Theory

The temperature change of a gas or liquid when it is forced through a valve or porous plug while
kept insulated so that no heat is exchanged with the environment. This procedure is called
a Throttling process. This temperature can be described by the JouleThomson effect or
JouleKelvin effect or KelvinJoule effect or JouleThomson expansion.In the Joule
experiment, the gas expands in a vacuum and the temperature drop of the system is zero, if the
gas were ideal.
In this process here is no change in enthalpy from state one to state two, h1 = h2; no work is
done, W = 0; and the process is adiabatic, Q = 0. Lets take an example of a throttling process is
an ideal gas flowing through a valve in mid position.
We can observe that: Pin > Pout, velin < velout (where P = pressure and vel = velocity). These
observations confirm the theory that hin = hout. Remember h = u + PV (v = specific volume), so if
pressure decreases then specific volume must increase if enthalpy is to remain constant
(assuming u is constant). Because mass flow is constant, the change in specific volume is
observed as an increase in gas velocity.
The theory also states W = 0. Our observations again confirm this to be true as clearly no "work"
has been done by the throttling process. Finally, the theory states that an ideal throttling process
is adiabatic. This cannot clearly be proven by observation since a "real" throttling process is not
ideal and will have some heat transfer.
In this process, steam becomes drier and nearly saturated steam becomes, superheated.
As a gas expands, the average distance between molecules grows. Because of intermolecular
attractive forces , expansion causes an increase in the potential energy of the gas. If no external
work is extracted in the process and no heat is transferred, the total energy of the gas remains the
same because of the conservation of energy. The increase in potential energy thus implies a
decrease in kinetic energy and therefore in temperature.
A second mechanism has the opposite effect. During gas molecule collisions, kinetic
energy is temporarily converted into potential energy. As the average intermolecular distance
increases, there is a drop in the number of collisions per time unit, which causes a decrease in
average potential energy. Again, total energy is conserved, so this leads to an increase in kinetic
energy (temperature). Below the JouleThomson inversion temperature, the former effect (work
done internally against intermolecular attractive forces) dominates, and free expansion causes a
decrease in temperature. Above the inversion temperature, gas molecules move faster and so
collide more often, and the latter effect (reduced collisions causing a decrease in the average
potential energy) dominates: JouleThomson expansion causes a temperature increase.

SEPARATING CALORIMETER: It consists of two concentric chambers, the inner chamber and the outer chamber, which
communicates with each other through an opening at the top. As the steam discharges through
the metal basket, which has a large number of holes, the water particles due to their heavier
momentum get separated from the steam and collect in the chamber. The comparatively dry
steam in the inner chamber moves up and then down aging through the annular space between
the two chambers and enters the Throttling Calorimeter.
It is a vessel used initially to separate some of the moisture from the steam, to ensure superheat
conditions after throttling. The steam is made to change direction suddenly; the moisture
droplets, being heavier than the vapor, drop out of suspension and are collected at the bottom of
the vessel.
THROTTLING CALORIMETER
It consists a narrow throat (Orifice). Pressure and temperature are measured by pressure gauge
and thermometer. The steam after throttling process passes through the heat exchanger and
condensate is collected. Steam Generator is also provided to supply the saturated steam (Max) at
2kg/cm2 pressure. There is no need of boiler.
It is a vessel with a needle valve fitted on the inlet side. The steam is throttled through the needle
valve and exhausted to the condenser.
DRYNESS FACTOR
The quality of wet steam is usually defined by its dryness fraction. When the dryness fraction,
pressure and temperature of the steam are known, then the state of wet steam is fully defined. In
a steam plant it is at times necessary to know the state of the steam. For wet steam, this entails
finding the dryness fraction. When the steam is very wet, we make use of a separating
calorimeter.
COMBINED CALORIMETER

Separating calorimeter does not give an accurate result and the throttling calorimeter fails if the
steam is not superheated after throttling. A combination of separating and throttling calorimeter
is therefore found most suitable for accurate measurement of dryness of steam

PROCEEDURE
1. Cleaning the setup: Firstly clean the setup and fill your setup with distilled water.
2. Temperature set: Set the temperature of steam generator up to 400 K.
3. Maintain the pressure: Now slowly open the needle valve, maintain the constant gauge
pressure.
4. Steady state is reached: When steady state is reached note the pressure difference from
manometer and Temperature after throttling by thermometer.
5. Collecting the moisture: Collect the suspended moisture from the separating and
throttling calorimeter then Weigh it.
6. Now at last calculate the dryness factor by the given formulae.

Utilities Required

Water supply continuous for heat exchanger.

Space required: 1.0mx1.0 meter

Electricity supply: Single phase 220 V AC and 4 KW

4 Electronic balance say 1 kg

5

Steam table for calculation.

Dryness Factor
Term dryness factor refers to wet steam. It is defined as ration of mass of dry steam
actually present to the mass of wet steam, which contains it.
Let in sample of wet steam
X=Wd/ (Wd+W)

Where
X= Dryness factor of sample,
Wd =Weigh of dry steam in kg
W=Weigh of water vapour in suspension

Separating and Throttling Calorimeter

The steam passing out from a separating calorimeter may still contain some
vapours in it. In others words it may not absolutely dry. Again in a throttling
calorimeter steam after passing through throttle valve must be superheated or at
least dry saturated. This limits the extent of dryness factor. It can be reliably
measured, depend on the pressure of the steam in the main steam pipe. If sample
of steam which may still wet after passing through the throttle valve i.e. it will not
be superheated. To overcome the difficulties we make use of combined separating
and throttling. First steam is passed through separating calorimeter where it loses
most part of the its moisture and become comparatively drier. It is then passed
through the throttling calorimeter where superheating takes place without change
of total heat. The temperature and pressure of the steam after throttling are
measured by using a thermometer and manometer separately.

Description
The setup consist of separating and throttling calorimeter. A steam generator is
provided at the base of apparatus. A digital temperature controller provided to
control the temperature inside the steam generator. Steam from the generator
passed from separating calorimeter where most of the water particle gets separated
from steam and then passed from separating calorimeter where most of the water
particles gets separated from steam and then passed to throttling calorimeter
where steam gets superheated. After that superheated steam passed through
exchanger to condense the steam. A manometer and thermometer are connected
with throttling calorimeter to measure the pressure and temperature after throttling
process.

Experimental Setup

Experimental Calculation
Temperature after throttling : T1
Gauge pressure of Steam Generator : P1
Gauge Pressure before Throttling : P
Manometer difference : H
Volume of moisture collected : W
Volume of dry steam copllected after throttling: W d
Observations:

T (0C)

P (Kpa)

T1(0C)

P1(KPa)

H(mm of Hg)

Wd

120.5

117.0154

104.33

151.78

10

36.91

51.44

123

130.75

105.87

159.20

17.88

40.53

64.19

115.5

120.94

105

136.94

20

29.45

54.9306

Now let me perform calculation for 2nd reading.

1) Dryness fraction of separating calorimeter:

X1

= Wd/(W+Wd) = 0.61

2) Pressure of superheated steam:

P2 = 101.325 + 13.6*9.81*18/1000 = 103.73 KPa
3) Specific heat of steam:
CP = 2081.6645 J/Kg
4) Sensible heat of water at pressure P (From steam table):
HW1 = 449961 Joule
5) Latent heat of wet steam entering throttling calorimeter (Steam Table):
L1 = 2237790 J/Kg
6) Total heat of dry steam at pressure P2 (Steam table):
H2 = 2655180 Joule
7) Saturation temperature at P2 (Steam table):
T2 = 99.94 0C
8) Dryness fraction from throttling calorimeter:
X2 = (H2+Cp(t1-t2)-Hw1)/L1= 0.976