Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
1.1 Introduction
This chapter is meant to serve as a common introduction to UNESCOs three
publication dealing with urban drainage in three particular climate zones:
volumes
century, it is confidently predicted that 70% of the global population will live in urban areas. The
number of mega cities (> 10 million inhabitants) will increase to over 20, 80% of which are in
developing countries (Niemcynowicz, 1996). Properly designed and operated urban drainage
systems with its interactions with other urban water systems are crucial element of healthy and
safe urban environment.
The concept of sustainable development is provoking a profound rethinking in our
approach to urban water management (ASCE/UNESCO-IHP, 1998). Sustainable development is
that which meets the needs and aspirations of the present generation without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs (WCED, 1987). So, sustainable solutions
have a now and a then component, and improvements though necessary in the present must
not be carried out at the expense of future needs and situations. An alternative definition (IUCNUNEP-WWF, 1991) asserts that sustainable development is that which improves the quality of
human life while living within the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems. Here, the
emphasis is placed on mankinds demand for and impact upon earth resources and the
environment. Finally, Agenda 21 behoves us to think global, but act local. Public participation
becomes important and demands individual responsibility. Sustainable services must be
environmentally friendly, socially acceptable and financially viable into the next millennium
(Butler & Maksimovic 1999). The sustainability concept calls for overall rethinking and this
implies paying attention to particular situations in the local area. Learning about natural and man
made processes that affect the runoff quality and quantity is of prime importance. This
publication is thus expected to point out the most important issues that affect the way that we
analyse, design, build and operate our storm drainage systems in a nature friendly fashion. Our
current knowledge about the physical processes involved is far from satisfactory, even in
temperate climates where the most of research has been carried out in the past. Knowledge
about processes affecting urban storm drainage systems in particular climates covered in this
publication (arid and semi-arid, humid tropical and subtropical and cold) is far from
satisfactory. However the publication is aimed at providing an up to date look at solutions to
flooding and water quality problems. The concept of sustainability calls for amenity and
resources recycling to be taken into account as well. The authors are aware of the fact that many
issues raised here require further studies, research and development and that the issues raised
will provoke further refinements.
In densely populated developed countries (UK, Germany, some parts of the USA, Japan,
etc.), urban drainage consumes a high proportion of the investments into urban infrastructure.
The reasons for this are the obvious need for an integrated approach to urban water
management, and raised public awareness of the pollution caused by urban effluents, which
affect both the urban areas themselves and the receiving water bodies. The situation in
developing counties is also changing rapidly in the sense that all parties involved in planning,
design, management and maintenance as well as funding ( World Bank, aid agencies etc.) are
becoming aware that storm drainage can not be ignored. On the contrary, it has to be
incorporated into integrated urban infrastructure projects with their mutual interactions
encompassing not only the conventional problem of flood mitigation but also health hazard
reduction (water quality concerns) and problems of urban amenities and resources management
(Figure 1.1).
Although cities are in contact with water from various origins (ground water, streams
flowing through or near the city etc.), the major concern of urban drainage systems is water
originating in the city area itself, i.e. water from local rainfall (urban storm runoff) and its
interaction with the water originating from the rest of the river basin.
The change of the role of urban storm drainage (USD) and developments of information
processing technology have imposed a need for new tools and products to be used in the
problem solving procedure. Methods for flood protection by local storms and for assessment of
the effects of pollution transported by storms on receiving waters have been significantly
10
improved during the past two decades with the introduction of computer based simulation,
design, optimisation, real time control and management. The achievements of modern
informatics (i.e., a higher level of information processing) have made a significant impact on all
aspects of problem solving. However, despite significant development achieved, there is still a
big gap to be bridged since a compact and reliable package that adequately predicts dynamics
and spatial distribution of urban floods and that incorporates source control measures does not
seem to exist in the world.
Quality
Quantity
Amenity
and resources
Figure 1.1 Stormwater quality, quantity and amenity and resources management of equal
importance
In modern societies, the status of urban drainage as a part of the integrated infrastructure
system varies from one country to another, depending primarily on the level of development and
the society awareness of the importance of this problem. In general, the importance of the system
increases with the level of development, but there are also exceptions. The awareness of the wetweather pollution potential has rapidly increased in recent years. The systems, which used to
have a simple function of collecting storm water and conveying it to the nearest point of disposal
as soon as possible, have gradually evolved and are being replaced by the integrated systems
which are gaining in importance. Their role has changed and now in addition to covering urban
flood protection, pollution control and management they are starting to cater for improvement of
the quality of life by bringing water features creating urban amenity in the city. Additionally,
storm water is considered to be a precious resource, which can be retained near the source to be
reused, recharged to the underground for aquifer replenishment or to create habitat for the return
of wildlife to designated urban areas etc.
Conventional urban drainage systems are separate such as shown in Figure 1.2 or
combined in which case both waste and stormwater share the same pipe. During dry weather,
water is directed to treatment plant (if existing) and during wet weather, part of the mixed water
in combined sewers diverts to receiving stream via Combined Sewer Overflows (CSO). If the city
is served by a wastewater treatment plant, CSOs may be one of the major point sources of
receiving water pollution. In practice, separate systems rarely remain fully separate; there is
always some storm water in foul system and waste water in storm systems. In most cases they
behave like two combined systems with various degrees of waste water dilution. Treatment
plant suffers from intermittent overload during storm periods. Increased environmental concern
has lead to development of the concept in which, at least in developed countries, conventional
storm drainage systems are gradually being replaced by the systems based on runoff quantity
and quantity control. The system consists of several techniques that aim at controlling the
problem as near to the source as possible thus the term source control. They all attempt to
mimic the natural processes involved. The techniques include storage, treatment and infiltration,
by a water management treatment train (Figure 1.3), that results in significant reduction of
11
peak and volume of runoff, improved water quality and a possibility of using storm water as a
resource and as an element of urban amenity. However, the means of implementing the element
and principles of this technology in urban drainage in particular climates is an art still to be
mastered despite significant achievement in some countries for example Sweden, Stahre (1999)
in cold climate, city of Curitiba, Brazil, in tropical, several cases in Israel etc in arid climate
conditions as resented by Simon (1996). However, in order to reach greater sustainability in both
conventional and innovative urban drainage systems, better understanding of the physical
processes, interactions between the systems and environment in particulate climatic conditions is
needed. This publication is supposed to cover part of missing information and to address the
problems that need further investigations.
Surface
flow
Industrial
Inlet
Sanitary
Treatment
plant
Outflow
Treated water
Conveyance
Evaporation
Conveyance
Discharge
Prevention
Discharge
Source control
Site control
Regional control
Infiltration
Receiving water
Figure 1.3. Surface drainage management train likely sustainable solution (CIRIA555)
12
Figure 1.4. Urban Storm Water Master Plan as a part of the Catchment Management Plan
13
can claim that the management of urban storm drainage system in these cities will not
significantly affect the flow in the Danube. This effect is diminishing as one travels form the
spring to the river mouth. In that respect, and with reference to water quantity, these systems do
not affect the peak flow in the receiving water and can be designed independently. However,
small streams near large cities (i.e. small value of the factor - equation 1) are strongly affected
by the urban runoff peak flows, and implementation of source control could be strongly
recommended. In some cases it is the only solution. In many cases, the peak flow generated by
urban runoff is comparable to the conveyance capacity of the receiving stream. In these cases, the
management of urban drainage has a significant effect on the receiving water and its downstream
reaches. Consequently, the solution for the particular storm drainage problems has to be
developed at the catchment level, and in an integrated way. However, growing concerns over the
quality of surface runoff require that the interaction of particular citys pollution load is
addressed in conjunction with other pollution contributions from both upstream and
downstream urban areas. The difference in the capacity of the main receiving water calls for
classification of the concepts of storm drainage solutions, depending on the ratio of the peak
flows, likely to occur at the point of disposal (end of the pipe), to the average discharge in the
receiving stream (shown in Figure 1.5.)
=
QR0 QR
QR
(1.1)
where : Q R
= inflow at the upstream end of the urbanised area; Q R = outlet flow at the
0
downstream end of the urbanised area.
Figure 1.5. Classification of urban sub-catchments and interaction between urban runoff and the
adjacent river.
In the cases when the receiving urban stream reaches its full capacity under the effect of a
given return period flood wave. Source control solutions will be strongly dependent on the value
of the factor and of the urban catchment location (part of the city at high elevations and storm
water drained by gravity, or part of the city at low elevations which can be flooded by receiving
water). A high value of the factor , means the high capacity of the receiving water, thus the
storm runoff from the local urban area might not affect water level in the river. Thus the
implementation of source control may be less beneficial to the for the part of the city located on
15
the left river bank situated in the higher elevations (Figure 1.2.) than to the portion of the city
located on the opposite side of the river. In the latter case, the implementation of source control
measures could result in significant savings in both construction and operation management
costs. Both the cities of Budapest and Belgrade are good examples in which the portions of the
city on opposite sides of the receiving waters (Danube in the case of Budapest and both Sava and
Danube rivers in the case of Belgrade), have completely different flooding vulnerabilities and
different source control suitability. Thus the portions on different river banks would benefit
differently if source control measures would have been applied.
As a conclusion to this section one can say that there are no universal rules of thumb for
implementation of source control techniques. The most appropriate solutions have to be firstly
sought through the resolution of conflicts between land and water users at catchment level and
than at the level of municipal storm water plan. Both structural and non-structural measures
have to be analysed in terms of the suitability to an application of source control and benefits
that can be reached. Stormwater quality issues, which were almost ignored in the past, have to
be addressed properly in terms of their spatial and temporal distribution and effects on receiving
water bodies.
A possible approach in the evaluation of suitability by GIS support is given in
the paper of Macropoulos et al ( 1998) and will be discussed later in the section 05).
object require detailed specification of infrastructure system and their interaction with the flow
pattern. When properly calibrated against measurements, these models can produce seemingly
logical results especially if one is modelling the whole urban area as a single catchment and
model calibration performed against data in one point. This could be useful for example in
design of centralised storage facilities, inflow to treatment plants and similar cases when the
response of the whole catchment is considered. However, for detailed runoff modelling of
complex features such as trunk systems with broad sub-catchment areas, street drainage systems
with detailed property drainage components and sub-catchments, models of this nature generate
results of high level of uncertainty.
Physically based models in which a more detailed presentation of the catchment
characteristics are made and distributed modelling is applied should theoretically be less
sensitive to subjective assessment of model parameters. In the simplest terms, the whole
catchment is divided (delineated) in smaller sub-catchments which, depending on the purpose of
modelling, can vary in shape and size arbitrarily as to accommodate, the most realistic model
presentation of flow pattern (Figure 1.6). The temperate climate approach considers the following
element of modelling :
Rainfall as an input: single storm, series, historical rainfall, etc.
Interception (surface depression)
Infiltration (steady, unsteady, unsaturated soil, simple solution or Richards equation
based solutions)
Surface runoff
Gutter flow
Flow in ancillary structures
Pipe flow
When it comes to runoff modelling in specific climate conditions it is evident that this
approach needs further upgrades as to accommodate features like:
It is evident that these features require separate attention, although not necessarily a
completely new model. Most of them can be accommodated into reliable, well conceptualised
physically based model. This does require more knowledge, reliable data, proper interpretation.
Some of the shortcomings of the models of this nature as presented in the paper of
Maksimovic et al (1999) are:
Concepts dating back many decades. The development of contemporary information
technologys computing power has not always been mirrored by improvements in the
models,
17
The outdated concepts are often hidden behind powerful graphics and presentation
glamour
Modelling of urban water interactions are almost non-existent and integrated modelling
is in its infancy
Figure 1.6. Summary of physically based approach requiring a reliable catchment delineation
Many models lack modularity, transparency and transportability (automatic "scaling
up and down"),
18
Insufficient data
Variability of rainfall inputs
Insufficient temporal detail
Model incompatibility
Concerning the level of detail they point out that engineers have long been skilled at
idealising or conceptualising systems, to produce manageable models involving typically 10 to
100 elements to represent a complex urban drainage network. Now that there is a capacity to
work with more detail, it is necessary to look at appropriate levels for various tasks and the
relationships between models of various scales.
It has already been mentioned that for studies concerning general response (in the terms of
both quality and quantity) of the catchment or sub-catchment of a considerable size, it may
suffice to apply a lumped approach in which spatial variability of catchement characteristics as
well as of precipitation is ignored. Providing that reliable measurements at the end of catchments
are available, the results of input-output correlations are used instead. Some models of this
nature will be discussed in the particular chapters of separate volumes.
1.4.2. Quality aspects
Storm water runoff becomes polluted when it washes off concentrated and diffused pollution
sources spread across the catchment. An example of the average concentrations found in storm
runoff is presented in Table 1.1. (Source: Xanthopoulos and Hahn 1993 and Cordery 1977).
In addition to soil erosion caused by raindrop impacts and shear stress action, two major
sources contribute to storm water pollution in temperate climate zones:
a. diffused sources (Figure 1.7) originating primarily from atmospheric fallout and vehicle
emission, additionally spread by the vehicles and wind and
b. concentrated sources originating mostly from human activities bad housekeeping
(industrial wastes, chemicals spread in urban areas gardening for example) exposed to
and widespread by wash-off by storm runoff.
19
Both of the processes generate soluble and suspended material. Throughout the process of
transport, depending on hydraulic conditions, settling and re-suspension takes place on the
surface and in pipes, as well as biological and chemical reactions. These processes are often
considered to be more intense in the initial phase of the storm (first flush effect), however, due to
temporal and spatial variability of rainfall and flowing water, first flush effects are more
pronounced in pipes rather than on surfaces Deletic (1998), where high concentrations of
pollutants can be expected throughout the runoff process. The success of runoff quality
modelling exercise is strongly dependent on the quality of model (its reliability to realistically
reproduce processes taking place in nature), and the reliability of data against which the model
has been calibrated
Table 1.1. An example of average concentrations of pollutants in storm runoff
Quantity
Mean Concentration
Conductivity (S/cm)
108 - 470
BOD (mg/l)
7.3- 15
TOC (mg/l)
26 28.3
NH4(mg/l)
1.92-2.75
Pb (g/l)
160-525
Zn(g/l)
320 - 2000
Ni(g/l)
35-57
pH
6.47-6.78
COD (mg/l)
47-146
DOC(mg/l)
3.1.-5.1
P(mg/l)
3.1.-5.1
P(mg/l)
1.6-2.95
Cd(g/l)
2.8 6.4
Cu(g/l)
23-184
Coliforms (/100ml
2.2 5.6 (10*6)
Similar to quantity modelling, storm runoff quality modelling can be undertaken at
various levels of complexity, starting again with simplest input - output relationships. More
advanced models deal with spatial distribution of diffused pollution sources and analysis of
unsteady process of incipient of solid particles motion, bringing them to suspension, transport
along the paved areas, deposition in grassed areas (Deletic 1999), transport through the pipes
and disposal either into receiving water body or into treatment plant.
In order to enable the comparison of modelling approaches between the models being used
in temperate climates with those in development or in need to represent the conditions in other
climate conditions, the basic principles of quality modelling are briefly summarised. Most of the
models in current practice model the runoff quality by correlating the concentration of pollutants
to the concentration of particles of suspended solids which are modelled in the phase of build-up
and wash-off. The most common approach in build-up modelling is based on the assumption of
an exponential relationship between the amount of solids available on the surface, M, and the
duration of antecedent dry weather period, tdry. This equation was adopted in the model of
Deletic at al (1977) Figure 1. 8:
M( T ) = M o (1 e
k( t dry + t')
(1.2)
where M [g/m2] is the amount of solids available on the surface, T [day] is the time elapsed from
the start of the first rainfall in the series, tdry [day] is the duration of antecedent dry weather
20
period, and t' [day] is the virtual time, M0 [g/m2] is the maximum amount of solids expected at
the surface, and k [day-1] the accumulation constant.
The virtual time is calculated by assuming that deposition is zero at t days before the start
of the antecedent rainfall, as indicated in Figure 1.8.
A spatial distribution of solids is modelled, based on records from the literature, a different
approach to prior models, which all assume that sediment is distributed evenly over the
modelled surface.
It should be noticed here that this approach build-up modelling could be successfully
used in ASA climates where most of the solids accumulated are either atmospheric deposit or
are transported by wind. However, in cold climates where a great deal of pollution is
experienced in the snowmelt period from de-icing activities, which are not uniformly
distributed over the entire catchment, alternative methods have to be applied (for example GIS
supported spatial distribution of salt used in de-icing). In this respect a critical evaluation of other
models used in both quantity and quality modelling in particular climate conditions should be
made as for their suitability for application in specific climates.
wind
Rain and
snowmelt
traffic
soil
erosion
polluted
runoff
human activities
21
activities
The reliable modelling of suspended solids wash-off has to be combined with surface and pipe
flows to which the solids entrainment module has to be attached. The approach applied in
Deleti} et al (1997) will be used as an illustration. In this approach, the solids wash-off one
dimensional model contains the following sub-blocks: 1. overland flow; 2. solids entrainment; 3.
suspended solids transport by overland flow. Overland flow is modelled using the kinematic
wave equation, which has been used before for the modelling of surface runoff. Solids entrainment
is assessed by a new method, developed by the first author, which considers independently
rainfall and overland flow effects on amount of material lifted from the surface.
The rainfall effect is assessed by means of the kinetic energy of rain drops, while the effect
of flow is expressed by shear stress. One calibration coefficient is needed for this method. The
general principles of modelling will be described in more detail enabling thus the comparison to
be made between the commonly applied approach and the one that could be used in presenting
the specific aspects wash-off in ASA, CC and HT climates. Physically based modelling deals with
mass and momentum conservation principles which are that simplified or adjusted for the
specific features of the particular catchments characteristics, boundary conditions internal and
external local climate induced boundary conditions.
For a unit width of the road surface (Fig. 1.9.a) the continuity equation, Eq. 1.3, and the full
momentum equation, Eq. 1.3, can be written as:
h q
+
= ie
t x
(1.3)
+ i
q (q 2 / h )
h
+
+ gh
ghS s + b
=0
1
2
3
t 142
x43 123
x
4
{
1
42
3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Figure 1.8: The concept used in modelling of solids build-up at the surface
(1.4)
where, h [m] is the water depth, q [m3/s/m] is the unit overland flow, ie [m/s] is the effective
rainfall intensity, Ss [-] is the surface slope (the natural slope of the street surface), tb [Pa] is the
bed shear stress, ti [Pa] is the additional shear stress due to rainfall drops, x is the spatial coordinate, and t is the time from the start of rain. It should be noted here that the source term on
the right hand side of the equation 1 is based only on the contribution from direct rainfall. In CC
conditions for example this term has to be modified as to include the effects of snow melt and
freezing, which have to incorporate the temporal variations their thermodynamic properties.
Similarly in HT and ASA conditions it might be necessary to include the evaporation term
which has not been included here.
The initial and boundary conditions are given below,
h(x ,0) = 0 ; q(x ,0) = 0 ;q(0 , t ) = q up ( t )
(1.5)
where qup is the unit overland flow at the end of the upstream section. The effective rainfall
intensity ie was calculated by Linsley's equation,
i e = i(1 e P / yd )
(1.6)
where i [m/s] is rainfall intensity; P = idt [mm] is the total amount of precipitation up to time t,
0
b = C b ( ) 2
2
h
(1.7)
(1.8)
where Re=q/ is the Reynolds number and is the water kinematic viscosity. C1, C2, and C3 are
constants that depend on surface type, and Reb is the critical Reynolds number between laminar
and turbulent flow.
The effect of rain drops was modelled by an additional shear stress, i which is difficult to
define separately. Therefore, the total shear stress, written as,
t = b + i
(1.9)
23
A Q
+
= q w + q r + ieLg
t x
Q=
0.375 8 /3 S g
H
tg
n
(1.10)
(1.11)
where Q [m3/s] is the gutter flow; qw [m2/s] is the unit inflow from the sidewalk; qr [m2/s] is the
unit inflow from the road surface; ie [m/s] is the effective rainfall intensity Lg [m] is the gutter
width, A [m2] is the cross section area, H [m] is the water depth by the curb, n [m-1/3 s] is the
Manning roughness coefficient, Sg [-] is the longitudinal slope of the gutter, [0] is the transverse
angle of the gutter. Eq. 1.11 is known as Izzard's (1946) formula which differs slightly from
Manning's expression, but gives better results for the shallow flow in a triangular cross section
channel . In specific climate conditions the right hand side of the equation 1.10 can be modified
as to include additional terms the contribute to water balance.
It was assumed that there is no flow at the beginning of a rainfall event (the initial
conditions). The inflow from the upstream reach was used as an upstream boundary condition.
Furthermore, the solids entrainment, pollution transport by overland flow and gutter flow are
modelled by making use of kinetic energy of rainfall drop impact, carrying capacity of surface
runoff and principle of turbulent transport and diffusion in open channel flow (Deletic et al.
1997). Although these principles are universal thus applicable in other climate conditions, the
appropriate modifications have to be made in transport and diffusion equations in order to
incorporate their specific conditions, mainly in the source and sink terms of mass conservation
and transport equations. Some of these principles are discussed in the main body of the text,
however it should be noted that they are to be further investigated, tested and checked against
reliable data. In this respect this publication is to be seen as a source of information on both
current practice and need for further investigations in order to realistically reflect the conditions
in particular climates. Additionally, it is noted that the above considerations have only dealt
with suspended solids.
1.5 Common UD models and needs for their improvements and update
Physically based models are based on the analysis of processes on the surface and in networks,
and is performed by taking into account detailed features on the surface (topography, soil
characteristics, land use, connectivity between elements etc.) and of the networks and ancillary
structures. This section will mention just a few (more detailed presentations are given in the
other chapters ) of the existing models available either freely or commercially:
SWMM (US EPAs Storm Water Management Model) Huber (1995). This is one of the
first models developed, with a high degree of physically based principles incorporated.
Its initial versions (still in frequent use in its original main frame version) have served
as a basis for development of the other models which have taken advantage of later
development of personal computer technology.
Hydroworks (HR Wallinford Wallingford Software)
The latest versions of the package are user orientated and can be used for matching
with data sources and in composition of reports.
MOUSE (DHI Danish Hydraulics Institute-1990) Broadly used internationally. The
developers have made an effort to incorporate some of the developments of PC
24
control in the same catchment (Macropoulos et al 1998 and Macropoulos et al 1999). The works
of Prodanovic (1999) and Djordjevic et al (1998) provide further development towards GIS assisted physically-based flood modelling in urban areas based on the dual drainage concept.
There is a huge unexploited potential of GIS application in particular climates. In the
individual chapters, authors present current techniques in data analysis and modelling. Most of
the specific features of the urban catchment in particular climates are of a spatial nature which
renders them particularly applicable to quantification by GIS (e.g. suitable for application of GIS.
It can be used in quantification of both physical features (such as soil propensity characteristics,
soil erosion, pollutant potential distribution, snow cover, asphalt temperature, solar radiation
exposure). These and other GIS applications are yet to be researched and made a part of the
daily routine.
1:2000
1:2000
Paper
Paper maps
maps
digitizing
digitizing
Satellite images
Video
Video images
images
GPS
GPS data
data
Photogrammetry
Photogrammetry
Digital
Digital data
data from
from
total
total stations
stations
Dynamic
Dynamic positioning
positioning &
& bathimetry
bathimetry data
data
Paper maps
Areal photographs etc.
or
DEM -- existing
corrected
Land cover + network
etc.
Pre processing
of primary data
and creation of
secondary files
for
subcatchment
delineation
Slopes
Aspects
Slope threshold
Flow angles
Subcatch. boundaries
etc.
Input files
for models
26
Figure 1.11. Pre processing and post-processing of data for catchment delineation
27
Fig. 1.13. Suitability of the Klisa catchment for application of infiltration techniques
28
Fig. 14. Reduction in maximum water level for 10 years return period rainfall
29
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