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ThisisablogfromthetrencheswrittenbyengineersatMaverickTechnologieswhoareimplementingand
upgradingcontrolsystemseverydayacrosseveryindustry.Thisisntwhattheyteachyouinengineering
school.Thesearelessonslearnedfromyearsonthejob,encounteringtheobstaclesandissuesthatare
partoftherealworldofcontrolandprocessengineering.
PIDmathdemystified,part1
Youveseentheequations,buthaveyouthoughtabouthowthoseelementsworktogether?Part1:Thebasicconceptsand
proportionalcontrol.
ScottHayes
May06,2013
Share
Mostprocesscontrolengineershavebeenexposedtothebasicequationinaformthatlookssomethinglikethis:
Morethanyouwanttoswallowinonebite?Letsbreakthisdownintothemajorcomponents:
Output:u(t)istheoutputofthecontrollerattheendofthescan.Iftheoutputofthecontrollerisavalve,thentheoutputisthe
valvepositionthatthecontrollerisrequestingafterithasseentheinputs.Inmostcontrollers,thisisactuallythechangein
outputfrom50%.Soifu(t)=0thenthevalveoutputis50%ifu(t)=1thenthevalveoutputis51%andifu(t)=2thenthevalve
outputis48%.Yougettheidea.Butwhatsimportantisthatitsnotachangeinoutputfromthepreviousscan,butanewoutput.
Proportional
Kpe(t)istheproportionalcomponent,thePinPID.Ifyouhaveacontrollerconfiguredasproportionalonly,thisisit.Soletslook
athowthisworks.
LetsstartwithmyownmisconceptionofhowIthoughtitworked.WhenIimagineacontroller,Ipicturemyselfturningavalve
whilewatchingagage.Ilookatthegage,decideifIneedmoreorless,turnthatvalvealittlemoreoralittleless,andthenrepeat
theprocessuntilthegageshowsthevalueIwant.Thatsoundsfundamentallylogical,butitisnothowaproportionalonly
controllerworks.ItsmorelikeifIweretolookatthegage,subtractwhatitreadsfromwhatIwantittoread,andthentakethat
errorovertoacharttolookupanewvalueforthevalve.
e(t)usuallycallederror,issimplythedifferencebetweenthesetpointandtheprocessvariable.Itisthedifferencebetweenwhere
youareandwhereyouwanttobe,rightnow,atthisinstant.
Kpgain,isafactorthatismultipliedbytheerrortogiveyouthenewoutput,thenewvalveposition.Itsthatsimple.Theerrorat
thatinstantofthescaniscalculatedandthenewoutputiscalculated.
Letslookatanexampleofpseudocodetoexplorehowthisworks:
Error=SetpointProcessValue
Output=K*Error
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PIDmathdemystified,part1|ControlEngineering
Thiscontrolalgorithmisdeceptivelysimple,yetitgivesanimmediateresponsetoasetpointchangeoradisturbanceinthe
process.AndifKissetcorrectly,willquicklymovetheprocesstowardthesetpoint.But,itwontgettheprocesstothesetpoint
becausetherehastobesomeerroriftheoutputisanythingotherthan50%.
Note:Onsomesystems(thoughnotofteninmodernsystems),gainisexpressedasproportionalband.Proportionalbandis
definedastheamountofchangeinthecontrolledvariablerequiredtodrivetheloopoutputfrom0to100%.Toconvertbetween
thetwo,gain=100/PB.
Nextweek:UnderstandingIandD.
ThispostwaswrittenbyScottHayes.ScottisaseniorengineeratMAVERICK
Technologies,aleadingsystemintegratorprovidingindustrialautomation,operational
support,andcontrolsystemsengineeringservicesinthemanufacturingandprocess
industries.MAVERICKdeliversexpertiseandconsultinginawidevarietyofareas
includingindustrialautomationcontrols,distributedcontrolsystems,manufacturing
executionsystems,operationalstrategy,andbusinessprocessoptimization.The
companyprovidesafullrangeofautomationandcontrolsservicesrangingfromPID
controllertuningandHMIprogrammingtoservingasamainautomationcontractor.
AdditionallyMAVERICKoffersindustrialandtechnicalstaffingservices,placingon
siteautomation,instrumentationandcontrolsengineers.
RelatedNews:
PIDmathdemystified,part410.06.201408:00
PIDmathdemystified,part3:Moreonderivativecontrol21.10.201315:00
EvolvingPIDtuningrules13.03.201314:33
FixingPID30.11.201216:23
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PIDmathdemystified,part2|ControlEngineering
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ThisisablogfromthetrencheswrittenbyengineersatMaverickTechnologieswhoareimplementingand
upgradingcontrolsystemseverydayacrosseveryindustry.Thisisntwhattheyteachyouinengineering
school.Thesearelessonslearnedfromyearsonthejob,encounteringtheobstaclesandissuesthatare
partoftherealworldofcontrolandprocessengineering.
PIDmathdemystified,part2
Youveseetheequations,buthaveyouthoughtabouthowthoseelementsworktogether?Part2:Addingintegralandderivativeto
themix.
ScottHayes
May13,2013
Share
Lastweekwestartedwithproportional.(ReadPart1)Nowletslookatthenextpartoftheequation,theintegralcomponent:
Themoststriking(andscariest)partofthisequationisthebigintegralsigninthemiddle.If
youvehadhighschoolcalculus,youthinktoyourself,Ivegotthis.Integralsdontscare
me.Ijustneedtofindtheareaunderthecurvefromtimezerototimetoftheerror
function.
But,thisistherealworld.Whatistimezero?HowdoIintegrateanerrorfunction?Thegoodnewsisthattherealdefinitionis
muchsimplerthancalculus.WhatthePIDfunctiondoesistakeaportionoftheerrorandaddsittoarunningtotal.Thisrunning
total,sometimescalledreset,isaddedtotheoutput.Sinceresetincreasesordecreasesalittleatatime,itadjuststheoutputof
thevalveincrementallyeachscan.
ForaPIcontroller,thetwofactorsthatwehavecoveredsofarareKpandKi,butifyoulookatthefaceplateformostindustrial
systems,thereisonlyoneK(gain)thathasnounits,andai(integraltimeconstant)designatedassecondsorminutesper
repeat.So,alittletranslationisrequired.Mostindustrialcontrollersdontusetheindependentformoftheequationshownabove.
Instead,theyusethedependentformoftheequation:
TheKistypicallythesameastheproportionalgain,Kp.Thefactoridetermineshowmuchoftheerrorisgoingtobeappliedto
theaccumulatedresetoneachscan.Sointhebigmathyequation,Kicanessentiallybereplacedbythefaceplateparameters:
Ki.
Whatsimportanttounderstandfromthisisthatthegainthataffectstheproportionalactionofacontrolleralsoaffectstheintegral
action.But,theintegraltimeconstantionlyaffectstheintegralaction.
Inpseudocodethiswouldlooklike:
Error:=SetpointProcessValue
Reset:=Reset+K/tau_i*Error
Output:=K*Error+Reset
Theunitsminutesperrepeatfortheintegraltimeconstanticomesfromthefactthatiftheerrorstaysconstant,thatishowlong
wouldittakefortheintegralaccumulatortorepeattheproportionalchangeinoutput.
Note:Anotherwayofspecifyingtheintegraltuningparameterisinseconds,andthenitisthereciprocalofsecondsperrepeat.If
theintegraltimeconstantisinseconds,thebiggerthenumber,thentheslowertheresponse.Iftheintegralisinsecondsper
repeat,theoppositeistrue.
Derivative
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PIDmathdemystified,part2|ControlEngineering
Nowletslookatderivative:
Again,thisisanothermathylookingequationwithasimpleexplanation.Themathydefinition
first,theoutputwillbechangedbythederivative(orrateofchange)oftheerrorfunction.What
thismeansisthattheoutputwillbeaffectedbythechangeinerrorfromonescantoanother.
Addingthistoourpseudocodegivesus:
Error:=SetpointProcessValue
Reset:=Reset+K/tau_i*Error
Output:=K*Error+Reset+((PreErrorError)*K/tau_d));
PreError:=Error//Savetheerrorforthenextscan
Whatisintendedisfortheoutputtochangeassoonastheprocessvariablebeginstomoveeithertowardorawayfromthe
setpoint.Whatresultscanbeaveryquickresponsetoachangeinerrorfromonescantoanother.
Theintentionofderivativeactionistorespondtochangesastheybegintooccur.Forexample,ifatemperatureisstartingtorise,
thevalvewillbegintoopenassoonasitseesthechangeinsteadofwaitingforittocrossasetpoint.Thiscanresultinavery
rapidresponsetoasmallchange.Thisrapidresponsecanbecomeunstableifthereisnoiseintheprocessvariableorona
setpointchange.So,thederivativeactionisoftenfilteredseparatelyandissometimescalculatedonPVonlytoignoresetpoint
changes.
Summary
SonowwehavereviewedthethreecomponentsofthePIDalgorithm.Onewaytheyhavebeendescribedisintermsoftheflow
oftime.Pdependsonthepresenterror,Iontheaccumulationofpasterrors,andDonthepredictionoffutureerrorsbasedon
currentrateofchange.
ThispostwaswrittenbyScottHayes.ScottisaseniorengineeratMAVERICKTechnologies,aleadingsystemintegrator
providingindustrialautomation,operationalsupport,andcontrolsystemsengineeringservicesinthemanufacturingandprocess
industries.MAVERICKdeliversexpertiseandconsultinginawidevarietyofareasincludingindustrialautomationcontrols,
distributedcontrolsystems,manufacturingexecutionsystems,operationalstrategy,andbusinessprocessoptimization.The
companyprovidesafullrangeofautomationandcontrolsservicesrangingfromPIDcontrollertuningandHMIprogrammingto
servingasamainautomationcontractor.AdditionallyMAVERICKoffersindustrialandtechnicalstaffingservices,placingonsite
automation,instrumentationandcontrolsengineers.
RelatedNews:
PIDmathdemystified,part410.06.201408:00
PIDmathdemystified,part3:Moreonderivativecontrol21.10.201315:00
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PIDmathdemystified,part3:Moreonderivativecontrol|ControlEngineering
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ThisisablogfromthetrencheswrittenbyengineersatMaverickTechnologieswhoareimplementingand
upgradingcontrolsystemseverydayacrosseveryindustry.Thisisntwhattheyteachyouinengineering
school.Thesearelessonslearnedfromyearsonthejob,encounteringtheobstaclesandissuesthatare
partoftherealworldofcontrolandprocessengineering.
PIDmathdemystified,part3:Moreonderivativecontrol
ConsiderhowaPDcontrollerwouldwork,withoutanintegralfunction.Wouldyoueverwanttousethatapproach?
ScottHayes
October21,2013
Share
Toinvestigatehowderivativeactionworks,letslookataproportionalderivativeorPDcontroller.PIDcontrollersarefarmore
commonthanPDalone,butwealreadyhaveanunderstandingoftheintegralcomponentseffectsfromthefirsttwopartsofthis
series,sowedontneedtoreviewitagain.
ForaPDcontroller,weaddthederivativeoftheerrorintotheequation.Similartowhatwediscussedinthepreviousposts,were
notreallyinterestedinderivingaderivativeoftheerrorfunction.Conceptually,thederivativeinthiscasereferstohowfastthe
errorischanging.So,ifwetakethechangeinerrordividedbythechangeintimewegettheslope.
Toexplainhowthisworks,letslookatthepseudocodeforthiscontroller.Thecalculationoferroristhesameasbefore:setpoint
minusprocessvalue.Sincethederivativereducesdowntothechangeinerror,theoutputisnowthesameproportional
componentasbefore:gaintimeserror.Thecurrenterrorminuslasterrorismultipliedbythegainanddividedbythederivative
timeconstant.Thecurrenterrorisstoredinlasterrorforuseinthenextscan.
Error:=SetpointProcessValue
Output:=K*Error+K/tau_i*(ErrorLastError)
LastError:=Error//savefornextscan
Sowhatdoesthismean?
Theproportionalcomponentisaffectedbytheerroratthattime,inthepresent.Theintegralcomponentisaffectedbyan
accumulationoftheerror,orthepast.Thederivativecomponentisameasureofhowfasttheerrorischanging,orapredictionof
thefutureerror.
Howisthispredictionofthefutureused?Atfirstglanceyoumightthinkthatthistermwouldbeusedtogetyoutoyoursetpoint
thatmuchfaster.But,thatisnotreallythecase.Inpractice,thederivativecomponentisusedtodetectwhentheprocess
variableischangingtoofast,anditputsthebrakesontopreventovershootingthesetpoint.
Soifthederivativecomponentactsasbrakesonthemomentum,howdoesitgetyoutothesetpointfaster?Itdoesthisby
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PIDmathdemystified,part3:Moreonderivativecontrol|ControlEngineering
Soifthederivativecomponentactsasbrakesonthemomentum,howdoesitgetyoutothesetpointfaster?Itdoesthisby
allowingyoutouseahigherproportionalgaintogetyoutherequickly,butdampeningtheovershootthatwouldnormallymake
thatlevelofgainunstable.
Thetuningconstantsforderivativecontrolaretypicallythesameunitsasthetimeconstantforreset.Acoupleofother
considerationsthoughareimportant.Onmanycontrollersthederivativetermisfilteredindependently.Thispreventssignalnoise
orspuriousdisturbancesfrombeinginterpretedasachangeinmomentum,whichcausesthederivativeactiontooverreact.Also,
onsomecontrollersthederivativedoesnotactuallyderivefromtheerror,butinsteadontheprocessvariablesignalalone.This
preventsachangeissetpointfrombeingseenasachangeinmomentum.
ThisvideosummarizesourPIDdiscussionswithagraphicalexplanation.
IhopethishelpstodemystifyPID,atleastalittle.
ReadDemystifyingPIDpart1.
ReadDemystifyingPIDpart2.
AlsoreadUnderstandingDerivativeinPIDControl.
ThispostwaswrittenbyScottHayes.ScottisaseniorengineeratMAVERICKTechnologies,aleadingautomationsolutions
providerofferingindustrialautomation,strategicmanufacturing,andenterpriseintegrationservicesfortheprocessindustries.
MAVERICKdeliversexpertiseandconsultinginawidevarietyofareasincludingindustrialautomationcontrols,distributed
controlsystems,manufacturingexecutionsystems,operationalstrategy,businessprocessoptimizationandmore.
RelatedNews:
PIDmathdemystified,part410.06.201408:00
PIDmathdemystified,part213.05.201314:24
PIDmathdemystified,part106.05.201314:02
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PIDmathdemystified,part4
PostedbyScottHayesonJune11,2014@12:56pm
Youveseetheequations,buthaveyouthought
abouthowthoseelementsworktogether?Part
4:Feedforward
Inthefirstthreeblogposts(seePart1,Part2,andPart3)wecoveredthebasicsofPIDmath.We
startedwiththebasicproportionalonlycontrollerandworkedintheintegralandderivative
components.Wellbeforegettoofar,letsreviewtheproportionalonlycontroller:
u(t)=Kpe(t)
u(t)istheoutputofthecontrollerattheendofthescan.Iftheoutputofthecontrollerisavalve,then
theoutputisthevalvepositionthatthecontrollerisrequestingafterithasseentheinputs.
Kpe(t)istheproportionalcomponent,thePinPID.e(t),usuallycallederror,issimplythe
differencebetweenthesetpointandtheprocessvariable.Kpgainisafactorthatismultipliedbythe
errortogiveyouthenewoutputthenewvalveposition.Itsthatsimple.Theerroratthatinstantof
thescaniscalculatedandthenewoutputiscalculated.
Thepseudocodethatwediscussedwas:
Error=SetpointProcessValue
Output=K*Error
Withthiscodetheoutputchangesimmediatelyaftertheerrorchanges.Iliketouseacruisecontrolon
acarasanexample.Assoonasthecarstartstoslowdownasitstartstoclimbahill,thechangein
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PIDmathdemystified,part4|MAVERICKRethinkingAutomation
error(speed)immediatelycausestheoutputtochange.
Butwhatifyouknowthatthespeedisabouttoslowdown?Whatifyoucanseethehillcoming?
Thatswherefeedforwardcomesin.Thefirststepisdetectingaconditionthatwillaffecttheprocess
value.Thiscanbeanupstreamflowratethataffectsalevelcontroller,apressurechangethataffectsa
flowcontrolleroranynumberofvariables.Theimportantthingisthatthefeedforwardsignalhasto
haveapredictableaffectonthecontrolledvariable.
Themathbehinditisconceptuallyprettysimple.Thefeedforwardsignalismultipliedbyagainand
thenaddeddirectlytotheoutput:
Error=SetpointProcessValue
Output=K*Error+FeedForward*Kf
Thatwayaslongasthefeedforwardsignaldoesntchange,thecontrollerisnotaffected.But,a
changeinthefeedforwardsignalimmediatelymakesaproportionaltypeshiftintheoutput.
Themathdoesgetmorecomplicatedwhenthetimethatittakesforthesignaltoaffecttheprocess
valuehastobeconsidered.Inthatcasealeadorlagcalculationmustbedonetoslowdownorspeed
upthefeedforwardsignal.Butthatsatopicforthenextpost.
ThispostwaswrittenbyScottHayes.ScottisaseniorengineeratMAVERICKTechnologies,a
leadingautomationsolutionsproviderofferingindustrialautomation,strategicmanufacturing,and
enterpriseintegrationservicesfortheprocessindustries.MAVERICKdeliversexpertiseand
consultinginawidevarietyofareasincludingindustrialautomationcontrols,distributedcontrol
systems,manufacturingexecutionsystems,operationalstrategy,businessprocessoptimizationand
more.
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