DefenseElectronics

Carbon foam liberates lead-acid

batteries for emerging military missions
The limitations of conventional lead-acid batteries lie in the electrodes, and a
fundamental breakthrough replacing lead with carbon-graphite foam allows the
true potential of this mature battery chemistry to be more fully harnessed while
maintaining conventional form factors for military equipment.
By Dan Jurchenko and Kurt Kelley

lead-acid chemistry, the technology

rom the time that the vast and fardeveloped by Firey has shown such
ranging Union and Confederate
promise that the U.S. military has
armies of the American Civil War exso far contracted for more than $5
ploited the advantages of instantaneous,
million to enable Firey to adapt the
long-distance communication by elecbattery technology for stringent
tric telegraph, batteries have played a
military vehicle applications.
key role in military technology. Civil
The key to Fireys technology
War telegraph engineers had to rely on
lies in the replacement of the solid
the Grove cell, which wasnt rechargelead grids in lead-acid batteries with
able and emitted hazardous nitric oxide
something new. In place of the congas. Despite the drawbacks of that early
ventional grids, Fireys Microcell
technology, the military has relied on
technology uses a carbon-graphite
storage batteries ever since.
Figure 1. Used 6T batteries stockpiled in Iraq (photo courtesy
material having an extremely porous
When the Civil War began in 1861, U.S. Army).
foam structure with hundreds or
the rechargeable lead-acid battery was
in its infancy; having been invented just two years earlier by Gaston thousands (depending upon the chosen pore diameters) of spheriPlant of France. Remarkably, the basic chemistry and functionality cal cells (shown in Figure 2). The new grid material is impregnated
with a slurry of lead oxides. This composite material is then formed
of lead-acid technology have remained essentially unchanged.
In the intervening 148 years, batteries have come to play a va- up to the sponge lead and lead dioxide in the normal fashion. This
riety of key roles in all branches of the worlds military forces. creates a unique new cell architecture in which the electrolyte
Communications remain an important application, as they were in the is redistributed from the smaller separator reservoir of a conventional
1860s. It was, however, with the advent of mechanized warfare in the rst battery to the pores of the foam plates themselves.
The primary advantage of this new structure is that it yields greatly
half of the 20th century that batteries acquired a new signicance as
enhanced utilization levels of the lead-acid chemistry, because each
an essential part of the modern military inventory.
The logistical need for standardization has made the 6T lead-acid microcell has its full complement of sponge lead or lead dioxide and
battery the workhorse for some 95% of U.S. military vehicle applica- sulphuric acid electrolyte. Liquid diffusion in conventional lead-acid
tions. In addition to vehicles, the 6T is used in generators and a variety batteries occurs in a single direction along direct pathways on the order
of other support equipment requiring a large-capacity, stable power of millimeters. Within the discrete microcells that collectively make up
supply. The U.S Army currently spends approximately $75 million a new type of electrode structure (what Firey calls a 3D electrode),
liquid diffusion occurs in all directions along direct pathways on the
annually on 6T batteries alone.
Battery reliability in military applications is critical. Lives order of microns. Such a structure results in much higher power, greater
depend on it. At the same time, these applications place demands energy delivery, and faster recharge capabilities relative to conventional
that push the nearly 150-year-old lead-acid technology to the lead-acid batteries.
The use of porous, three-dimensional carbon graphite composite
limits of performance and beyond. Punishing conditions of severe vibration, temperature extremes, and prolonged idle states material to replace the lead metal grids in either ooded or valveplace extraordinary demands on these batteries. Furthermore, regulated (sealed) lead-acid battery designs will release the full power
the logistics costs stemming from the weight as well as the potential of the lead-acid chemistry for energy storage. This delivers
need for frequent battery replacement are formidable. Accord- a formidable jump in specic power, energy and cycle life. Fireys
ing to a recent National Research Council report, it required an advanced battery technology yields performance comparable to
estimated $500 million to ship (not purchase) the batteries used in advanced materials batteries (lithium and nickel), but can be built for
Iraq during Operation Desert Storm, waged from 1990 to 1991. a cost similar to conventional lead-acid batteries, which is one-fth
Today, it costs $35,000 per ton to air-ship supplies to a combat theater. the cost of advanced materials technology.
Firey is concurrently developing two versions of its advanced
The need for a better battery technology is obvious. (Shown in Figure
technology. The rst of these, 3D, uses Microcell Technology for
1 is a battery stockpile in Iraq from the most recent conict).
A breakthrough technology patented by Firey Energy is being the negative plate while maintaining a conventional lead-metal positive
developed to provide the U.S. military with a cost-effective alterna- plate. The more advanced technology, dubbed 3D2, uses the carbontive to conventional lead-acid technology. Without altering the basic graphite foam composite material for the positive and negative plates

16

706RFDEF3.indd 16

www.rfdesign.com

June 2007

7/6/2007 2:19:14 PM

for the new cell architecture. This enhanced

electrolyte supply also results in higher, atter
voltage-time curves on discharge, which means
higher energy outputs when combined with the
lower current densities that accrue from the
large available surface area of the foam. This
is reected in Table 1.
As the temperature is lowered, the power
required to start an internal combustion engine
increases (due to increased oil viscosity), while
at the same time the power available from the
battery drops, specically to 40% of what
can be provided at ambient temperature for
the case when the car is started at 18 C. By
comparison, Firey 3D battery technology can
provide 69% of its ambient-temperature power at
18 C. This means that an engine-start battery
based on Fireys 3D technology could be sized
smaller to have the same cold-crank amps, or it
would be more powerful and last longer if its
size were comparable to a conventional lead-acid
battery.

within the battery. For the purposes of this

article, the term 3D is used to generically
describe the carbon-graphite composite cell
structure.

Microcell power density attributes

Although lead-acid batteries are the least

costly rechargeable energy storage products in
the world to manufacture, the extensive use of
lead gives them an exceptionally large footprint
and weight. This limits their form factors and
overall usability in new product designs and Figure 2. Close-up view of the carbon-graphite
advanced applications. In addition, most lead foam structure used in Microcell technology.
battery plates (more than 100 in a typical large
lead-acid battery) only use 20% to 40% of their
surface area during each discharge over the life of
the battery. This creates even more inefciencies
in power-to-weight ratios. Microcell technology directly addresses this issue in two ways.
First, by eliminating most of the lead within the
plates themselves, substantial weight reductions
are achieved. Second, the greater efciency and
material-utilization characteristics of the carbongraphite foam cells allow the plates to be much
Microcell hot temperature attributes
smaller than conventional lead-acid battery cells
The optimum operating temperature for a
with comparable output.
lead-acid battery is 25 C (77 F). As a rule of
In 3D2 technology, volume and weight reductions Figure 3. The use of carbon-graphite
thumb, every 8 C to 10 C rise in temperature will
of as much as 50% relative to comparably perform- foam in place of conventional lead
accelerate the corrosion rate of the lead metal
ing conventional lead-acid batteries are projected electrodes leads to signicant reductions grids by a factor of two and result in premature
(Figure 3). This approaches the power density in size and weight for the same battery
failure for the battery. This is a simple calculation
levels of much more expensive advanced materials capacity.
based on eld observations and on the increased
chemical activity at higher temperatures. Lead grids corrode in the
batteries such as NiMH or Li-ion.
acidic electrolyte in the presence of lead dioxide, the positive-plate
active material. High ambient and operating temperatures accelerate
Microcell cold temperature attributes
Lead-acid batteries are severely affected by cold temperatures. this process.
This is due to an increase in internal resistance caused by a slowing
Fireys 3D battery technology has superior performance in terms of
down of the batterys chemical reaction and ion diffusion rates. As a rule thermal management. The heat-transfer characteristics of the carbonof thumb, reaction rates are cut in half for each 10 C drop in temperature. graphite foam are better than metals such as aluminum and copper, and
Cold cranking is a discharge that needs a high current, meaning a lot of approach that of a diamond. Figure 4 shows thermal images taken of
active material conversion in a short time. This is directly related to a Firey 3D cell and a comparable commercial VRLA lead-acid cell
the amount of electrode surface area covered with active material that to illustrate further the heat-transfer superiority of carbon-graphite
foam. Both cells were subjected to a 5-C-rate (12 minute) discharge,
is available for conversion.
Sizing a lead-acid battery for starting applications at 18 C, for with thermal images taken every 15 seconds. The colors correspond
example, requires an approximate 200% size increase over a battery to temperatures above ambient, with the green near or at ambient and
with the same capacity at room-temperature operation. A battery the white some 10 C above ambient.
designer might contemplate making the lead metal grids thinner,
From Figure 4 it can be seen that the Firey cell runs cooler overall
thereby increasing the amount of chemistry that could be placed in and the temperature gradient down the negative foam plate is more
a given-size battery box. However, because of an acknowledged uniform than for the conventional VRLA cell. This is true even though
corrosion rate for the positive lead grids in lead-acid batteries, trying the Firey cells discharge lasted about 2.5 minutes longer. More interto increase cold temperature starting power by increasing electrode esting, this temperature scan shows that the conventional positive plate
surface area, without sizing up the overall battery, results in severely used in the Firey 3D cell has a cooler, more uniform heat signature
compromised warm-temperature longevity.
throughout the discharge relative to the other VRLA cells positive
Fireys 3D and 3D2 products have outstanding discharge perfor- plate, again illustrating the outstanding heat-transfer performance of
mance at low ambient temperatures relative to commercial ooded the negative foam electrode. It not only dissipates the heat generated
lead-acid and valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) batteries. This is due on itself, but also absorbs heat away from the positive plate and out of
to the extremely high available surface area of the carbon-graphite foam the cell. While not shown, the same will be true during recharge and on
material. At high discharge rates or low temperatures, the discharge oat, thus suggesting that where positive grid corrosion is the failure
performance of a typical lead-metal-based negative plate limits a cells mode, lifetimes will be longer in Fireys 3D technology. It will also
output, due in large part to the relatively low surface areas of conven- make ultrafast recharging more feasible for 3D batteries.
The thermal response patterns for these materials mean that
tional planar negative plates. The Firey Microcell electrode is ideal
for discharge (and charge) conditions where electrolyte diffusion is graphites heat-transfer performance is outstanding. Thus, batteries
limited by surface area, diffusion distances or temperature. Diffusion made with graphite-foam electrodes will transfer heat out of the battery
rates at low temperatures are reduced in a 3D cell just as they are in rapidly, as it is generated by the electrochemical reactions taking place,
conventional lead-acid batteries. As previously discussed, however, thus making thermal runaway less likely and enabling overall cool
the distances traveled to react with the sponge lead are much smaller operation compared to conventional lead-acid batteries. The fact that

18

706RFDEF3.indd 18

www.rfdesign.com

June 2007

7/6/2007 2:19:16 PM

heat is generated more uniformly and dissipated rapidly translates to

longer life in many applications. In the military context, this reduced
heat signature reduces the likelihood of infrared detection and makes
the battery highly suitable for stealth applications.

Microcell cycle-life improvements

The full discharge of a conventional lead-acid battery causes extra

strain, and each cycle robs the battery of a small amount of capacity.
In lead-acid batteries, deeper discharges convert larger amounts of
charged active-material into lead sulfate. Lead sulfate has a signicantly
larger volume (about 37% more) than the charged material, and this
volume change stresses the electrode structures.
This expansion induces mechanical forces that
deform the grid, and ultimately result in the lead
grid disappearing into the paste.
The resulting expansion and deformation of
the plates also causes active material to separate from the electrodes with a commensurate
loss of performance. Additionally, over time,
sulfate crystals can grow together, resulting in
larger crystals that are difcult or impossible to
convert back into the charged state. This weardown characteristic also applies to other battery
chemistries in varying degrees. To prevent the
battery from being stressed through repetitive
deep discharge, a larger lead-acid battery and
shallower discharge are typically recommended.
Depending on the depth of discharge and operating temperature, the sealed lead-acid battery
provides 200 to 300 discharge/charge cycles.
Short cycle life also results from grid corrosion
of the positive electrode, which undergoes extensive oxidative stress during extended recharge
conditions. These changes are exacerbated at
higher operating temperatures.
In contrast, Fireys composite plate technology provides a design that fully accommodates
the volume changes of the active material during
charge and recharge. Within each Firey plate is
contained a full complement of active materials,
electrolyte, and volume that will allow complete
discharge without causing physical stress on the
plate itself. This results in an electrode plate
that does not undergo volume change during
deep discharges. Fireys electrode material is
not reactive in the lead-acid chemistry and so
does not corrode. This is in part due to a natural
stability of the base material, but is also due to
the formation process used that maximizes exposure to the most chemically resistive surfaces
and minimizes exposure to the most chemically
reactive surfaces.
The growth of large sulfate crystals is also
restricted, resulting in a low incidence of crystals
that are too large to dissipate upon recharge. The
strong resistance of Fireys electrode material
to corrosion also severely reduces the deleterious
effects of long recharges. Because of the signicant reduction in these life-limiting factors, the
Firey approach offers signicant improvements
over conventional lead-acid technologies in oat
and deep-cycle applications.

periods of time, in a fully or partially discharged state, results in

a condition known as sulfation. Sulfation is caused by the growth
of large sulfate crystals on the batterys negative plates during periods
of disuse or dormancy. In a conventional battery, these crystals prevent
the battery from being recharged. In the Firey 3D cell, sulfation
reversal is achieved because the nature of the lead sulfate deposits in
3D cells is fundamentally different from those in traditional lead-acid
cells. In the latter, lead sulfate is deposited on the surfaces of the plates
in dense layers of relatively large crystals, somewhat remote from the
lead-grid members. Because the sponge-lead active material in a 3D
cell is deposited on the walls of the many small carbon/graphite pores

Microcell sulfation resistance

Storing lead-acid batteries for extended

RF Design

706RFDEF3.indd 19

www.rfdesign.com

19

7/6/2007 2:19:19 PM

longer periods of inactivity without damaging

effects. Conventional lead-acid batteries are limited
to storage times of three to six months at most before
requiring a recharge, often with great logistical difculty and expense.

Microcell vibration resistance

A nal life characteristic of the 3D cells is that,

because of its use of lightweight carbon-graphite
foam, their low mass makes them highly resistant
to vibration. Vibration-induced failure is generally sudden and catastrophic, as it often results
in a plate breaking loose and short-circuiting a
cell. 3D cells subjected to vibration testing at
Caterpillars Technology Center have exceeded
Caterpillars stringent specications by a wide
margin, at which point they still had not failed.
Figure 4. Thermal images of negative electrodes during discharge reveal that Microcell technolClearly, foam robustness under the abusive
ogy generates lower thermal stress in addition to less heat.
conditions found in military applications will
not be an issue for Microcell technology.
Available power from
Temperature (C)
Power required to crank
battery (%)
engine (%)
100

27

100

65

155

Microcell safety attributes

While Fireys technology can bring performance levels close to those of advanced
materials batteries such as lithium and nickel,
40
-18
210
it also has safety advantages over these batTable 1. Battery power vs. temperature (Source: Bill Darden, Car Battery FAQ, January 2001.
tery chemistries. This is because the lead-acid
chemistry used in Microcell technology is
in thin layers, and the high surface area in the collective foam structure much better understood and, therefore, is more predictable in operaresults in relatively low current densities, the lead sulfate deposits are tion, because it has been in use for 148 years. For example, a concern
comprised of small, porous crystal structures (on the order of three mi- regarding lithium batteries is that they are subject to violent thermal
crons to 10 microns) that runaway in the event of a container breach. Once that happens, they
are easily dissolved on do not need a spark for thermal runaway to commence. All that is
the subsequent recharge. required is contact with moisture in the air to set up a reaction. Once
Moreover, these very the reaction begins and the materials within the battery ignite, neither
small crystal sizes grow water nor conventional extinguishers will put it out. The materials will
only slowly over time. burn at 700 F until they are consumed. This is a frightening scenario
High Performance & Custom
This resistance to the ef- in any context, but more so when the inherent hazards of military use
Amplifiers and Converters
fects of sulfation makes are considered.
...HF to 30 GHz...
Firey 3D battery technology ideal for military Preliminary and future military applications
applications where deThe U.S. Armys high level of interest in Fireys technology is
vices and their associated currently centered upon the Silent Watch program, which involves
batteries may go unused powering mobile electronic eavesdropping equipment for extended
for months on end, often periods without the benet of the vehicles charging system (since the
in a partially or fully engine must be switched off to avoid detection). While this is an ideal
discharged state. Con- application, the overall benets of this new technology could lead to
ventional batteries are its use in a variety of other military roles within a few years.
difficult or impossible
to recover from these
High Performance Amplifiers
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
conditions, and are often
LNAs
SSPAs
replaced far short of their
Dan Jurchenko is director, defense markets for Firey Energy.
High Dynamic Range
potential life span. With
Prior to joining Firey Energy, Jurchenko spent 12 years with
Frequency Converters
3D technology this probLockheed Martin, in the business development organizations of
Government & Commercial
lem is greatly reduced.
three technology centers where he delivered new orders in the
Specialists in MIL SATCOM apps
The low self-discharge
electronics area.
rate and easy recovery
Frequency Bands
L
S
C
X Ku K Custom
from sulfation also mean
Kurtis Kelley is chief technology ofcer at Firey Energy. As

LNAs
that 3D battery technolco-founder, Kelley had previously been a senior research scientist

SSPAs
ogy is not subject to the
in the Advanced Materials Technology division of Caterpillars

LNBs
BUCs
shelf-life time constraints
center for research and was responsible for developing and ap

of conventional lead-acid
plying materials and design solutions to corporate challenges. He
= NEW
batteries. Fireflys 3D
holds more than 25 patents in electronics and material sciences
176 Technology Dr., Suite 200, Boalsburg, PA 16827
Tel: +1 814 466 6275 Fax: +1 814 466 1104
battery technology can
discoveries.
www.locusmicrowave.com
be
subjected
to
much
email: info@locusmicrowave.com
20

706RFDEF3.indd 20

www.rfdesign.com

June 2007

7/6/2007 2:19:21 PM