Jawaharlal Nehru University

Centre for Economic Studies and Planning

M. A. (Economics) 2013-2015
Course: Production Conditions in Indian Agriculture
Course Instructor: Prof. Vikas Rawal

Book Review

Land Reforms in India by P S Appu

Student

Kanishka Kamble

ID Card Number :

66809/13

Date of Submit

16th March 2015

Introduction
The following paper is a book review for Land Reforms in India by P S Appu. The author was
educated at Universities of Madras and Lucknow. He was a fellow at the Harvard University and
Jawaharlal Nehru University. He has also been Director of Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of
Administration, Mussoorie. He has published several papers on land reforms and rural development in
India. However it was during his tenure, as the Land Reforms Commissioner in the Ministry of
Agriculture and later at Planning Commission during 1970-75, that he found the need and inspiration for
this work. Thus apart from review of data and literature it also consists of insights from personal
experiences of the author.
It was written in 1996, and by this time the effects of the various policies were clearly visible.
The book deals comprehensively with three important measures of land reforms, at an all India level
since independence:
a) Abolition of intermediary interests
b) Tenancy reforms
c) Ceiling on Agricultural Holdings
It studies the policy, legislation and implementation aspects related with the above three measures of
Land reforms. It starts with description of agrarian structure at time of independence, its defects and
exploitative nature. The origin, growth and abuses of Zamindari system, the evolution of the policy on
Zamindari abolition, legislation and implementation, the shortcomings in the laws and their
implementation are pointed out. The results are discussed, drawing attention to the social and political
consequences.
The study draws attention to the ambivalence in the formulation of policy, shortcomings in the
law and the general poor implementation. The author thus projects the negative effects of all these and
recommends a complete reversal of the national policy on tenancy reform. He puts out a case for
amendment of tenancy laws to permit the leasing out of land
The appendices contain a wealth of detailed statewise information about different aspects of land
reforms. Since it being one of the first few efforts towards a comprehensive all India survey, covering
important aspects of land reforms, hence being of considerable use to policy makers, students and
research scholars. It has been no less than a Bible for several future works.
The following book review will look to analyze the following:
1. Brief description of content in various chapters
2. Analyze how the author addresses the three issues mentioned above and their policy, legislation and
implementation issues.

3. The appendices would be analyzed in brief for their information content and how they support the
chapters.
4. In the evaluation, a holistic picture will be analyzed and the facts and arguments will be analyzed in
the backdrop of his past work and his bureaucratic experiences. And his overall impact in this field
will be analyzed.

Chapter Wise Analysis

In the Introduction a brief historical context about global land reforms in period of Modern
History is analyzed. The success of reforms in China, Japan and Taiwan is highlighted. The book defines
overall agrarian reforms and their role in food security and highlights the importance of land reforms.
For several decades before food production was falling, land reforms was a measure to arrest this. It also
describes the Agrarian structure development from Mughals till independence from British (notably
explaining Zamindari, and Raiyatwari systems). The effects of such structure like increase in inequality,
parasitic intermediaries, insecure tenancies, uneconomic holdings etc. during British was also explained.
The constitutional provisions and Land policy in five year plans is also mentioned. Then a brief outline
about the three issues, addressed by the book, are given.
In the first chapter Tenancy conditions before independence are explained. Documents like
Arthashastra, Buddhist Jataka, Manusmriti, written records of Ashoka, Gupta rule were analyzed.
Emergence of zamindars (their upper caste background) due to land grants to government officials and
men who provided service to King has been explained. Despite government tax being less than one sixth,
due to intermediaries the total tax remained high and exploitative. During Mughal period the states claim
varied from one third to one half. Mughals started Raiyatwari system but later reverted to
zamindari/jagirdari system, thus encouraging the increase of intermediaries. The salient features were
measurement of land, classification of land and fixation of rates. The British initially started as share
croppers or revenue collectors but later shifted to zamindari and various other revenue mechanisms with
permanent settlement becoming a major feature. The consequences of permanent settlement have been
listed. Major among these was that the revenue collectors were vested with proprietary rights thus making
them landlords. The Zamindari system, Raiyatwari system and its various features and consequences
have been explained in a very clear and basic way. Thus describing the evolution of Agrarian structure
during the British period and the political and economic undercurrents which brought about this evolution.
In second chapter, the author explains the various aspects associated with abolition of
intermediary interests. It starts out by explaining the various layers and the common features of the
intermediaries. The system of intermediaries was rampant in North India including Bengal and to a lesser

extent in South and Central India. In some cases there were as many as 50 or more intermediaries. The
intermediaries made huge profits without contributing in any way to production and exploiting the
tenants. There were also problems due to illegal exactions and additional levies on festivals or at the time
of renewal of tenancy. There was also the problem of agricultural prices being depressed. No security of
livelihood and property, violation of rights and humiliation at the slightest instance. No contribution to
agricultural improvement.
A major portion of the second chapter addresses the Evolution of a National Policy towards
abolishing intermediaries. After the advent of Gandhi and taking up of peasants issues by Indian National
Congress did the evolution of such a policy start. It pulled the marginalized farmers toward the idea of
independence in the hope that intermediaries would be removed and redistribution of land would take
place. Thus a multipronged approach, driven by government intervention, to provide farmers with
ownership was announced in 1935. Inputs were taken from provinces to draft a region specific policy.
Post-independence major intervention took place to address land reforms:
1) Economic Programme Committee under Nehru
2) States were given freedom to deal with land reforms at individual state level. But four to nine
years elapsed before different states completed enactment of Zamindari Abolition Laws. Whereas
France did it in one night, China in two years and Japan in four years.
Implementation of law and challenges have been described from states of UP, Rajasthan and
Maharashtra. Problems associated with implementation were: inefficient and slow movement,
intervention by judiciary, overt and covert resistance of vested interests, non-involvement of beneficiaries,
unsatisfactory condition of land records etc. Potential beneficiaries were not involved in policy drafting
or implementation. Land holders exploited loopholes in the law and the delayed implementation to ensure
lad stayed within family or was regained after some time. There were also several positives like: abolition
of intermediaries, distribution of forest land and wasteland under government, reduction in rent, forced
labor and serfdom ended etc.
In third chapter, the author explains the various aspects associated with tenancy reforms and
evolution of a policy towards the same. The base for this policy was also set at the Kisan Conference
held at Allahabad in 1935 and further established in high powered committee headed by Nehru after
independence. The resolutions passed at this and other discussions were used to draft five year plan and
other policy measures like setting limits on land holding, making personal cultivation as criteria for land
holding, protection for small and middle land holders etc. The provisions for tenancy reform in first to
fifth five year plan and their effects have been studied elaborately. The basic guidelines like regulation
of rent, security of tenure, restrictions on leasing, voluntary surrenders, personal cultivation etc. which

were part of the five year plans has been described. As the provisions were not implemented successfully
the government sought to legalise them.
In chapter four the author describes policy on ceiling on agricultural holdings. The author points
out the dichotomy in congress over implementation of agricultural reforms as majority of its leaders were
land lords or land land holding individuals. Thus there were a lot of pulls and pressures to such reforms
despite stalwarts like Nehru, Gandhi and Patel in leadership roles. Challenges and administrative,
economic and legal reasons started appearing as an alibi to scuttle and delay reforms. Thus Planning
commission rejected idea of imposing ceilings but favored putting a ceiling on future acquisitions.
However due to concern for social justice certain principles were suggested. Thereafter the policy under
the different plans, for ceiling on holdings is explained. Thus bringing up the concept of economic land
holding and upper and lower limits on land holdings. Thus taking care of agronomics and productivity
on one hand and social justice on the other. Thereafter explaining the ceiling laws of various states and
the inherent variations therein. The author also pointed to how the exemptions under these laws acted as
a bane rather than boon. The variations in compensation were also given. Thus the laws were modest
with numerous loopholes and implementation was inefficient. Inputs from Chief Ministers conferences,
and recommendations of various committees, in 1970s, have also been discussed systematically.
In the fifth chapter the overall conclusions related to the three issues, addressed by the book, are
given. The conclusions have been given in issue wise and in chronological order. The plan wise policies,
implementation and achievements have also been commented on. The reasons for failure, though not
exhaustive, have been listed. The benefits for the beneficiaries have also been listed. State wise variations
in legislations, policies and implementation of tenancy reforms, abolition of intermediaries and ceiling
on holdings have been analysed. The reasons for variations have also been given. Also the author
comments on the pattern of success in implementation of the policies. Comments on works of other
scholars, like P C Joshi, M L Dantwala, V M Dandekar etc., on these issues have also been given. Thus
providing a comprehensive comparative work. The author has then provided suggestions towards the
various economic problems encountered along with consideration for social problems.
The book contains huge appendix, supplementing the issues with relevant facts at state and central
level. The appendix has been a major source of information for future scholars and it considerably
improves the credibility and value of the work. The data consists of extracts from state, centre and
planning commission reports. The appendix also covers debates inside the government on various pro
and cons associated with the reforms planned. It gives an insight into the various possible alternatives
that were planned. Thus providing an insightful study of the topics under review.

Evaluation
Based on the above study the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. Since the book was written in 1996, and due to his bureaucratic past and government funding, the
author was able to analyse various policies and its effects over a fairly large period. He could access
official data and draw from his vast official experiences. This considerably increases the quality of
work. This also evident in the appendices of the book and in his other works on Ceiling on
Agricultural Holdings [3], Agrarian structure and Rural Development [4] and Tenancy Reforms
in India [2].
2. Several other comprehensive works on land reform have now come up. However during the 1990s
this was a major study. Also with the economic reforms being planned in that era, this work was of
considerable help.
3. Analysing the book today, the different chapters appear as a good course in history. This is because
with the onset of globalization and its various forces there is a renewed demand for land. This has
led to a new wave of concentration of land in the hands of a few. The government is taking measures
to counter this through legislative and policy measures eg. recent Land Acquisition Bill etc. This is
where such a book would help policymakers and implementers to fine tune policies in order to avoid
a repeat of the past failures.
4. The book has inspired a lot of works by other scholars as well as policy initiatives by the government.
5. The criticism levelled in the book against the government, despite receiving government funding,
shows that the government is open to constructive criticism. The fact that certain portions of the work
were completed in the 1970s (during emergency rule), only increase the credibility of the work.
Thus the book will be a valuable asset for people in diverse fields. The government should periodically
carry out such studies in order to address the needs of scholars and help policy makers analyse and plan
the future course of reforms.

References:
1. Jha, P. K. (2002). Land Reforms in India (Volume 7): Issues of Equity in Rural Madhya Pradesh, Editors Introduction, SAGE Publications Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, India.
2. Appu, P. S. (1975). Tenancy Reform in India, Economic and Political Weekly, Special Edition,
August 1975.
3. Appu, P. S. (1972). Ceiling on Agricultural Holdings, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India,
New Delhi.
4. Appu, P. S. (1974). Agrarian structure and Rural Development, Economic and Political Weekly,
Vol. IX, No. 39, 28th September 1974.