5.

2 Gyroscopes
5.2.1 Introduction and Basic Principles

A gyroscope is defined as any rotating body that exhibits two

fundamental properties: gyroscopic inertia and precession.
These properties are inherent in all rotating bodies, including
the earth itself.
The principle of the spinning rotor gyroscope was first
demonstrated in 1852 by the physicist Jean Foucault as he
was studying the earth's rotation.1
Gyroscopic Inertia

The rigidity in space of a gyroscope is a

consequence of Newton's first law of motion,
which states that a body tends to continue in its
state of rest or uniform motion unless subject to
outside forces.
An example of this tendency is a rifle bullet that, because it
spins on itself in flight, exhibits gyroscopic inertia, tending to
maintain a straighter line of flight than it would if not
rotating.
Rigidity in space can also be demonstrated by a model
gyroscope consisting of a flywheel supported in rings (see
Figure 5.17) in such a way that the axle of the flywheel can
assume any angle in space.

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Figure 5.17

Free gyroscope with two gimbals

Precession

When a force, or a torque, applied to a gyroscope tends to

change the direction of the axis of rotation of this gyroscope,
the axis of rotation will not move to the expected position,
but to a direction perpendicular to that one.
A simple example of precession can be seen in a bicycle
wheel hanged at one of its extremities like the one shown on
the following video:

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5.2.2 Categories of Gyro

Figure 5.18

Current gyro technology applications

5.2.3 Mathematical Consideration

From Newton's second law, the angular momentum H of a

body will remain unchanged unless a torque T acts upon the
body:
T = dH / dt
where

H = IR (scalar relation)
I: moment of inertia of the rotor about spin axis
R: angular velocity of the rotor
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Figure 5.19

Gyroscopic precession

A constant torque T applied on one axis of the gyro causes a

drift of angular velocity called the precession rate:
T = H d/dt = H

The rule to remember which direction a gyro wheel moves

when you try to turn it (with a torque T) is that its angular
momentum H tends to be aligned with the torque T.

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mg

Figure 5.20

Gyroscopic precession due to the gravity

The same figure can be used to explain the precession of the

Earth.2

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5.2.4 Single Degree of Freedom/Single-axis Gyroscopes

Two types of single axis gyro are considered:

- the rate gyro, which is an open-loop system
- the rate integrating gyro,
version of the rate gyro.

Figure 5.21

closed-loop

Single degree of freedom gyroscope

The Rate Gyro (open-loop system)

The wheel is mounted in a gimbal that is attached to the
instrument case by one or two torsion bars that limit the
rotation of the gimbal.
Axis Definition
Spinning axis :
Output axis :
Input axis :

Defined by the wheel.

Defined by the gimbal.
Perpendicular to the two other axis.

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The gimbal turns about the output axis in response to a

rotation about the input axis.

Figure 5.22

Rate gyroscope schematic

This effect is a consequence of the property of precession.

When the gyro is turned about the input axis of an angle
= t, the direction of the angular momentum is changed
of the same angle. This variation of angular momentum, call
it H, will create a torque on the gyroscope wheel in
accordance to Newtons law: T= H/t
This torque will act on the gimbal that will rotate about the
output axis of an angle proportional to the input velocity .

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Damping
Rate gyroscopes are often liquid filled to provide damping
for the correct dynamic response, and to protect the gimbal
against shock and vibration.
The damping is a function of the fluid viscosity, which varies
strongly with temperature.
Note: Viscosity is the property that describes the
magnitude of the resistance to shear forces in the
liquid. As temperature increases, viscosity decreases.

Rather than control the temperature of the fluid, which acts as

an modifying input, many gyros use mechanical damping
compensators. The principle of damping compensation is
based on the method of opposing inputs to correct the effect
of temperature.
Note on mechanical damping compensation: By making the
parts of materials with different coefficients of
expansion the gap between the gimbal and the case of
the gyro can be arranged to close down as the viscosity
reduces with increasing temperature. The gap opens up
as the instrument gets cold.

Pick-off / Pick-up
The pick-off used in gyroscopes is an electromagnetic system
that can determined the position of the gimbal with respect to
the case of the gyro. The system consists of a toothed rotor
on the gimbal and a stator attached to the case (see Figure
5.23).

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Torsion Bar
For high sensitivity the torsion bar stiffness, Ktb, should be
small. The weaker the torsion bar, the more it twists and the
larger the output signal. But at the same time the input axis
must stay as close as possible from the reference position to
prevent the gyro to sense rotation about an axis normal to the
desired input axis. This effect of sensitivity to axis other than
the input axis is called cross-coupling error.
Therefore, stiff torsion bars are usually preferred as they also
increase the bandwidth (meaning that the gyro can measure
higher frequency input signal), and protect the gyro against
shock and vibration.

Pick-off stator
and rotor

Figure 5.23

The Northrop GRG5 rate gyro

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 The Rate-Integrating Gyro (closed-loop system)

We can overcome the cross-axis sensitivity (or remove the
cross-coupling error) by operating the rate gyro in closedloop.
Torsion bars are removed and replaced by bearings. The
gimbal is brought back to its equilibrium position by a
torquer.

Figure 5.24

Rate integrating gyroscope schematic

The pick-off output now drives a servo amplifier that

supplies the current to the torquer.
The gyro output is not the pick-off angle but the amount of
current supplied to the torquer.
The Torquer
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The torquer produces a torque along the output axis that is

proportional to the current coming from the servo.
The Output Axis Bearing
For the gyro to have a low threshold, the gimbal must
respond to very small torques.
A typical gyro wheel of about 25-mm diameter, spinning at
24,000 rpm, will have an angular momentum of about 105
g.cm2/s.
Example: Let an input rate () be 1 deg/h, the same
as 1 arc-sec/s. The gyroscopic torque is T=H =0.5
dyn.cm =5.10-8 Nm. This is the torque generated by a
weight of 0.5 mg at a radius of 1 cm. Half of a
milligram is the weight of a piece of aluminum oven
foil about 3 mm square. For the gimbal to respond to
such a small torque it must be supported in very low
friction output axis bearings.

Figure 5.25

The Northrop GIG6 rate-integrating gyro

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5.2.5 Two-Degree of Freedom Gyroscopes

The dynamically tuned gyroscope is the most common twodegree of freedom gyro.
It is a widely used modern compact gyroscope covering a
wide performance spectrum from 0.01/hour to 30/hour rate
uncertainty (error on the rate measurement), typical size is
about 40mm diameter x 40mm height.

Figure 5.26

Dynamically tuned gyroscope

The wheel is coupled to the spin motor drive shaft by a

flexible joint, which provides a two-axis gimbal system.

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Torquer : The details of the torquer system are shown on

Figure 5.19. The magnets of the torquer are fixed on the gyro
wheel and the coils are mounted on the gyro case.

Figure 5.27

Gyroscope torquer schematic

The two electromagnetic pick-offs detect the displacement of

the wheel from the horizontal plane.

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References:
http://science.howstuffworks.com/gyroscope.htm
1: Foucault pendulum
The inventor of the gyroscope, Jean Bernard Leon Foucault, demonstrated
during the 1851 World's Fair that a pendulum could track the rotation
of the Earth. A scientific tour de force, Foucault's demonstration
forever attached his name both to the effect itself (the Foucault
effect) and to the universal joint pendulum that freely swings and
rotates at the same time (the Foucault pendulum).
A basic Foucault pendulum is simply a
weight on a wire. Practically any
pocket watch has the potential to act
as a pendulum, exhibiting up to a 10
to 15 degree rotation per hour around
its hinge point. To an observer in a
windowless room, the rotation that
accompanies the swing is a kind of
optical illusion: the pendulum is not
turning, instead the Earth is actually
rotating under the pendulum.
Foucault's dramatic proof at the
World's Fair is considered to be the first non-astronomical proof of
the Earth's rotation.
With rotating hinges raised to heights in excess of 90 feet, Foucault
Pendulums are now massive display pieces in the lobbies of more than 60
museums and entrance halls around the world, including the United
Nations Building in New York and at the Smithsonian Museum in
Washington.
2: Precession of the Earth Axis

The moon's gravity, primarily, and to a lesser degree the sun's

gravity, acting on Earths oblateness tries to move Earths axis
perpendicular to the plane of Earths orbit. However, due to
gyroscopic action, Earths poles do not right themselves to a
position perpendicular to the orbital plane. Instead, they
precess at 90 degrees to the force applied. This precession
causes the axis of Earth to describe a circle having a 23.5
degree radius relative to a fixed point in space over about
26,000 years.

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