Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
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Sixteenth
CenturyJournal
XXII, No. 2, 1991
humankind
loomsovertheJudeo-Christian
consciousness
ofsin.The individual
soul is alwayson trial."What will theDay ofJudgment
be like,"theSpanish
Santa
Teresa
de
in
wondered
"when
our
horror,
mystic
Jesuis
Majestymanifests
himselfto us and we see clearlyall our lives' errors?"1
SantaTeresa thought
about the Day when she would be broughtbeforethe throneof
frequently
God and contemplatedthe punishmentthatmightbe inflictedon her for
her sins. In one of her mysticalvisions,she appearedat the mouthof hell
and experienceditstorments.
Severebodilypainwas accompaniedbyburning
of the soul. The agonyof the soul,she said,was "like suffocation,
a pain so
and
with
such
and
I
not
that
could
exaggerate
affliction,
sharp
despair unhappy
281
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282
Sixteenth
CenturyJournal
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The SpanishAutodefe
..
.......
~ ~ ~ ~
.
283
i_
...-.----.
,?
ofthisauto&f]esiton gridrated
stepson therightwiththoseto
Fig. 1. Prisoners
be consigned
flameson thetopstep.In thecenterofthestagebeforethe
to theflmes
witnesses
is the
thelone
lonepenitent
thesentence
sentence
read.By
Adrian
andwitnesses
is
the
Rae
judge
penit hearmsg
judgeand
hearing
ByAdrian
Schoonebechin
in Phillip
Van Limborch,
HistoriaInquisitionis,
Philip Van
Schoonebech
Limborch,
History
1692).
(Amsterdam,
1692).
Inquitimnis,
(Amstd.m,
permission,
Reprinted
MountSaintMar's
Emmitsburg,
bypennission,
Mary'sCollegeArchives,
Mayland.
Maryland.
the parade
that he
he saw
saw three
watching the
3,1655,
3,
1655, a physician
threebigamists
physician watching
bigamists
parade reported
reportedthat
walk
ahead
the
miters
on
which
were drawn
others,
of
conical
wearing
walk
crime.8
symbols
oftheircrime.s
Trailingbehindwerefourwomenaccusedofwitchcraft,
wearingveryhigh mitersadornedwith painteddevils.Three criminalsin
long tunicsbore harnessesaround theirnecks that indicated
indicatedtheircaptive
state.The physicianthen observedrepentantsinnersin tunicsof yellow
fabric,"slashed
slashed acrossthe frontand back with colored bands more or less
wide accordingto the seriousnessof theircrimesand the lengthof timefor
which theirpenanceslasted."9
lastedc"9They walked
wallkedbarefootand wore no veils or
hatsin orderto manifest
theirguiltto thecrowdsof
people
people liningthestreets.
"thatthe
In theirhands,unlitcandlessignified,as one witnessunderstood,
'that
ones."10As in other
lightof Faith has been extinguishedin thesewretchedones."'l?
8ln RafaelGraciaBoix,Autos e Fey CGusas& la Inquisicn deCrdoba,(Crdob: Deputaci6n
Provincial,1983), 1655 Mayo 3: 425-44.
9bid., 434, 457.
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284
Sixteenth
Century
Journal
in PhillipVan
theirbonesbornebehindin boxes.By AdrianSchoonebech
sinners;
Limorch,Historia
(AmsterdaAm
1692).Reprinted
bypermission,
Inqisitionis,
MountSaintMary'sCollegeArchives,
Maryland.
Emmitsburg,
Allusionsto New Testamentdescriptions
oftheSecondComingbecome
moreapparentas we watchofficialsof the Inquisitionmarchsolemnlyamid
crossesbehindthesinners.Theycarriedbetweenthemtwobrightly
decorated
chestswhich held all the legal documents,includingwritsof sentences,
againsttheconvicts.These are signpoststo theRevelationof St.Johnwhere
referenceis made to the existenceof writtendocumentsverifying
decisions
made at the FinalJudgment.The prophetJohn"saw thedead,the greatand
the small,standingbeforethe throne,and books were opened; and another
book was opened,which is thebook of life;and the dead werejudged from
the thingswhich were writtenin the book accordingto theirdeeds."1 The
"Rev. 20:12.
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The SpanishAutodefe
285
'Fi. I3. P
sm
h in p
n ad
by s
r ad fs
marchin procession
Fig.3. Prisoners
who
accompanied
bysoldierandfriars
beseechrepentance.
Engraving
byAdrianSchoonebech.
Reprinted
bypermission,
MountSaintMary'sCollegeArchives,
Emmitsburg,
Maryland.
This particularautowas rathersmall,with only thirtyor fortyspiritual
in the
outcasts.We have accountsof much largerspectacles,particularly
the
Toledo
auto
of
of
the
rule.
In
February1486,
earlyyears
Inquisition's
750 parishioners
wereseenwalkingin procession;two monthslater,a second
In Decemberofthesameyear,another
autopresented900 local transgressors.
wereenlisted.12
Someoftheseindividulsjoinedtheprocessional
900 parishioners
marchwillingly,confessingtheirsinsto Inquisitorsand beggingforgiveness.
Accordingto one chroniclerwho watched a cortegeof severalhundred
penitents,includingnobles and affluentburghers,the shame and disgrace
thatthey experiencedwas so greatthattheycried out loud, howled, and
pluckedout theirhair.13
havehistorians
ofreligionbegunto grasphow themetaphor
Only recently
oftheLastJudgment
the
andshapedWestern
captivated Christianimagination
views of spiritualreality.Its mostprofoundeffecthas been exploredby Paul
Ricoeur in his studyof the phenomenologyof sin in theJudeo-Chrisian
world.14Ricoeur arguesthatit was preciselythe image of the tribunalthat
guidedthe Westernexperienceof evil into the specificemotionalresponse
of guilt.Beliefin a just God who rewardsforvirtuousbehaviorand punishes
foriniquitiescompelledpeopleto regardtheirown actionsfromtheperspective
of an externalmoral force.One's thoughtsand deeds are withinsightof
2Fidel Fita,"La Inquisici6nToledana. Relaci6ncontemporineade los autosy autillosque
celebrodesde el ano 1485 hastael de 1501, Boletinde la Real Academade la Historia(1887):
2:295, 297, 301.
13Ibid.,2: 295.
14PaulRicoeur,The Symbolism
ofEvil (New York: Harper& Row, 1967).
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286
Sixteenth
CenturyJournal
God and will be judged accordingto divine standardsat the end of time.
of thisfinalreckoning,Ricoeurmaintains,instilleda feelingof
Anticipation
forwrongdoing.
In contrast
to religions
whichinterpreted
personalaccountability
evil as a defilementof the humansoul comingfrompowerslocatedoutside
the individual,Christianity
as well as Judaismassertedthatsin originatedin
thedepthsof one's being.This transformation
of thesenseof "beingdefiled"
an
force
external
to
by
"beingguilty"throughone's own internalpropensity
forevil came about througha complex interactionof ritualpracticesand
mythsthat positionedpeople as defendantsand obliged them to regard
themselvesfromthe vantagepointof a transcendental
arbiter.
The autodefewas one of thesetransformative
rituals.Here in the streets
of Spain,wherepublicritualre-enactsmyth,we see clearlyhow metaphors
of trialand judgmenthave shapedthe Christianexperienceof sin. For in
the auto defe it was the symbolismof a pilgrimageto an eschatological
judgmentthat swelled the experienceof guilt in the heartsof penitents.
Their uncoveredheads-conspicuousin an epoch when individualrankand
in the hat,cape,or veil-exposedpenitentsto public
prestigewas represented
ridicule.This inversionof fashionservedto inspirein each participant
the
sensethat"my sin is withinthe absolutesightof God"15-asuperegowhose
partwas playedby thepublic.Ashamedofbeingseen,penitentsfeltstripped
of all materialresourcesand alienatedfromthemselves.Participation
in the
theatricaltribunalcreateda gulfbetweentheself,or thesoul,and theactions
in which
bythatself.It was a momentof Cartesianself-reflexivity
performed
the mindenduresdivorcefromthe actionsof itsown body.And it was just
thissenseof mind-bodydualismthatPaul Ricoeurargueswas crucialto the
Christiannotionthatevil is a dimensionof personalexistence.In the auto
defeas in the confessional,the humansoul was subjectedto the inquiryof
a transcendental
Judge,and thebodyturnedintotheobjectofanother'sgaze.
oftheautodefereadilyadmitted
Objectifiedin thismanner,mostprisoners
recorded
remorseforwrongdoings,althoughon rareoccasionseyewitnesses
the presenceof obstinatesinnerswho clung to the righteousness
of their
own beliefs.The Church called them relajadosbecause they were to be
"relaxed"to the seculararm forburningat the stake.The relajadoswere
alwaysinformedof theircondemnationto the firesthe nightbeforean auto
defe in the hope thattheywould abjuretheirsin in the last momentsof
theirlives.These pertinacious
as theywerealso called,woreinsignias
heretics,
to
the
theirpenances.Over theirshoulders
their
crimes
and
displaying
public
sanbenitos
and
over
their
heads
sat
conicalturbanspaintedwithbright
hung
redflamesthatsignaledtheirimminentpunishment.16
Each of themwalked
flankedby friars,
who admonishedrepentanceforthe sake of the soul.
5Ibid.,84.
delAuto Generalde la Fe, C6rdoba 1627, in Gracia Boix, Autosdefe,398; and
16Relacion
BritishLibrary,MS 1887.
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The SpanishAutodefe
287
_......
...........
.?
':
in a sanbnita,
indicated
that
Fig.4. LeftPenitent
rightFlamespointeddownward
theheretic
hadrepented dwas to be strangled
beforebeingburnt.
Engraving
in Philli Van Limborch,
HistoriInquisitionis,
Amsterdam
byAdrianSchoonebech
1692.Reprinted
MountSaintMary'sCollegeArchives,
bypermission,
Emmitsburg,
Marylan
confessors,
Arrivingat theplaza,theentireretinueof relajados,
penitents,
Inquisitionofficials,secularauthorities,and notariesmounteda large and
elaboratelydecoratedplatform.In the autodefeat Valladolidin 1559, a tall
pyramidofbenchescrownedthescaffolduponwhichthevictimswereseated
at the apex. Toward
in orderof the gravityof theirguilt,with the relajados
the foot of the stage stood a single pulpitto which the victimswould be
ushered,one at a time,to hear theirsentences.7Some would be pardoned,
'7BritishLibrry,MS Eg. 2058, no. 2.
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288
Sixteenth
Journal
Century
- il;8!-z||tiiL~
:-f
WIC
_':st':F
~ ~ ~
~~~~..
I_
-4
is readfrom
Fig. 5. Cond ed hereticneelsalonein theceter as thesentence
thepulpit.Frenchengraving
in EliasAmezaga,AutodefeenValladolid
reproduced
reprinted
Aires,1966);
(BuenosAires,
1966);reprinted
bypermission.
(Buenos
phermisom.
by
18Mat. 25:32-33.
and theSpanishInquisition
9GustavHenningsen,The Witches'Advocat BLsqueWitchcraft
(1609-1614) (Reno: Nevada UniversityPress,1980), 184.
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The SpanishAutodefe
289
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290
Sixteenth
Journal
Century
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The SpanishAutodefe
291
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292
Sixteenth
CenturyJournal
priestsadministered
publicpenance,ordering"thatforthe nextsix Fridays,
the penitentsshouldpromenadethroughcitystreetswearingneithershoes
norhats,scourging
baredshoulderswithcordsofhemp.And itwas prescribed,
moreover,thattheyshouldfaston theseFridays,and thatforthe restof the
daysof theirlives,theyshouldhold no publicoffice. . . norwear silk,nor
finescarletclothor anycoloredfabric,nor gold or silver,norpearlsor coral
or anyotherjewels. . . ."33The purposeof theseactsof satisfaction
was to
the
the
of
the
material
world
in
order
to
cleanse
body
away
deny
pleasures
sin and escapemoregrievousafflictions
in hell. The ritualsaffirmed
thatthe
soul could be saved throughthe body. With this in mind, canons and
flagellated
chaplainsofC6rdoba'sautoof 1665 ceremoniously
prostrate
penitents
as thechoirsangtheMiserere.The officials
were"removingthroughexternal
ritualtheirinternalcrimes,as was donebytheearlychurch,"a contemporary
The Inquisition's
commented.34
theater
ofpenitence
Leonorsuffering
spotlighted
as a meansto purgethe soul of sin.
It mustbe stressedthat penance,designedto achieve satisfaction
for
violationofthedivineorder,was ineffective
withoutan initialactofcontrition.
Penancewas the effectof a choice madeby the sinneras to the statusof his
soul; it was a mercifulgiftthat followedan open admissionof guilt and
promiseneverto repeatthe offense.This was why the moststirringscenes
to spectatorsoccurredwhen prisonerswho had been condemnedto die for
earnestsorrowfinallyrepudiatedtheirconvictionsat
failingto demonstrate
theauto.These wereregardedas momentsin whichsoulsescapedthehorrors
of eternaldamnation.If theaccusedrepentedat anytimepriorto sentencing,
theywere reconciledto the Church,and forthispurposetherewas always
a space reservedunderthe stage.35If prisonersrecantedafterthe readingof
or strangled
deathpenalties,theyweregarrotted
"mercifully"
priorto burning.
was
burned
alive. In such
who
resisted
recantation
Anyone
staunchly
simply
cases,confessorsaccompaniedthe accuseddown fromthe scaffoldthrough
the cityto the quemadero,
pleadingalong the way fora change of heart.36
This was the essentialcombat,the strugglebetween two faithsthat so
intriguedthe audience,makingthe autodefesomethinglike a religiousbull
humiliated,and
tortured,
fightto witness.The heretichad been importuned,
now finallyterrorizedbeforea blazing pyre to denounce his infidelity.
with the triumphof the Catholic faith.
Repentancewas synonymous
So in C6rdoba in Juneof 1665, the public witnessedthe tragicordeal
ofLeonorMariaEnriquez,a twenty-four
yearold womanaccusedofJudaism.
295-96.
33Autodefe,12 Febrero1486, in Fita,La Inquisicion,
34AutoGeneralde Fe, C6rdoba 1665, in GraciaBoix, Autosdefe,486.
35H. C. Lea, AuricularConfession,
3:191.
36See,forinstance,Relaci6ndelAutoGeneralde la Fe, C6rdoba 1627 in GraciaBoix, Autos
defe,398, 405, 435.
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The SpanishAutodefe
293
-..
Dutchprintshowing
Fig.6. Valladolid's1559 autodefeof 1559.A contemporary
theprivate
roomunderthestagefortherepented
sinners.
by
Reprinted
British
permission,
Library.
Her triallefta powerfulimpressionon an attendingFranciscanfriarwho
relatedthat "both ministersand non-ministers,
the wisestand most pious
of
this
ecclesiastics
and
within and outside the
both
nation,
laity
people
Tribunal[attempted
to convertthrough]persuasion,compassion,tears,and
demonstrations
so excessiveand extravagantas to be indecent,rightup the
edge of the flames.But in frontof such a potentand forcefulillumination,
this contumaciouswoman remainedblind in her obstinacyand was leftto
and hair-raising
bur. It was a scandalous,horrendous,
sightforthepublic."37
Refusalto repentat such a criticalmomentwas always regardedas a
forthefirethatconsumedthebodyalsobrought
destruction
spiritual
catastrophe,
to the soul. Watching a recalcitrant
hereticburnwas like peeringthrough
a window into hell. The flameinitiateda ritepassage thatconductedthe
37Auto Genalr deFc, Cirdoba 1665, in Gracia Boix, Autosdefe,479.
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294
Sixteenth
Journal
Century
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The SpanishAutodefe
,~
_
,"^ ~.
',..
.:X.....
.:j_^_
e , i!
...
......,-.
....
? ..,
295
............." .
.
.""
.......
. _
;'
ofthe
Council
tothe
sent
account
own
Tribunal's
tothe
Inquisition,
According
enVa:ad
(Bueno>s
>fe
Ai,
19).
of anykindoccurred
incidents
and no
the
greatestattention,
I. untoward
?
*,_
C_
Fig. 7.
'.
,::. ..'",:-
.....
,-
..
usually
queader to whichthecondemned
were
of sinn for
The
burning
Eis Amezaga,
dede
by
oAm Auto
Auto
Reprinted
from Eli
wals Reprinted
citywaa
son friom
outsideethe
wass outsid,
he city
by permission
feen ValLadolid
Aires,
1966).
(Buenos
public.
in
thepublic.
in the
aroused
aroused
spectacle
thespectacle
thatthe
pietythat
of piety
moodof
is the
themood
is
however,
however,
oftheInquisition,
totheCouncil
sent
ownaccount
totheTribunal's
According
andpaid
ceremony
theentire
during
silence
thedeepest
"thepeopleobserved
ofanykindoccurred...
incidents
andnountoward
attention,
thegreatest
ofthepeople.Forall agreethatnever
it hasbeento thegreatedification
more
and more
and
more
more
strange,
solemn,
more
anything
experienced
have
havethey
before
solemn,
before
strange,
theyexperiencedanythingmore
ofthetrialand
Theseactsoffaithwerevividreminders
authoritative."42
allattheendoftheir
them
wouldconfront
believed
thatspectators
judgment
ownapprehensions
their
livedthrough
they
onstage,
penitents
Watching
days.
feelings
rehearsed
trialofsinners
The Inquisition's
oftheFinalJudgment.
destiny.
ofhuman
moments
thefinal
thatmarked
awe,andsubmission
offear,
42Citedin Henningsn, Witces' Advoate 194.
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296
Sixteenth
CenturyJournal
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The SpanishAutodefe
297
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