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Administrative Law
Introduction to Law
Bodyofrulesofconduct.
Obligatoryinnature.
Sanctionsareimposedifrulesareviolated.

Keyobjectivesofanylaware
Establishingstandards
Maintainingorder
Resolvingdisputes
Protectingliberties&rights

Common&Statutemaybeclassifiedintwobroadcategories
Substantive

Lawthatcreates&controlstherights&dutiesofparties.
PublicLaw
Thelawrelatingtotherelationshipbetweentheindividuals&
governmentortheiragencies.IncomeTaxAct,CriminalCodeetc.
PrivateLaw
Thelawrelatingtotherelationshipbetweenindividuals.
ContractLaw,SaleofGoodsAct,PartnershipActetc.

Procedural

Lawthatcreates&controlsthe
processofenforcing
therights&duties.
CPC,IPC

Legislatures
A
statute
isalawpassedbyalegislatureand
statutorylaw
isthebodyoflawresultingfromstatutes.A
statuteorthestatutorylawmayalsobereferredtoaslegislation.

Bill
Aproposedlawpresentedtoalegislativebody.
Motion
Thedecisiontoreadabillafirsttime&printedforcirculation.
RoyalAssessment

Neededinorderforabilltobecomelaw.
Proclaimed

Whenalawbecomeseffective.
RevisedStatus
Updatedoramendedstatus.

Judiciaries
JudiciaryinIndiaisanindependentbodyandseparatefromexecutive&legislativebodyoftheIndian
govt.ThejudicialsysteminIndiaisstratifiedatvariouslevelswithSCattheapex.

ThejudiciarysystemthatisfollowedinIndiaisbasedontheBritishLegalSystemthatwasprevalent
inthecountryduringpreindependenceera.

Indiahasa
quasifederalstructure
with29statesfurtherdividedintoabout601administrativedistricts.
TheJudicialsystemhoweverhasaunifiedstructure.TheSC,HC&DCconstituteasinglejudiciary.
Broadlythereisa3tiersystem.EachdistricthasaDC&eachstatehasaHC.SCistheapexcourt.

EachstatehasitsownlawsconstitutingcourtssubordinatetoSC.Besides,anumberofjudicial
tribunalshavebeensetupinspecializedareas.SomeoftheexamplesareCompanyLawBoard,
ConsumerProtectionForum,TaxTribunaletc.Thesetribunalsfunctionunderthesupervisory
jurisdictionofHCwheretheymaybesituated.

ThejudiciaryinIndiahasbeenassignedroletoplay.Ithastodispensejusticenotonlybetween
one
personandanother,butalsobetweenthestateandthecitizens
.Itinterpretstheconstitutionandactsas
its
protectorandguardian
bykeepingallauthoritieslegislative,executive,administrative,judicialand
quasijudicialwithinbounds.Thejudiciaryisentitledtoscrutinizeanygovernmentalactioninorderto
assesswhetherortoitconformstotheconstitutionandthevalidlawsmadethereunder.

Thecourtsareasourceoflawfortworeasons.
Judicialreview
Judicialreviewisthepowerofacourttodecideontheconstitutionalityofa
statuteorothergovernmentalaction.
CommonLaw
Courtsmakelawwhentheyresolvedisputesbydecidingcases.

Judicialprecedent
meanstheguidanceorauthorityofthepastdecisionsofthecourtforfutureuses.
Thefirstprincipleisthateachcourtlowerinthehierarchyisabsolutelyboundbythedecisionsofthe
courtaboveit.Thesecondprincipleisthatingeneral,highercourtsareboundbytheirowndecisions.
HighcourtsThedecisionsofahighcourtarebindingonallthesubordinatecourtsand
tribunalswithininjurisdictions.Thedecisionsofonehighcourthaveonlyapersuasivevalue
inacourtwhichiswithinthejurisdictionofanotherhighcourt.
SupremecourtTheSupremecourtisnotboundbyitsowndecisions.

Differenttypesof
precedents
are
1. Declaratoryor
Original
Merelyanapplicationofexistingruleoflaw.
2. Persuasive
3. Absolutelyauthoritative
Judgesmustfollowwhethertheyapproveitornot.
4. Conditionallyauthoritative
canbedisregardedundercertaincircumstances.

Staredecisis
isthepracticeorpolicyofusingprecedenttodecidecasesitmeansletthedecision
stand.

CivilLawvsCriminalLaw
Civillawdeterminesanddecidesprivatedisputes.Crimelawdealswiththeoffensecommittedagainst
state.

Incivilcase,thecourthastoframeissuesandbasedontheevidence,woulddecideastowhetherthe
civilrightsareviolatedandifso,whetherornottheplaintiffisentitledtoanyremedyandifso,what
remedy/reliefmaybeawardedtotheplaintiff.

Inacriminalcase,themainquestionfordecisionbythecourtis
whethertheaccusedisguiltyor
innocentofthecharge
.Basedontheevidenceandfacts&circumstancesofthecase,acriminalcase
canonlyendeitherinanacquittalorinaconviction.

Inacivilcase,theburdenofproofisusuallyontheplaintiff.Inacriminalcase,however,theburden
ofproofisontheprosecution.

Inacivilcase,thepartiesbeartheexpenseoflitigation.Inacriminalcase,itisthestatethroughits
publicprosecutors,whowillprosecutethecase.
International Organizations
Internationalorganizationsmayalsobeasourceoflaw.Themostrecognizableinternational
organizationistheInternationalCourtofJustice(ICJ).TheICJisthejudicialbranchoftheUnited
Nations(UN)andissometimesreferredtoastheWorldCourt.

TheICJhearslegaldisputessubmittedtoitbymembercountriesandgivesadvisoryopinionsonlegal
questionsreferredtoitbyauthorizedUNorganizationsandspecializedagencies.Butonlycountries,

notpersons,mayseekICJdecisions.Inaddition,theICJdoesnothavetheauthoritytoenforceits
decisions.

OtherinternationalorganizationsincluderegionaltradecommunitieslikeASEAN,EUetc.

Constitution of India
ConstitutionofIndiaisthesupremelawofIndia.Itlaysdowntheframeworkfordefiningfundamental
politicalprinciples,establishingthestructure,procedures,powersandduties,ofthegovernmentand
spellsoutthefundamentalrights,directiveprinciplesanddutiesofcitizens.
Dealswiththeorganizationandstructureofthecentral&statesgovernments.
Providedetailednormsoncentralstaterelationships.
Provisionsonfundamentalrights.
Includesdirectiveprinciplestopromotesocialwelfare.
Containsfundamentalprinciplesofgovernance.
Containsadmindetailssuchasprovisionsregardingcitizenships,officiallanguagesetc.
Preamble
Preamblereferstotheintroductionorprefaceoftheconstitution.Itcontainsthesummaryofessenceof
theconstitution.ItsetsoutthephilosophyormainobjectivesonwhichtheIndianconstitutional
structurewascrafted.

PreambledeclaresIndiaasa
sovereignsocialist,secular,democraticrepublic
,thatprovidetoallits
citizens.
Justice
social,economic&political
Equality
ofstatus&opportunity.
Liberty
ofthought,expression,belief,faith&worship.
Fraternity
assuringthedignityoftheindividualandunity&integrityofnation.
IdeaofpreambleborrowedfromConstitutionofUS.
Welfare State
Itisaconceptofgovtinwhichthestateplaysakeyroleinthe
protection&promotion
ofeconomic
andsocialwellbeingofitscitizens
.Awelfarestateisbasedontheprinciplesof
Equalityofopportunity
.
Equitabledistributionofwealth
.
Italsofocusesonthegovernmentalresponsibilityforthosewhoareunabletoavailthemselvesofthe
minimalprovisionsofagoodlife.

Indiawasnotawelfarestatebeforeindependence.WhenIndiaattainedindependence,ithad
innumerableproblems&challenges.Thesocial&economicinequalitywasallpervasive.
Economically,Indiassituationwasmiserable.

Theconstitutionmakerswereverymuchawareofthisproblem.Thatiswhy,theydecidedthatIndia
wouldbeawelfarestate.Accordingly,
constitutionhasextensiveprovisions

toensuresocialand
economicwelfareofthepeopleofIndia.Inthisregard,twospecificprovisionshavebeenmade.
1. Fundamentalrights
2. Directiveprinciplesofstatepolicy
Fundamental Rights
Fundamentalrightshavebeenincludedintothechapter3rdoftheconstitutionfromArticle12to35.
Constitutionprovidesfundamentalrightsunder6categories.
Righttoequalitybeforelaw,employmentetc.
Righttofreedomspeech,assembly,association,movement,residence,professionetc.
Rightagainstexploitationchildlabor,forcedlabor,humantraffickingetc.
Righttofreedomofreligion
Cultural&educationalrights
Righttoconstitutionalremedieswrits
Directive Principles
TheConstitutionmakerswerewellawarethatevenifallthefundamentalrightsaretrulyenforced,the
goalsofIndiandemocracywouldnotberealizedunlessthepeopleofIndiacouldavailof
socialand
economicrights
.

The
DirectivePrinciples
ofStatePolicyare
guidelinestothecentralandstategovernmentsofIndia
.
Thegovernmentsmustkeeptheseprinciplesinmindwhileframinglawsandpolicies.Itistruethat
theseprovisionsoftheConstitutionofIndiaare
non
justiciable
,whichmeansthatthesearenot
enforceablebyanycourtoflaw
.

Athighlevel,theseprinciplescanbeclassifiedunderdifferentheads.
Principlespromotingsocialandeconomicequality
ExampleThereshouldbeequalpayfor
equalworkforbothmenandwomen.
PrinciplesrelatedtoGandhianthought
ExampleThestateshalltrytopromotecottage
industriesinruralareas
PrinciplesrelatedtoInternationalpeaceandsecurity
ExampleThestateshallfosterrespect
forinternationallawsandtreatyobligations.
MiscellaneousPrinciples
.ExampleThestateshalltakestepstoseparatetheJudiciaryfrom
Executive.

ManyofthemajorlaborlegislationshavetheirinitiationinthispartofconstitutionMaternityBenefit
Act,PaymentofGratuityAct,FactoriesAct,ContractLaborAct,MinimumWagesAct
Fundamental Duties
TheseFundamentalrightshavebeenprovidedatthecostofsomefundamentalduties.Theseare
consideredasthedutiesthatmustbeandshouldbeperformedbyeverycitizenofIndia.
1. Abidebyconstitution&respectnationalflag&anthem.
2. Cherish&follownobleidealswhichinspiredournationalstruggleforfreedom.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Uphold&protectthesovereignty,unity&integrityofIndia.
Defendthecountryandrendernationalservicewheneverrequired.
Promoteharmony&spiritofcommonbrotherhood.
Value&preserverichheritageofculture.
Protect&improvenaturalenv.
Developthescientifictemper,humanism&spiritofinquiry&reform.
Safeguardpublicproperty.
Strivetowardsexcellenceinallspheres.

Administrative Agencies
Administrativeagenciesaregovernmentalbodiesusuallycreatedbyalegislaturetoadministera
specificstatuteorotherlaw.

Administrativeagenciesexistatthecentral,state,andlocallevelsofgovernmenttheymaybereferred
tobyanumberofnames,includingagencies,boards,bureaus,commissions,departments,andservices.

Threemainfunctionsofadministrativeagenciesare
1. Rulemaking
2. Enforcement
3. Adjudication

Whenanadminagencyiscreated,itisdelegatedcertainpowers.
Legislativepower
forrulemaking.
Executivepowers
forenforcingtherules.
Judicialpowers
toadjudicatecases.
Ifanadminagencyactsoutsidethescopeofitsdelegatedpowers,itisanunconstitutionalact.

Administrative Law
AdministrativeLawisthebodyofrulesusedto
regulateandcontroltheadministrativeagencies.
Dealswithcomposition&powerofadminagencies.
Fixesthelimitsofthepowersoftheseauthorities.
Prescribestheprocedurestobefollowedbytheseauthoritiesinexercisingsuchpower.
Controlstheseadminagenciesthroughjudicial&othermeans.

BernardSchwartz
hasdefinedAdministrativeLawasthelawapplicabletothoseadministrative
agencieswhichpossessofdelegatedlegislationandadjudicatoryauthority.

Theconstitutiondealswiththegeneralprinciplesrelatingtotheorganizationandpowersofthe
legislature,executive&judiciaryandtheirrelationwitheachotherandtowardsthecitizens.

Theadminlawisconcernedwiththatpartoftheconstitutionallawwhichdealsindetailwiththe
powersandfunctionsofadminauthoritiesincludingcivilservices,publicdepartments,localauthorities
andotherstatutorybodies.
Doctrine of Separation of Power & Delegated Legislation
Thereare3mainorgansofgovernmentinastate.Theyare
1. Legislature
2. Executive
3. Judiciary

Thelegislatureofthestateenactslawswhicharerequiredforregulatingtheconductofthepeople
livinginthesociety,implementationsofthoselawsiscarriedoutbytheexecutive.Thejudicial
functionisexercisedbyjudiciaryandresponsibleforsettledownofdisputesbetweenindividualsand
alsobetweenindividuals&governments

Accordingto
theoryofseparationofpowers
,thesethreepowersandfunctionsofthegovtshouldbe
keptseparateandbeexercisedbyseparateorgansofgovt..

Butthechangetheroleofthestateintothewelfarestatepropelledthegrowthofwhatiscalled
delegatedlegislation.Whenthepoweroflegislationisentrustedtoorgansotherthanthelegislature
itself,thelegislationmadebysuchorgansiscalled
delegatedlegislation
.

Thelegislaturebyenactinganactconferspowerstomakerulesontheexecutivebranch.Thisactis
called
parentactorsupremelegislation
.Whentheexecutiveorganexercisesthepowerconferredonit
bytheparentactandmakestherules,regulationsornotifications,itiscalled
subordinatelegislationor
delegatedlegislation
.

Thefactorsthatareresponsibleforthegrowthofdelegatedlegislationare
Lackoftimeforthelegislaturetoshapetechnicaldetails.
Lackofsubjectmatterexpertswhoknowstechnicaldetails.
Democratizationofrulemakingprocess.

DifferentmethodsofdelegationsthatarefrequentlyusedinIndiaare
1. Powertofillindetails
Legislaturebuildaskeleton(policy)andexecutivetosupplythe
details.
2. Powerofinclusion&exclusion
Forexample,executiveisempoweredtoaddorexcludeany
employmenttoMinimumWagesAct.
3. Powerto
impose
tax
4. Powertomodifythestatute.
5. Powertobringanactintooperation.
6. Powertoextendtheapplicationoftheact.

ConditionalVsSubDelegation
Inconditionaldelegation,nolegislativefunctionisdelegatedtothe
executiveauthorities.Inthecaseofsubdelegation,thestatuteconferssomelegislativepowersonan
executiveauthority.
Judicial Control of Delegated Legislation
Judicialreview
isthepowerofthecourtstoexaminethe
legality&constitutionalityofadmintasks
.
Onexamination,iftheywerefoundtobeviolativeconstitution(
UltraVires
),theycanbedeclaredas
illegal,unconstitutional&invalidbythecourts.ThescopeofjudicialreviewinUSAismuchwider
thaninBritain.Indiafallsinbetweenthetwoduetotheconstitutional&statutorylimitations.
TheSCofIndia,initslandmarkjudgmenton2Gcase,cancelled122licences

Thevalidityofdelegatedlegislationisdeterminedbycourtsbyapplyingtwotests.
1. Substantiveultravires.
2. Proceduralultravires.

Ifthedelegatedlegislationhasgonebeyondthescopeoftheauthorityconferredontheexecutiveby
theparentactorConstitution,theDLwouldbedeclaredinvalidontheground
substantiveultravires
.
Whentheparentactisunconstitutional.
WhentheDLisinconsistentwithparentact.
TheDLisunconstitutionalconsistentwithparentact,butviolatestheprovisionsof
constitution.
Unreasonableness
(AirIndiaVsNargeshMeerzaregulationforterminationofairhostess
serviceonherfirstpregnancy)
MalaFideorBadFaithsubdelegationorexclusionofjudicialreview.

IfaDLfailstocomplywithcertainproceduralrequirementsprescribedbytheparentactorbythe
generallaw,itisknownasaproceduralultravires.
Consultation
PublicationfailuretopublicinOfficialGazetteintheprescribedmannerwouldrenderthe
rulesinvalid.
Layingbeforelegislature

Principles of Natural Justice

Withtheoverburdeningofdutiesandfunctionsofthejudicialorganofthestate,someofthefunctions
havetobedelegatedtotheexecutiveauthority.Naturaljusticereferstothose
minfairprocedures
tobe
followedbyadministrativeagencies
whileexercisingtheirquasijudicialfunctions
.
Naturaljusticeimplies
fairness,equity&equality.

InIndia,theprinciplesofnaturaljusticearefirmlygroundedin
Article14&21
oftheConstitution.
Theviolationofprinciplesofnaturaljusticeresultsinarbitrarinesstherefore,violationofnatural
justiceisaviolationofEqualityclauseofArt.14.

Theprincipleofnaturaljusticeencompassesfollowingtworules.

Ruleagainstbias
Heshouldnothaveanyinterestinthesubjectmatterorinthepartiestothe
dispute.Heshouldbefreefrombias.
Ruleoffairhearing
Beforepassinganorderagainstanyperson,reasonableopportunityof
beingheardmustbegiventohimNotice&Opportunityofhearing.
SpeakingOrderorReasonedDecision
Speakingordermeansanorderwhichcontainsreasons
forthedecision.Adminagenciesshouldprovideaspeakingorder.

Itisageneralprinciplethatadminauthoritieswhileexercisingtheadjudicatoryfunctionshouldfollow
theprinciplesofnaturaljustice.However,undercertainconditions,theycanactwithoutfollowingthe
principlesofnaturaljustice.
1. Legislativeaction
Whenthelegislativepowerisdelegatedtotheadminauthority.
2. Urgency&publicinterest

3. Impracticability
Whenlargenumberofpersonsareinvolved.

Judicial Remedies
Thejudiciarycanexercisecontroloveradministrationthroughvariousmethods&techniqueslike.
1. Judicialreview
2. Statutoryappeal

3. Suitsagainstgovt
4. Suitsagainstpublicofficials
5. Writs

SC&HC
HabeasCorpus
Thisliterallymeansproducethebody.Itisissuedtoreleasethedetained
personfromillegaldetention.[EswaraWarriorvs.KeralaState]
Mandamus
Issuedwhenthereisafailuretoperformamandatorydutybyapublicauthority.It
isapplicableonlyagainsta
publicauthority
&itistheorderofthecourtcommandingaperson
orapublicauthoritytodoornotdosomethinginthenatureofapublicduty.Thiscantbe
issuedagainstPresidentorGovernor.
Prohibition
IssuedbySCorHCtopreventaninferiorcourtfromexceedingitsjurisdictionor
actingcontrarytotherulesofnaturaljustice.
QuoWarranto
Meanswhatisyourauthority?.Itisissuedtoapersonwhofailsapublic
officetoshowthecourtunderwhatauthorityhefailstheoffice.

Law of Tort
ThetermtortisalegaltermderivedfromtheLatinwordtortusmeaningawrong.Itsuseinlaw
istodescribeagreatmanyactivitiesthatresultindamagetoothers,withtheexceptionofabreachof
trust,abreachofdutythatisentirelycontractualinnature.

Tortscomesunderon2flavors
1. Willfulorintentionalinterference.
2. Unintentionalinterference(negligence)

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Majorintentionalinterferencesinpersonallifeare
Assault
Athreatofviolenceorinjurytoaperson.
Battery
Theunlawfultouchingorstrikingofanotherperson.
Defamation
Falsestatementsthatinjureaperson'sreputation.Writtenorverbal.
Trespass
Entryonthelandsofanotherwithoutpermission,ortheseizureordamageofgoods
ofanotherwithoutconsent.

Businessrelatedintentionaltortsare
Slanderofgoods
astatementallegingthatthegoodsofacompetitoraredefective,shoddyor
injurioustothehealthofacustomer.
Slanderoftitle
Anuntruestatementabouttherightofanothertotheownershipofgoods.For
example,theallegationmightbethatthegoodswerestolen,improperlyimported,orproduced
inviolationofthecopyrightorpatentrightsoftherightfulowner.
Breachofconfidence

Improperdealingwithcompetitorsemployees.
Restraintoftrade
Agreementbetweenfirmstofixprices,injurecompetitionorpreventothers
fromenteringamarket.
Deceit
arisingfromfraudulentmisrepresentation.

Someoftheexamplesforunintentionalinterferenceare
Carelessdrivingcauseinjuryordeathtoothersontheroad.
Carelessmanufactureofaproductmaypoisonorinjureacustomer.

Tortremediesare
Compensatorydamages
Moneytocompensatethelossofordamagetoaproperty,for
medicalexpenseorlossofwages.
Nominaldamages
Ifatortdoesnotresultinamonetarylosstothepersonwhoserightshave
beeninfringedbytheact(trespassontheland),courtmaysometimesawardnominalchargesin
theamountof1Rs.
Punitivedamages
Damagesawardedtosetanexampleordiscouragerepetitionoftheact.
Courtinjunction
topreventfurtheroccurrencesofthetort.
Orderofreplevin
Courtactionthatpermitsapersontorecovergoodsunlawfullytakenby
another.
.
Atortisacivilwrongotherthanabreachofcontract.Tortlawdefineswhatconstitutesalegalinjury
andestablishesthecircumstancesunderwhichonepersonmaybeheldresponsible(i.e.,liable)for
anothersinjury.

Suits Against Government

InIndia,
article300oftheConstitutiongovernsthesuabilityofthestate
.ItstatesthatUnion&State
govtcanbesued,subjecttotheprovisionofthelawmadebytheParliamentandstatelegislature
respectively.

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Thestateissuableincontracts.ThismeansthatcontractualliabilityofUnionandStategovtissameas
thatofanindividualundertheordinarylawofcontract.

However,incaseoftorts,thepositionisdifferent.Inthisregard,adistinctionismadebetweenthe
sovereignandnonsovereignfunctionsofthestate.Thestatecanbesuedonlyincaseofitsnon
sovereignfunctionsbutnotincaseofitssovereignfunctions.

InBritain,therehasbeentraditionalimmunityofthestatefromanylegalliabilityforanyaction.Suits
againstgovtincontractortortwereseverelyrestricted.Theserestrictionswererelaxedin1947and
currently,statecanbesuedforthewrongfulactsofitsofficialswhetherincontractsortorts.

IntheUSA,subjecttofewexceptions,thestatecantbesuedincasepertainingtotorts.

InFrance,wherethesystemofDroitAdministratifprevails,thestateassumesresponsibilityforthe
officialactionsofitsservantsandcompensatethecitizensforanylosssufferedbythem.

Sovereignfunctionsarethoseactionsofthestateforwhichitisnotanswerableinanycourtoflaw.For
instance,actssuchasdefenceofthecountry,raisingandmaintainingarmedforces,makingpeaceor
war,foreignaffairs,acquiringandretainingterritory,arefunctionswhichareindicativeofexternal
sovereigntyandarepoliticalinnature.Therefore,theyarenotamenabletojurisdictionofordinarycivil
court.TheStateisimmunefrombeingsued,asthejurisdictionofthecourtsinsuchmattersis
impliedlybarred.

Control of Public Undertakings