gender roles in marketing the commodities? How will changes
in marketing affect control of income?
Currently, the main limitation of the exercise is that it is free-standing. The
conclusions that come out of the plenary do not feed into the Focal Area Planning
Process the way the problem tree exercises do. It would be desirable to feed the
problems identified by the four groups into a problem matrix and to link the
Problem Analysis Matrix to an Action Plan.
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6. SHEMP Guidelines for Selection of Members of

Focal Area Resource Groups
The selection process outlined in the SHEMP Focal Area Planning Process is
reproduced in the Sourcebook as an example of good practice. The process is
democratic and ensures the desired balance between interest groups i.e. farmers,
traders and other market players and between women and men.
The processes and criteria for selecting area representatives at sub-Focal Area and
Focal Area levels are similar and involve two steps. First, the criteria for selecting the
representatives are outlined by the Programme Coordinator. Then members are
elected on the basis of the stipulated criteria. The process starts from the bottom
the sub-Focal Area Resource Group (FARG) level and works upward to the FARG
level.
Selection Criteria for sub-FARG/FARG members
Guidelines are presented to the participants on how to choose their representatives.
The eligibility of a participant to represent others in the area depends on the
following:
be seen to be committed to development issues in the area;
possess intimate knowledge of issues affecting their area;
be able to work with those being represented;
be good communicators (in any language), able to present views from their area,
as well as to relay information from workshops back to their area; and
be full-time in the capacity under which he/she has been invited (full-time farmer,
trader).
Sub-FARG Group Composition

Composition of the group (e.g. six persons) to be elected at the sub-Focal Area level
should be as follows:
male-female composition consisting of at least 30 percent of those selected to be

female; though 50 percent females is preferable.
Interest group representation of one NGO, four farmers and one agribusiness.
Farmer representatives to be geographically spread (e.g. from key agricultural

blocks).
Focal Area Group Composition

The composition of the group (of 16 persons) to be elected at the Focal Area level
should be as follows:
male-female composition: at least 30 per cent female (although 50 percent

representation of female would be preferable).
interest group representation of:
10 farmers (two from each sub-area),
two NGOs and
four in agribusiness (two out-growers and two traders of either inputs or products).
representatives are to be geographically spread (from all sub-Focal Areas as

outlined in the figure below).
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Area 1
Area 2
Area 3
Area 4
Area 5
Focal Area Workshop will elect

the FARG
Nomination and Election of Sub-FARG and FARG members
Ensuring gender and interest group balance at sub-focal area level:
Guided by the criteria above, the following procedure, in sequence, is
recommended by SHEMP for nomination of Sub-FARG members (because it
ensures adequate gender balance and better representation of interest groups).
participants are first asked to nominate three women farmers;
each of the nominees is given an opportunity to say something about their

commitment to the sub-FARG if elected;
voting takes place while the nominees are asked to leave the room; and
the two women nominees with highest votes are adopted as Sub-FARG members.
The same procedure is carried out to nominate two male farmers. Then elections
are carried in the similar a manner for NGOs and agribusiness representatives.
Ensuring gender and interest group balance at focal area level:
The procedure for nominating members of the FARG differs from that adopted at
sub-Focal Area level. The following procedures are adopted:
first, it is agreed that farmers from a given Sub-Focal Area elect two
representatives, consisting of a man and a woman;
second, election of representatives from NGOs is carried out in the plenary and
the two with the highest votes are adopted; and
third, agribusiness operators are elected using the same procedure as that applied
for electing NGO representatives.
NGOs that intend to bid to provide services to the programme are not eligible for
election to the FARG membership.
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The NAADS programme in Uganda calls for Sub-county Farmers Forums to select
three priority enterprises for future agricultural commercialization. As the case
studies pointed out, it is important that enterprise selection reflects the priorities of
both women and men, as well as poor and less poor households. The enterprise
ranking tool developed for the Participatory Gender and Market Linkages Diagnostic
can also be used as a workshop tool to structure the prioritisation process.
Product
.

Importance Brings the
Easiest to
for village most money
sell
Reasons
Step 1 First participants make a list of the most important products that are
produced and sold in the sub-county. These are entered in the left-hand column of
the matrix, in the order that farmers mention them. At least 10 but no more than
20 products should be mentioned.
Step 2 Participants rank the products in order of their overall importance for the
area, considering both food and cash earnings. Which is first in importance? Enter
a 1 in the column under the crop most important to women. Which is second and
so on until all have been ranked.
Step 3 Participants rank the products in order of priority according to which
brings the most money (volume sold x price = total value).
Step 4 Participants rank the products in order of which are easiest to sell,
identifying reasons why some commodities are difficult to sell.
Integrating a Gender and Poverty Focus
After completing the matrix above, before deciding on which enterprises to select,
participants rank commodities in order of their importance for women versus men,
and for poor households versus less poor. Then they select a final priority that takes
into account the priorities of all members of the community: women and men, poor
and less poor.
Commodity or
Enterprise
Importance
Women
Men
Poor HH
Final Priority
Less Poor
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PART 3 GENDER AND POVERTY SENSITIVE M&E

139
1. Change Matrix - Before/After and Without and

With Project Comparisons
141
2. Before/After or Without and With Project

Wealth Ranking
145

1. SWOT Analysis
151
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GENDER AND POVERTY SENSITIVE M&E
The first two tools Change Matrix and With and Without Project Wealth Ranking
are examples of gender and poverty sensitive impact assessment. The third tool
SWOT Analysis is an example of a tool for annual stakeholder evaluation workshops.

Site Sampling Principles. Broad categories of sites should be purposively selected
to illustrate the range of situations found in the project area. Then within each
category, sites should be selected at random bearing in mind the need to cluster
sites to economize on time and travel.
Illustration. In the case below, from the rapid impact assessment of an IFAD project
along the Gambia River in West Africa, the impact assessment team used quota
sampling to select 11 impact assessment sites. The selection was done by crossing
five parameters: (a) administrative division (at least one and preferably two sites each
of the six administrative divisions); (b) swamp ecology (at least one and preferably two
sites for each swamp ecology); (c) type of project intervention (at least one and
preferably two to three cases of each type of intervention); (d) ethnicity (at least one
of each of the countrys four main ethnic groups, with a predominance of Mandinkas
who are the main swamp rice-growers); and (e) most sites with at least two to three
years cropping experience since project intervention but at least one site still partly
under construction.
Site Sampling An Illustration from the Gambia River, West Africa
Village
Division
Rice Ecology
Ethnicity
1. Ndemban Jola
2. Jataba
3. Mamasutu
WD
LRD
URD
Wulumbango
Bantafaro
Backswamp
Jola
Jola
Fula
4. Kossemar
URD
Backswamp
Mandinka/Fula
Backswamp
Freshwater tidal
Freshwater tidal
Freshwater tidal
Seasonally saline tidal
Bantafaro + seasonally saline tidal
Bantafaro
5 rice ecologies
Mandinka
Wolof
Mandinka
Mandinka
Mandinka
Mandinka
Mandinka
4 ethnic groups
5. Kaba Kama
6. Baati Hai
7. Sitakoto
8. Kudang
9. Pakalinding
10. Alkali Kunda
11. Kinteh Kunda
Total 11 sites
URD
CRD-N
CRD-N
CRD-S
LRD
NBD
NBD
6 Div.
LADEP Intervention
Water retention dikes
Anti-salt dike
Water retention dikes +
access bridge
Water retention + access
bridge + drainage canal
Water retention dikes
Tidal swamp access
Tidal swamp access
Tidal swamp access
Tidal swamp access
Water retention + tidal access
Water retention dike
5 types of intervention
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A corresponding site sampling system has yet to be worked out for the IFAD market
linkage projects. It should likely be based on quota sampling and involve crossing of
some of the following variables: (a) agro-ecological zone/farming system; (b) type of
market environment (proximity to a major city, road access, main commodity);
(c) ethnic/cultural context (Christian/Moslem, matrilineal/patrilineal, uxorilocal/
virilocal 1) and type of project intervention, as follows.
At least two sites from each of the main agro-ecological zones and farming systems
covered by the project;
At least two peri-urban sites, two sites with less good market access and two sites
with a smallholder outgrower scheme;
At least one and preferable two sites from each of the main ethnic groups;
At least two sites with each of the main types of project interventions preferably
served by different NGO service providers.
Factors to Consider in Selecting PRA Tools

Depending on the time available, each rapid impact assessment site can be visited
for one to three days. The shorter the visit, the larger the team needs to be, to enable
some team members to conduct interviews with local market players and service
providers in parallel with the village PRAs conducted by other team members.
Village
1 Day Module
2-Day Module
3-Day Module
Day 1
Village PRAs (morning) and

HH interviews (afternoon)
Village PRAs
Before/after site map 2
Change matrix
Before/after wealth ranking
Access and control profile
(before/after)
(before/after)
Stakeholder meetings:
courtesy calls
government staff
local market players
service providers
Day 2
(Repeat PRA in 2nd village)
Household interviews
PRAs
Day 3
(Repeat PRA in 3rd village)
Data analysis and travel to next

site; courtesy calls
Household interviews
Advance Preparation for the Rapid Impact Assessment

Team composition and briefing and preparations for the village PRAs are similar to
those outlined for gender and market linkage diagnostic studies in Part I of this
Toolkit (see pages 9-17 for details).
140
Uxorilocal = upon marriage, husband moves to wifes village; virilocal = wife moves to husbands village.
Optional useful mainly for physical interventions such as access roads.
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1. Change Matrix - Before/After and Without and With Project

Comparisons 1
Participants: to be done in the village in two separate groups, one of 20 women and
the other of 20 men. Time required: 1 hour. Linkages: without project and with
project wealth ranking.
Getting started. Lay out the table below on a flip chart, in the local language.
Collect locally-available materials such as stones to be used for proportional piling.
Each group will need 20 stones, divided into two piles of 10 stones each. Draw two
big circles on the ground or on a second page of flip chart paper. Mark one circle
with the year that the project started (such as 2000). Write the current year (eg
2002) above the second circle.
Before/
without
project
Item
After
(or with
project)
Reason for change
Did the project cause

the change?
(yes/no)
Access to input markets

Access to output markets
Access to market information
Selling prices obtained
Production for market
Sales volume
Profit
Income under womens control
Income under mens control
Income stability
Assets owned by women
Assets owned by men
Womens workload
Mens workload
Enterprise skills of women
Enterprise skills of men
Problem solving capacity of women
Problem solving capacity of men
Use "before/after" comparisons based on recall for sites benefiting from project interventions; in addition, make
"without" and "with project" comparisons between villages or sections of the village that got an intervention
and others that did not.
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Step 1 Start with the first item on the list access to input markets. Start by asking
villagers what if any inputs are used by the majority of smallholders. Agree what
input the villagers will use to measure impact (improved seeds? fertilizer?). Suppose
that the group decides that improved seeds are the most relevant. Ask for a
volunteer. Hand 10 stones to the participant who volunteers. How good was womens
villagers access to inputs at the time when the project started? Ask him or her to give
women a score from 1-10, by placing stones into the circle for the year the project
started e.g. 2000. If access was very good and all farmers could get all the inputs
they need put 10 stones in the circle. If access was very poor, drop only
one stone into the circle and put the others on the ground outside it. Leave the
others in the circle so that participants can all see them. Ask whether villagers agree
or not. If there is disagreement, invite someone else to change the number of stones
inside and outside the circle until the assessment is correct. Then count the number
of stones in the circle and record the number on the flip chart.
Step 2 Distribute the second set of 10 stones to the same participant. How much
better (or worse) is access to inputs today? If it is very good, he/she might put all
10 stones in the circle. If it is only medium, maybe five stones would be the right
number. If the participant gave the without project situation only two stones, and
access is twice as good today, maybe s/he could consider putting four stones in the
circle. After discussion with the rest of the group, count the number of stones in the
circle and record on the flip chart.
Step 3 Compare the number of stones in the two circles representing the without
project and the with project situation. Which is more? Has the use of inputs
increased or decreased? What is the reason for the increase or decrease? (Record
the reason on the flip chart). If there was an increase, was it due to the project? Or
was it due to some other reason? If there was a decrease was it due to the project
or was it due to something else? Record the answer (yes/no) on the flip chart.
Step 4 Repeat the exercise for each item on the list, such as access to output
markets, prices, production, sales and profits. How has the project affected income
under womens control? Income under mens control?
Step 5 Invite participants to suggest other parameters that might have changed as
a result of the project. For instance, villagers might propose to add household food
availability to the list. Has family food supply gone up or down? Was the project
responsible? Has the money spent by men on alcohol and women gone up or down?
Is the project to blame?
In the Womens and Mens Groups before Plenary. Villagers look at the pattern
shown on the flip chart. Which changes have been positive and which have been
negative? On the whole, are there more positive than negative changes? Which
changes are perceived to be due to the project and which are due to outside factors?
How has the income under womens and mens control changed? How has asset
ownership changed? How has the workload changed? How has problem-solving
capacity changed? Who has benefited more (women or men)? Why have women
benefited more than men or vice versa?
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In the Village in Plenary Session. Women present their assessment of how the
project has affected access to input markets, access to output markets, producer
prices, volume of sales and income under womens and mens control. Then men
present their version of the same thing. Compare womens and mens rankings. Are
they the same or are they different? Where do the main differences lie? What is the
reason for the differences?
Cross-cutting Analysis. Impact assessment team members compare responses
across sites. Is the perceived impact of the project in this site similar to that of other
sites in the same country or is it different? What are the main differences? What is
the reason for the differences?
The findings can be used to assess: (a) whether access to input and output markets
has improved and whether villagers attribute it to the project; (b) whether producer
prices have increased or not and for what reason; (c) whether production, sales and
profits have increased; (d) whether income under womens and mens control has
increased or decreased and whether the project caused the change; (e) whether
womens and mens assets increased and whether it was due to the project; and
(f) whether womens and mens business skills and problem solving capacity
improved.
If project management discovers that the income under womens control decreased
as a result of the project, it might want to take corrective action. If mens access to
market and the income under their control has improved much more than women,
it might consider launching womens enterprise groups, as an alternative to mixed
sex groups, to increase womens participation and benefit.
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2. Before/After or Without and With Project Wealth Ranking

Participants: This exercise is part of an ad-hoc participatory impact assessment, to
be carried out with village leaders in a sample of sites where the market linkage
project is active. The size of the village sampled should have 50-100 households (not
more than 100 or it becomes too difficult to carry out the wealth ranking and
associated card sorting and requires too much travel time between compounds for
Time required: 1/2 hour to prepare the wealth ranking cards. 1 hour to do the
wealth ranking. 1/2 hour for analysis and discussion. The version with card sorting
is best done by village leaders. If evaluators wish to get broader beneficiary
participation and to capture the separate perspectives of women and men, a simpler
version of the wealth ranking can also be done in parallel by a group of 15-20
women and 15-20 men to get percentages using proportional piling.
Getting Started. Follow the same procedures as for the wealth ranking outlined
under PRA tools for Gender and Market Linkage diagnostic studies. On the day
preceding the PRA, request the village secretary to prepare and bring a full list of
all households in the village. Working from the list, write the name of each
household head on a separate card (or a slip of paper). Identify the female-headed
households by writing a F or a female symbol on the card.
Before copying the matrix onto a flip chart, ask villagers how many wealth categories
there are in the village? Agree on whether there are only two, or three, or four, or
even five categories, and on what to call each of them. What is the most appropriate
term for the upper stratum: are they rich or better-off or above average or
non-poor or merely less poor? Write the agreed terms in the local language.
Before/After Project Wealth Ranking
Less poor
(Category A)
Middle poor
(Category B)
Poor
(Category AC
Characteristics
Now
Before
Now
Before
Now
Before
Number of HHs
Number of FHHs
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Step 1 The facilitator asks villagers to describe characteristics of an average

household in the village. What kind of house, how much land, how many animals
and what other assets would it own? What about personal characteristics (such as
family size, health status, labour force, education)? Is the average household
middle or is it poor? Enter their characteristics on the flip chart under the
appropriate column (category B or C, depending on what is considered to be
average).
Step 2 Villagers describe the characteristics of a typical less poor household:
How do people recognize the less poor? What does their house look like? What do
they own? What are their personal characteristics (how many wives? how many
dependants)? How do they dress? What level of schooling do their children have?
Enter their characteristics in the space on the matrix under Category A.
Step 3 If the average household is poor, ask villagers whether there is a
middle category between them and those who are non-poor. If so, identify what
characterises this middle category. What sets them apart from the majority of
households? If the average household is middle poor, ask villagers to describe
the poor: their house, their land and assets, their personal characteristics. Enter the
characteristics in the appropriate box in the matrix (Category B or C as
appropriate).
Step 4 Ask the villagers whether there is only one category of poor or a second
category of households who are not only poorer than the rest but they differ in
other important ways. These might be destitute people with no land and no house,
or people who are unable to support themselves because of old age, sickness or
disabilities. If so, enter their description in the box under Category D.
Step 5 Put the matrix on a table or on the ground. Have one of the village leaders
take the stack of cards and read out the name of each household. Villagers agree
whether to place the household in category A, B or C. The card is placed on top
of the flip chart in the space corresponding to the appropriate category. The
process continues until all households have been classified. (Care should be taken
to ensure this stepis undertaken with tact and discretion).
Step 6 The participants take each of the piles of cards and count them. The
group recorder records the resulting number of households on the flip chart. Then
taking cares not to mix the piles s/he writes an A on the Category A households,
B on the Bs and C on the Cs and so on.
Step 7 Sort each pile into two stacks male and female-headed households.
Count the number of female-headed households (FHHs) in each category and
enter into the flip chart.
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Copy the second matrix onto a flip chart (or add it to the bottom of the previous
wealth ranking).
Less poor
(Category A)
Middle poor
(Category B)
Poor
(Category C)
Very Poor
(Category D)
Number of HHs
- today
- pre project
Number of FHHs
- today
- pre project
Number of HHs
- no change
- got richer
- got poorer
Number of FHHs
- getting richer
- getting poorer
Got richer due to project
- HHs
- FHHs
Got poorer due to project
- HHs
- FHHs
Step 8 Start with the lowest category of households (Category D if there is one
otherwise Category C). Ask villagers to identify what category these households
were in prior to the project. Start with those who were D before the project and
stayed D. Write with a different colour of ink (e.g. in red) a second D on each
card. Then go on to those who were not in Category D at the start of the project.
One by one, decide what category they used to be in, and record it on the card (for
instance, in red ink, so that it is clear which is the pre-project and with project
ranking). For each household, record (on the card) what happened to the
household to make it fall into poverty (e.g. sickness, death of husband, war, etc.).
Record on the flip chart, how many households in D category stayed the same and
how many moved down into D from a higher category. Also record, of those
households who fell into poverty, how many are female-headed?
Step 9 Repeat the exercise with the second lowest category of households. First,
count the number of households which stayed the same (they were C before the
project and stayed C). Write a red C on their cards next to the black C. Then sort
the others into two piles. Those that were D prior to the project and moved up to C
and those that were A or B and moved down. For each household, record on the
card (in red ink) what category the household used to be in prior to the project.
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Count the households in each category and record them (separately) on the
flip chart.
Count the number of female-headed households among those that moved up and
among those that moved down and record it.
For each household, record (on the card) the reasons why the household moved
up or down. Was it due to the project or was it due to something else?
Count how many households got richer as a result of the project and record it on
the flip chart in the appropriate space.
Count the number of female-headed households among those who got richer
because of the project.
Count the number of households that got poorer because of the project (if any)
and record it on the matrix.
Count the number of FHHs among those who got poorer because of the project.
Step 10 Repeat the same exercise for Category B households.

Step 11 Repeat the same exercise for Category A households.
Step 12 Count how many households were in categories A, B, C and D prior to
the project and record on the flip chart.
Getting Started. Enter on the matrix below (from the previous wealth ranking) the
numbers of households in each socio-economic category in the without project
and with project situation. Calculate percentages. If the number and proportion
of households in the less poor category has increased, give the reasons. If it
decreased, give the reasons. Was the change due to the project? Repeat the exercise
for each socio-economic category.
Step 1 of Analysis (with villagers). Villagers discuss and reach consensus on which
categories of households have improved their status and which have either not
improved or have got poorer. Then they discuss and agree for each socio-economic
category on whether the improvement was due to the project. They also need to
clarify whether any categories of people have become poorer as a result of the project.
Wealth
Category
Less poor
MIddle poor
Poor
Poorest
148
Without Project
(% of HHs)
With Project
(% of HHs)
Reasons for changes
Was change due to

projects (yes/no)
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Step 2 of Analysis. The impact assessment team enters the data for a single site
from the flip charts into a computer spreadsheet.
Starting with the total households in each socio-economic category in the without
project situation, he or she calculates what proportion of households in each
socio-economic category improved their status, did not improve or declined in
status.
Then, s/he analyzes what proportion of the households in each category that
moved up did so because of the project. And (if relevant), what proportion got
poorer as a result of the project. What categories of households have improved
their lives as a result of the project? Which categories of households have not been
helped? Which if any have been negatively affected? To what extent has the
project been able to reach the poor (Category C) and the poorest (Category D)? If
people in Category C are not improving or if their status is even eroding, is this
the projects fault or is it due to something else?
Then analyze what proportion of those who moved up or down were femaleheaded households. Are more female-headed households moving down than are
moving up? Are female-headed households are over-represented among
households that fall into poverty? Why does this occur? Is it usually due to the
death of the household head?
Finally, analyze what proportion of the households that improved their status as a
result of the project are female-headed. Is the project doing a good job of assisting
female-headed households or does it seem to be bypassing them?
Cross-cutting Analysis. The impact assessment team compares changes in socioeconomic status from the without project to the with project situation in
different sites. Are all changes in the same direction or not? Are the reasons for
improvement the same? Are the reasons for getting poorer the same? Has the
improvement in status involved a larger proportion of total households in some sites
in comparison with other sites? Has the project been able to improve the status of
Category C households in some sites and not others? Has it had a more positive
impact on male-headed households than on female-headed households? In some
sites, is the impact on female-headed households more positive than in others? If
so, what could be the reasons?
The main use of the findings is to assess to what extent the project is contributing
to poverty reduction. Is it helping to improve the economic status of the poor and
poorest (Categories C and D), or only of the middle poor or less poor (Categories B
and A)? Is the distribution of benefits biased in favour of male-headed households?
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SWOT Analysis
SWOT (Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities Threats) analysis is a technique
for identifying internal strengths and weaknesses of a project or programme and
external opportunities and threats affecting it. Split FARG participants into small
groups: male farmers, female farmers, and other actors including market
intermediaries, agro-processors and NGOs. Each prepares its own responses (and
reports back at plenary).
1. Strengths of the project
2. Weaknesses of the project
List strengths internal to the project

(brainstorming)
List weaknesses internal to the project

(brainstorming)
Rank in order of importance (pair-wise

ranking)
Rank weaknesses in order of importance

(pair-wise ranking)
3. Opportunities
Make a list of opportunities external to the

project (brainstorming)
Rank in order of importance
4. Threats
Make a list of threats stemming from

factors external to the project
(brainstorming)
Rank in order of importance

Step 1 Analysis by FARG members in plenary session:
Women farmers present their analysis; male farmers present their analysis; and
other actors (market intermediaries and NGOs) present their analysis.
Consensus-building: what feedback does the sub-FARG want to give to the FARG?
To the PCO?
Step 2 Project management compares the results of SWOT analyses in different

focal areas. Are the results similar or not? Are certain components perceived as
strong and others as weak overall? Or are some of the components strong in one
place and weak in others?
SWOT analysis can be used on an annual basis to provide feedback to project
management on which components and activities of the project are perceived as
strong and which are perceived as weak.
If a certain component is strong in one Focal Area and weak in others, exchange
visits could be arranged to allow the weaker FARGs to learn from the stronger ones.
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ATTACHMENT
TEMPLATES

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Table 1 Main Sources of Money of Villagers
Province: ______________ District: ______________ Village: ___________________ Women/men/leaders
Date: __________________ Number of participants: men__________ women __________
Women
Men
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
MAIN PRA MODULE 1
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Table 2 - Main Items of Expenditure of Villagers

Women
Men
MAIN PRA MODULE 2
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Table 3 Seasonal Activity Calendar with Marketing

Province: _________ District:__________ Village: _____________ Women/men/leaders Date: ___________
Months
9 10 11 12
Gender Division
of Labour 3
Rainfall
No road access
1st season (long rains):1+2
2nd season (short rains)
Irrigated farming and crop sales1+2
Livestock sales
Non-Farm Activities

good year
poor year
Peak labour - women
Peak labour - men
1
2
3
P=plant, H=harvest, S=sell

enter name of crop
W=women, M=men, M+W if both do the task
MAIN PRA MODULE 3
From what?
Whose earnings
(M/F)?
Low
3
4
5
6
10
11
12
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High
Cash Inflow
(Months)
1/1/03
Province: ________________ District:_________________ Village: _____________________ Women/men/leaders Date: ___________
Table 4 Cash Inflow Calendar
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MAIN PRA MODULE 4
For what?
Who spends (M/F)?
Low
3
4
5
6
10
11
12
10:57 AM
High
Cash Outflow
(Months)
1/1/03
Province: ________________ District:_________________ Village: _____________________ Women/men/leaders Date: ___________
Table 5 Cash Outflow Calendar
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MAIN PRA MODULE 5
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Table 6 Gender Roles in Marketing (Checklist)

Province: _________ District:__________ Village: _____________ Women/men/leaders Date: _________
(Note = Distribute 10 points between women and men according to their share in the activity)
#1 Money Source for Villagers #2 Money Source for Villagers

enter name of crop or enterprise enter name of crop or enterprise
Question
Women
Men
Women
Men
Who grows it?

Who harvests?
Who stores it?
Who decides when to sell?
Who decides where to sell?
Who sells?
Who controls the income?
Who decides what to buy with it?
Other questions (not requiring proportional piling to answer them)
Does the husband or wife
show the earnings to the
spouse?
Where sold?
Distance
Means of transport
Transport cost
When (month)?
Frequency?
Who buys?
What is the price?
MAIN PRA MODULE 6
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Table 7 Access and Control of Resources

Province: ____________ District:_____________ Village: ______________ Women/men/ Date: _________
Resources
Women
Men
Who Controls It?

Women
Men
Others 1
For instance, a third party or the owner of the land or resource
MAIN PRA MODULE 7
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Table 8 Problem Analysis (For Womens or Mens Groups)

Province: ___________ District:_____________ Village: _______________ Women/men Date: _________
Problem
Causes of Problem
Coping Mechanism
1.
2.
3.
4.
MAIN PRA MODULE 8
Easiest to sell
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Item marketed
Unit
Harvest
Peak
Price in village
Price outside village
Harvest
Peak
Province: _____________ District: ______________ Village: _____________ Leaders Date:___________
Table 2 Price Differences by Season and Location According to Leaders
10.
9.
8.
7.
6.
5.
4.
3.
2.
Importance for village Brings the most money
Location
Men
Women
Who Markets
Reasons
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1.
Product
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Table 1 Ranking of Local Products by Importance for Village, Economic Contribution and Ease of Marketing
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KEY INFORMANT PRA MODULE 1
Prices
Production
Sales
Profits
Reason
10:57 AM
Income Source
1/1/03
(Enter arrows for direction of trends up, down, stable, erratic)
Province: _____________ District: ______________ Village: _____________ Women/men/leaders Date:___________
Table 3 - Trendlines Prices, Production, Sales and Profitability of Top Five Items Sold by Villagers
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Draw map showing the village in relation to markets, distance, means of transport, transport cost and who goes to market (M/F):
Province: _________ District:__________ Village: _____________ Leaders Date: ___________
4 Marketing and Mobility Map
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Table 5 Gender Roles in Marketing Leaders

Province: ___________ District: ____________ Village: ____________ Women/men/leaders Date:_______
Product
Where sold
Who sells the

product?
Women
Men
Who controls the

earnings from sale?
Women
Men
Does s/he
consult spouse
before selling?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Table 6 Responsibilities of Husband and Wife as Family Providers Leaders

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Table 7 Timeline Markets and Sources of Money of the Village [optional]

Number of participants: Men____________ Women__________
Negative events (-)
Positive events (+)

Year
Colonial times1
Independence
Civil War
Post-war
2002
1 Adapt headings to correspond to the main subdivisions of history in the area where the PRA is to be done.
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Table 8 Wealth Ranking Leaders

Least poor
Poorest
Characteristics
Characteristics
Characteristics
Characteristics
HHs (#)
HHs (#)
HHs (#)
HHs (#)
FHHs:
FHHs:
FHHs:
FHHs:
No.
No.
No.
No.
Trend
Trend
Trend
Trend
HHs with commercial

activities (% of HHs in
stratum)
Members
MoA. NGO, donor project, village leader, etc.
Socio-economic status of members (from wealth ranking - number of As, Bs, Cs)
Formal, informal, registered, cooperative, etc.
7.
6.
5.
4.
3.
2.
Activity
SES2
Year
Started
Is it
Active?
Initiator3
Source of
support
Ranking
(importance
for village)
10:57 AM
1.
Type 1
1/1/03
Group
Table 9 Group Profiles Leaders
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4.
3.
2.
Coping Mechanism
How Can the Village

Solve It?
10:57 AM
1.
Cause of Problem
1/1/03
Problem
Province: _____________ District: ______________ Village: _____________ Women/men/leaders Date:___________
Table 10 Problem Analysis - Leaders
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Province:_______ District_________Sub-Country________Village__________
Household name_______________ HH Number ___ Wealth category____Interviewer______ Date_______
(Interviews are to be completed with a sample of 12 households per village - rich, average, poor, very poor selected by
leaders on the basis of wealth ranking exercise)
1. Household composition
HH member
Age
Sex
Relation
to head
Occupation
Live and eat

at home?
Contribute
labour?
Education
(highest grade)
Head
HH size =
Labour force =
2. Household asset base

Land (ha)
Cattle (No)
Hoes
Fenced compound
Pension
Cultivated (ha)
(cross check with
question 4)
Oxen
Axe
Huts #
Salary
Dairy cows
Plough
Walls
Remittances
1st season
Sheep
Cultivator
Roof
Piecework
2nd season
Goats
Ox cart
Floor
Shop
Garden (ha)
Pigs
Sprayer
Furniture
Trading
Banana
Chickens
Food processor
Radio
Charcoal
Mango
Ducks
Boat
TV
Brewing
Papaya
Pigeons
Fish nets
Bicycle
Fishing
Bamboo
Guinea hen
Gun
Vehicle
Crafts
Other
Granary
Other
Other trees
HOUSEHOLD INTERVIEW CHECKLIST 1
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3. Household economy and livelihood system: rank in order of importance for the HHs livelihood
(cross out items that do not apply)
Livelihood Source
Yes?
Rank in order of importance for HH
Crops and livestock for own consumption

Crop sales
Livestock sales
Piecework/casual labour
Salary or pension
Trading
Firewood/charcoal/wild products
Transfers/gifts
Handicrafts
Selling of assets
Fishing
Other
4. Crop production last year
Crop
Cropped Land prepn

Seeds
area (ha) (hand/ox/tactor) (own/
(own/hired)
bought)
Inorganic
fertilizer
(yes/no)
Amount
harvested
(bags)1
Amount
sold
(bags)
Amount
consumed
(bags)
1st Season
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
2nd Season
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
1
Note weight of bags used for different types of crop
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Was total food harvested enough to last for the entire year? ____
(If yes, enter 12 months below).
If no, how many months did it last?____ (enter below)
How many bags of food did the household buy? ____
If no purchases, did it beg or borrow?____ If yes, how many bags? ______
5. Food self-sufficiency/surplus (months)

Last year
Average year
Good year
Bad year
6. Which products are controlled by the husband and which by the wife?
Product
Who determines Who determines Who determines

when to sell?
how much to
where to sell?
sell?
Wife
Husb
Wife
Husb
Wife
Husb
Who sells?
Wife
Husb
Who controls
the income
from the sale?
Wife
Husb
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
7. Have there been any changes in the past 10 years in the role of women in agricultural
marketing? If so, what were the changes? What were the reasons for the changes?
Change
Reason for Change
1.
2.
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8. What crops were marketed last year, where, when and to whom at what price? How did you
transport them to market and what did the transport cost?
Product
Where
sold
When
(month)
Means
of
transport
Transport
cost
Selling Price
Buyer1
Unit (bag,
kg, tin)
Price
No. of
per unit units sold
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
1
enter name of company, name of trader, or write consumer
9. What factors determine: (a) what crops are grown and how big an area is planted each season;
(b) what share of the harvest is sold; and (c) and the selling price it gets?
Crop
Factors determining how

big an area is cultivated
each season
Factors determining how

much of the harvest is sold
(versus how much is used
for own consumption)
Factors determining the

price the household got
from the buyer
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10. What risks do you face in selling? In buying?

Product
Risks
Risk reduction strategy
11. What problems do you face in selling? In buying?

Market related
problem
Reason for
problem
How do you
cope?
How can you

solve problem?
Opportunity
1.
2.
3.
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Gender Strengthening Programme For Eastern and Southern Africa Division: Toolkit

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Gender Strengthening Programme For Eastern and Southern Africa Division: Toolkit

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Gender Strengthening Programme for

Eastern and Southern Africa Division

Gender and Poverty Targeting

THE PURPOSE OF THE TOOLKIT

PART 1 DIAGNOSTIC STUDY TOOLS

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN PLANNING AND MANAGING GENDER

PREPARATIONS FOR THE FIELD VISIT

PRA TOOLS FOR MARKET ENVIRONMENT DIAGNOSTIC STUDIES

TOOLS FOR POVERTY ANALYSIS AND TARGETING

GENDER DIAGNOSTIC TOOLS

5. Access and Control Profile

PART 2 STAKEHOLDER WORKSHOP TOOLS

STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS TOOLS

TOOLS FOR PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION AND PARTICIPATORY PLANNING

PART 3 GENDER AND POVERTY SENSITIVE M&E

GENDER AND POVERTY SENSITIVE IMPACT ASSESSMENT

TOOLS FOR ANNUAL STAKEHOLDER EVALUATION WORKSHOPS

TOOLKIT FOR PRACTITIONERS

List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

Focal Area Planning Process

Focal Area Resource Group

Ministry of Agriculture (generic)

National Agricultural Advisory Services, Uganda

Agricultural Marketing Support Project, Mozambique

Project Coordination Office

Participatory Rural Appraisal

Smallholder Enterprise and Marketing Programme, Zambia

Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats

TOOLKIT FOR PRACTITIONERS

TOOLKIT FOR PRACTITIONERS

THE PURPOSE OF THE TOOLKIT

Part 2 of the Toolkit focuses on participatory tools for stakeholder workshops. It

TOOLKIT FOR PRACTITIONERS

DIAGNOSTIC STUDY TOOLS

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN PLANNING AND MANAGING

Balance between Gender, Poverty and Marketing Focus

Day 1 Village PRA Sequence

Introduction - Purpose of Consultation (Plenary)

Main income sources of

Main income sources of

Price differences by season

Trends: prices, production

Village Markets and Mobility

Cash inflow and outflow

Cash inflow and outflow

Gender roles in marketing

Timeline: money sources

Wealth Ranking and

Access and Control of

Access and Control of

Problem Analysis - Women

Problem Analysis - Men

Problem Analysis - Leaders

Wrap-up in plenary - approx: half an hour

TOOLKIT FOR PRACTITIONERS

Day 2 Household Interviews

Factors to Consider in Selecting Participatory Tools

Standard PRA Tool1

5. Likes and dislikes of being a

9. Village history timeline

10. Trendlines for top 5 income sources

Utility for Market Linkage

Utility of Comparing Mens and