Electronics Design (ETEN3002)

Dr John Siliquini
1: Background Fundamentals
Notes:
- These notes are provided to assist your education. At a minimum you should
augment these notes, as appropriate.
- Your education is your responsibility. Your future will be affected by the extent that
you develop independent learning skills, independent problem solving skills, the
ability to critically assess material and the skill of paying appropriate attention to
detail. The development of such skills is facilitated by individual study, reflection and
significant effort.
- The expected standard: You are expected to understand the presented theory in its
own right. Attempting to solve relevant problems will give you feedback on your
understanding of the theory.
- With respect to problem solving the expected standard is: First, you know why your
answer/solution is correct. Second, your answer is in the best form to facilitate
understanding/clarity etc.
- Clarity follows from rigour.
R. M. Howard 2013

1.0

Background

References for Circuit Theory

Alexander, C. K. & Sadiku, M. N. O., Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, McGraw
Hill, 2000, 2007, 2009 ch 15.
Chua, L. O., Desoer, C. A. & Kuh, E. S. Linear and Nonlinear Circuits, McGraw
Hill, 1987, ch. 10.
Thomas, R. E. & Rosa, A. J., The Analysis and Design of Linear Circuits, Wiley,
2004, ch 9, 10, 12.

R. M. Howard 2013

2.0

Background - Mathematics

Laplace Transform
Definition: Laplace Transform
For a real signal, x:R R defined on the interval ( 0, ) , the
Laplace transform of x , denoted X , is, by definition

X ( s ) = x ( t )e

st

dt

sC

X is defined for values of its argument s where the integral is

finite.

R. M. Howard 2013

.
Table 1:

Laplace Transforms

x( t)

X(s)

u(t)

1s

u(t )

1p ----------------1+sp

sin [ w c t ]u ( t )

wc
----------------2
2
s + wc

pt

cos [ w c t ] u ( t )

d
x(t)
dt

sX ( s ) x ( 0 )

X
( s )---------s

x ( ) d
R. M. Howard 2013

s
----------------2
2
s + wc

Taylor Series
Reference: Grossman, S. I., Multivariable Calculus.

Definition: Taylor Series: One Dimensional Case

If f:R R is continuous, and its first n + 1 derivatives are continuous, then the nth order Taylor series of f , based on a point x o , is
n

f T ( n, x ) = f ( x o ) + ( x x o ) d f ( x )
dx

x = xo

( x xo ) d n
+ + ---------------------f(x)
n! d x n

x = xo

A first order Taylor series, i.e.

d
f T ( 1, x ) = f ( x o ) + ( x x o ) f ( x )
dx

x = xo

is a linear approximation to the function f based on the point x o

and is such that the slope of the linear approximating function
equals the slope of f at the point x o .
R. M. Howard 2013

f T ( 1, x )
f ( xo )

f(x)
x

xo

Definition: First Order Taylor Series for Two Dimensional Case

2

If f:R R is continuous, and its first order partial derivatives

are continuous, then a first order Taylor series of f , based on a
point ( x o, y o ) , is
f T ( x, y ) = f ( x o , y o ) + ( x x o )

f ( x, yo )
x

x = xo

+ ( y yo )

(x , y)
f
y o

y = yo

A first order Taylor series of a two dimensional function is a plane

approximation to the function at the point ( x o, y o ) . The approxi R. M. Howard 2013

mation is such that the slope of the function at the point ( x o, y o ) ,

and in the x direction, matches the slope of the plane in the x
direction. The slope of the function at the point ( x o, y o ) , and in the
y direction, matches the slope of the plane in the y direction.
f ( x, y )

lines defining f T ( x, y )
f ( x, y o )

f ( x o, y )
xo

yo

R. M. Howard 2013

3.0

Background - Circuit Theory

Basic Circuit Theory - Relationships for Basic Components

The following relationships apply for resistors, capacitors and
inductors assuming causal signals (signals commencing at t = 0 ).

R. M. Howard 2013

i(t)

v(t)

v ( t ) = Ri ( t )

V ( s ) = RI ( s )

i(t)

v( t)

v( t)
R. M. Howard 2013

1
v(0 ) I(s)
v ( t ) = v ( 0 ) + ---- i ( ) d V ( s ) = ---------- + --------C
s
sC
0

i(t) = C d v(t)
dt

i(t)
L

1
i(0) V(s)
i ( t ) = i ( 0 ) + --- v ( ) d I ( s ) = --------- + ----------L
s
sL
0

v( t) = L d i(t)
dt
9

Notation:

Usually Laplace transformed variables are used and the argument

s is omitted:

R. M. Howard 2013

10

Definition: Impedance

The impedance of a component is the ratio

V(s)
Z ( s ) = ----------I(s)

assuming zero initial conditions.

The impedance of a resistor, capacitor and inductor, respectively,
are:
Z(s) = R
1
Z ( s ) = -----sC
Z ( s ) = sL

R. M. Howard 2013

resistor
capacitor
inductor

11

Rationale for Impedance Definition

Consider the relationships
i(t) = C d v(t)
dt

v ( t ) = Ri ( t )

For the case where i ( t ) = Ae

inductor cases, that
v ( t ) = ARe

st

v ( t ) = AsLe

st

st

v(t) = L d i(t)
dt

it follows, for the resistor and

v ( t -)
-------= R
i( t)
v ( t -)
-------= sL
i( t)
st

For the capacitor case where v ( t ) = Ae it follows that

i ( t ) = AsCe

st

v( t)
1
--------- = -----i(t)
sC

The sinusoidal steady state is consistent with s = jw .

R. M. Howard 2013

12

4.0

Kirchhoffs Laws (KCL & KVL)

The two laws which allow circuits to be analysed so that the voltages and currents at all points in a circuit can be determined are
Kirchhoffs current law (KCL) and Kirchhoffs voltage law
(KVL).

Kirchhoffs Current Law

Basis: A node, by definition, cannot store charge. Conservation of
charge then implies that the charge entering a node must equal the
charge leaving a node.
Implication: Consider the charge flowing into a node during a time
t from t to t + t :

R. M. Howard 2013

13

component 3
component 1

q1
i1 ( t )

q3
q2 i3 ( t )
i2 ( t )
component 2

At the node charge conservation implies

q1 + q2 + q3 = 0

Thus
q
q
q
----1- + ----2- + ----3- = 0
t t t
R. M. Howard 2013

i1 ( t ) + i2 ( t ) + i3 ( t ) = 0
14

Theorem: Kirchhoffs Current Law

The algebraic sum of currents entering a node, or leaving a node, is
zero, i.e. with N currents i 1 ( t ), , i N entering, or leaving, a node it
is the case that
N

ii ( t ) = 0
i=1

Convention: Analysis is simplified if the sum of the currents leaving a node is used.
Example: Find the current i 4 ( t ) :
i4 ( t )

i 1 ( t ) = 0.1A

i 3 ( t ) = 0.4A

i 2 ( t ) = 0.2A
KCL

R. M. Howard 2013

i1 ( t ) + i2 ( t ) + i3 ( t ) + i4 ( t ) = 0

i 4 ( t ) = i 1 ( t ) i 2 ( t ) i 3 ( t ) = ( 0.1 ) 0.2 0.4 = 0.5A

15

4.1

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL)

Basis: Conservation of energy of a charge as it moves around a
closed loop.
The energy required to move a positive charge q through a potential of v 21 volts is qv 21 Joules:
-

v 21
q +

Consider a closed loop of an electrical circuit at a time t :

+
v1 ( t )
R. M. Howard 2013

- v2 ( t ) +

- v3 ( t ) +

v4 ( t )
+
16

For a positive charge q moving around this loop, at time t , conservation of energy implies:
qv 1 ( t ) + qv 2 ( t ) + qv 3 ( t ) + qv 4 ( t ) = 0

v1 ( t ) + v2 ( t ) + v3 ( t ) + v4 ( t ) = 0

Theorem: Kirchhoffs Voltage Law

The algebraic sum of voltages around a closed loop is zero, i.e. with
N entities in a closed loop it is the case that
N

vi ( t ) = 0
i=1

Example
Find v 2 ( t ) in the following circuit:
KVL implies:
R. M. Howard 2013

17

- v3 ( t ) +
+
15V
-

+ v2 ( t ) +
v1 ( t )
-

v1 ( t ) + v2 ( t ) + v3 ( t ) + v4 ( t ) = 0

R. M. Howard 2013

2V

v4 ( t )
+

+
10V
-

15 + v 2 ( t ) + 2 + ( 10 ) = 0

v 2 ( t ) = 10 15 2 = 7V

18

Note: To apply KVL it is easier to use the form:

v1 ( t ) v2 ( t ) v3 ( t ) v4 ( t ) = 0

+
v1 ( t )

- v2 ( t ) +

- v3 ( t ) +

v4 ( t )
+

This form arises by traversing the loop in a set direction and by

associating the sign (+ or -) first encountered with each voltage.
Consider the following example:

+
v1 ( t )
R. M. Howard 2013

+ v2 ( t ) -

+ v3 ( t ) -

KVL v 1 ( t ) + v 2 ( t ) + v 3 ( t ) v 4 ( t ) = 0

v4 ( t )
+
19

4.2

KCL & KVL: Laplace Transformed Case

Theorem: Kirchhoffs Current Law

The algebraic sum of the Laplace transform of the currents entering a node, or leaving a node, is zero, i.e. with N currents
i 1 ( t ), , i N entering, or leaving, a node it is the case that
N

Ii ( s ) = 0

ii ( t ) Ii ( s )

i=1

Theorem: Kirchhoffs Voltage Law

The algebraic sum of the Laplace transform of the voltages around
a closed loop is zero, i.e. with N entities in a closed loop it is the
case that
N

Vi ( s ) = 0

vi ( t ) Vi ( s )

i=1
R. M. Howard 2013

20

4.3

Further Examples
As a review of Kirchhoffs current law (KCL) and Kirchhoffs
voltage law (KVL) consider the following circuits and subsequent
analysis:
i1 ( t )
v1 ( t )

i2 ( t )
R
v2 ( t )

i3 ( t )

i4 ( t )

v3 ( t )

v4 ( t )

KCL implies
i1 ( t ) + i2 ( t ) + i3 ( t ) + i4 ( t ) = 0

I1 ( s ) + I2 ( s ) + I3 ( s ) + I4 ( s ) = 0

Thus
R. M. Howard 2013

21

v1 ( t ) v2 ( t )
d
i 1 ( t ) + ------------------------------ + C [ v 1 ( t ) v 3 ( t ) ] +
R
dt
t

1
i 4 ( 0 ) + --- [ v 1 ( ) v 4 ( ) ] d = 0
L
0

Laplace transformation yields:

V1 ( s ) V2 ( s )
i4 ( 0 ) V1 ( s ) V4 ( s )
-------------------------------- I1 ( s ) +
+ sC [ V 1 ( s ) V 3 ( s ) ] + ------------ + ---------------------------------- = 0
R
s
sL

Notation: omitting the argument s yields:

V1 V2
i4 ( 0 ) V1 V4
----------------- I1 +
+ sC [ V 1 V 3 ] + ------------ + ------------------- = 0
R
s
sL

R. M. Howard 2013

22

+ vR ( t ) -

+ vC ( t ) -

R iR ( t ) C iC ( t )
+
+ v (t)
L vL ( t )
- S
iL ( t ) -

KVL implies
vS ( t ) + vR ( t ) + vC ( t ) + vL ( t ) = 0

VS ( s ) + VR ( s ) + VC ( s ) + VL ( s ) = 0

Thus
t

1
d
v S ( t ) + i R ( t )R + v C ( 0 ) + ---- i C ( ) d + L i L ( t ) = 0
C
dt
0

Laplace transformation yields:

R. M. Howard 2013

23

vC ( 0 ) IC ( s )
V S ( s ) + I R ( s )R + -------------- + ------------- + sLI L ( s ) = 0
s
sC

Notation: omitting the argument s yields:

vC ( 0 ) IC
V S + I R R + -------------- + ------ + sLI L = 0
s
sC

R. M. Howard 2013

24

4.4

Notation
Transistor circuits are powered by DC voltages. The following
notation is used to represent a DC voltage source:
V CC

This notation is used for convenience and means the following:

V CC

+
V CC
-

Similar notation is also used for node voltages.

R. M. Howard 2013

25

5.0

Solving Circuits
Consider a linear time-invariant circuit and assume zero initial
conditions. Systematic application of Kirchhoffs current law and
Kirchhoffs voltage law underpins, respectively, nodal analysis and
mesh analysis of circuits. Consider a general circuit with N nodes:
V1

V2

VN 1

VN

+ V
- S

Applying Kirchhoffs current law at each of the N nodes yields the

following matrix of equations

R. M. Howard 2013

26

Y 11 Y 12 Y 1N

V1

Y 21 Y 22 Y 2N

V2

Y N1 Y N2 Y NN V N

Y1 VS
=

Y2 VS

YN VS

where Y ij is the negative of the admittance between the ith and jth
node for i j , Y ii is the admittance of the elements connected to
the ith node and Y i is the admittance between the source and the
ith node.

Matrix inversion yields

Y 11 Y 12 Y 1N

V1
V2

VN
R. M. Howard 2013

or

Y1 VS

Y 21 Y 22 Y 2N

Y2 VS

Y N1 Y N2 Y NN

YN VS
27

V1
V2

VN

Z 11 Z 12 Z 1N

Y1 VS

Z 21 Z 22 Z 2N

Y2 VS

Z N1 Z N2 Z NN Y N V S

for appropriately defined Z ij .

Hence, any of the desired node voltages can be determined. If the
relationship between the Nth node voltage and V S is required then
it follows that
VN
------- = Z N1 Y 1 + Z N2 Y 2 + + Z NN Y N
VS

Hence, for any given input signal v S ( t ) , whose Laplace transform

is V S ( s ) , it follows that the Laplace transform of the output signal
is
R. M. Howard 2013

V N ( s ) = [ Z N1 Y 1 + Z N2 Y 2 + + Z NN Y N ]V S ( s )

28

Taking the inverse Laplace transform yields v N ( t ) .

Alternatively, mesh analysis could be used to generate a matrix of
equations for the loop currents.

R. M. Howard 2013

29

6.0

Small Signal Characteristics of Amplifiers

In general, the following small signal characteristics of an amplifier are of interest:
RS ii
+

+
vS

vi
-

io
RL

+
vo
-

a) Forward Transfer Function:

Vo ( s )
H ( s ) = -------------VS ( s )

At low frequencies the transfer function yields the low frequency

gain:
R. M. Howard 2013

30

AV

vo
= ----vS

b) Input Impedance:

Vi ( s )
Z in ( s ) = ------------Ii ( s )

At low frequencies the input impedance is usually resistive consistent with

R in

vi
= ---ii

c) Output Impedance:

Vo ( s )
Z o ( s ) = -------------Io ( s )

R. M. Howard 2013

VS ( s ) = 0
31

At low frequencies the output impedance is usually resistive consistent with

vo
R o = ----io

vS = 0

Note: The definition for the output impedance is consistent with an

ideal voltage source with a voltage v o being placed at the output.
Consequently the resistance R L does not affect the output impedance.

R. M. Howard 2013

32

7.0

Review of System Theory

Consider a causal linear time invariant circuit which assumed to
be stable such that its impulse response h ( t ) is integrable, i.e.

h ( t ) dt <
0

Definition: System Transfer Function

The transfer function H is defined by the one-sided Laplace transform according to

H ( s ) = h ( t )e

st

dt

Re [ s ] 0

In terms of notation it is common to write

h(t)
R. M. Howard 2013

H(s)
33

The following is a summary of the relationships between the input

and output of a linear time invariant system with zero initial conditions:
x(t)

y( t)

h(t)

LT

LT

ILT
H(s)

X( s )

ILT
Y(s)

The following theorem defines the relationships between the input

and outputs signals:
Theorem: Input-Output Relationships
For a linear time invariant system with zero initial conditions the
following relationships hold between the input and output signals:
t

y ( t ) = x ( )h ( t ) d
R. M. Howard 2013

Y ( s ) = H ( s )X ( s )
34

8.0

Interpretation of Transfer Function

The following theorem is widely used to provide a practical interpretation of a system transfer function (Reference: Gabel, R. A. &
Roberts, R. A., Signals and Linear Systems, 1987):

Theorem: Interpretation of Transfer Function

Consider the case of a signal x defined according to
x ( t ) = A sin [ 2f c t ]u ( t )

where u is the unit step function, being input into a linear time
invariant system with zero initial conditions and with a transfer
function H . Consider the case where H ( s ) can be written as the
ratio of two polynomial functions according to
N(s)
H ( s ) = ----------D(s)

R. M. Howard 2013

and the degree of the numerator polynomial is less than the degree
of the denominator polynomial. Assume that all of the roots of the
denominator polynomial have real parts which are negative (all

35

the poles of H ( s ) are in the left hand plane). With these assumptions it is the case that the steady state output signal defined
according to
y SS ( t ) = lim y ( t )
t

has the form

y SS ( t ) = A H ( j2f c ) sin [ 2f c t + ( 2f c ) ]

where

H ( j2f c )

and ( 2f c ) are defined by H ( s ) , when

s = j2f c , according to
H ( j2f c ) = H ( j2f c ) e

j ( 2f c )

i.e. H ( j2f c ) is the magnitude of H ( s )

argument of H ( s )

R. M. Howard 2013

s = j2f c

s = j2f c

and ( 2f c ) is the

36

Proof
The proof is detailed in Appendix 1.
Implication

If a sinusoid of frequency f c Hz is input into a stable linear time

invariant system with a transfer function H ( s ) then the steady
state output signal is sinusoidal with the same frequency as the
input signal but is altered in the following two ways:
(a) The magnitude is scaled by H ( j2f c )
(b) The phase is shifted by ( 2f c )
where H ( j2f c ) is the magnitude of H ( s )
the argument of H ( s )

R. M. Howard 2013

s = j2f c

and ( 2f c ) is

s = j2f c

37

Magnitude and Phase Response of a System

For a system characterized by a transfer function H ( s ) the magnitude and phase response of the system are defined according to:
Definition: Magnitude Response
The magnitude response of a system with transfer function H ( s ) is
denoted H M ( f ) and is defined as
HM ( f ) = H ( s )

s = j2f

= H ( j2f )

Definition: Phase Response

The phase response of a system with transfer function H ( s ) is
denoted H ( f ) and is defined as
H ( f ) = arg [ H ( s )

s = j2f

] = arg [ H ( j2f ) ]

where arg is the argument operator.

R. M. Howard 2013

38

The term frequency response is loosely used to refer to the magnitude and phase response of a system.
Importance of Magnitude and Phase Response of a System

Consider graphs of the magnitude and phase responses of a system:

HM ( f )

f
H ( f )
f

When such graphs are available the effect of the system on a sinusoid of arbitrary frequency can be determined consistent with the
theorem.
R. M. Howard 2013

39

The above definitions allow the result of the theorem to written as

follows:
Theorem: Interpretation of Transfer Function
For the case of a signal x defined according to
x ( t ) = A sin [ 2f c t ]u ( t )

the steady state output signal of a system with a transfer function

H ( s ) is
y SS ( t ) = AH M ( f c ) sin [ 2f c t + H ( f c ) ]

R. M. Howard 2013

40

8.1

Example
A
Consider the case of H ( s ) = --------------------- where p 1 > 0 . It then follows
1 + s p1
that
HM ( f ) = H ( s )

s = j2f

A
= -----------------2
f---1+ 2
f1
H ( f ) = arg [ H ( s )

A
A
= ----------------------------= --------------------------2 2
1 + j2f p 1
4
f1 + ------------2
p1
p1
----f1 = 2

A
----------------------------]
arg
=
s = j2f
1 + j2f p 1

= arg [ A ] arg [ 1 + j2f p 1 ] = arg [ A ] atan [ 2f p 1 ]

= arg [ A ] atan [ f f 1 ]
R. M. Howard 2013

41

HM ( f )

asymptotic approx

A
log-log graph

H ( f )
4
2

R. M. Howard 2013

f1
f1

f
f

log-linear graph

assumption: arg [ A ] = 0

42

9.0

Linear Systems: Basic Definitions

Consider a linear system with a transfer function defined according to
N(s)
H ( s ) = ----------D(s)

Definition: Poles and Zeros

The roots of N ( s ) are the called the zeros of the transfer function.
The roots of D ( s ) are called the poles of the transfer function.

R. M. Howard 2013

43

9.1

Low Pass Systems

Many circuits in electronics are low pass systems.

Definition: Low Pass System

A system with a transfer function H ( s ) which is of the form
k ( 1 + s z 1 ) ( 1 + s z M )
H ( s ) = -------------------------------------------------------------( 1 + s p 1 ) ( 1 + s p N )

where M < N , and Re [ p i ] > 0 for i { 1, , N } , is a system with a

low pass transfer function, i.e. a low pass system.
The zeros of this transfer function are z 1, , z M . The poles of
this transfer function are p 1, , p N .
Definition: Low Frequency Gain
For a low pass system, with transfer function H ( s ) defined above,
the low frequency gain, or simply the gain, is: G = H ( 0 ) = k
R. M. Howard 2013

44

Definition: Bandwidth
The bandwidth of low pass system with a transfer function
k ( 1 + s z 1 ) ( 1 + s z M )
H ( s ) = -------------------------------------------------------------( 1 + s p 1 ) ( 1 + s p N )

and

for

the

case

where

M < N, Re [ p i ] > 0

Re [ p 1 ] > Re [ z 1 ]

(assuming

z 1 z 2 z M and p 1 p 2 p M ), is the frequency f 3dB

where the magnitude of the transfer function has dropped to 1 2

of the low frequency gain value, i.e.
f 3dB

HM ( 0 )
----------------2
R. M. Howard 2013

HM ( f )
1
= f: ----------------- = ------HM ( 0 )
2
HM ( 0 )

HM ( f )

f 3dB

f
45

Interpretation of Bandwidth: The bandwidth of a system is a

measure of the information processing capability of the system.
Needless to say, in the information age, the bandwidth of a system
is very important.
Notation: the notation BW is also used for bandwidth.
Bandwidth for a Single Pole Transfer Function
For a system with a single pole transfer function
k
H ( s ) = --------------------1 + s p1

p1 > 0

the bandwidth, BW , is
p1
----BW = 2

This result is simple to prove - a simple application of the definition of bandwidth - see Exercise 5.
R. M. Howard 2013

46

9.2

Rise Time and Fall Time

The rise and fall time of a system are defined for a step input into a
system.

Definition: Rise Time

The rise time is the time taken for a signal to go from 10% above
its lower stable level to 90% of its upper stable level.
Definition: Fall Time
The fall time is the time taken for a signal to go from 90% of its
upper stable level to 10% above its lower stable level.
The definitions of rise time and fall time of a signal are illustrated
below:

R. M. Howard 2013

47

rise time

upper steady state level

100%
90%
10%
0%
lower steady state level
fall time

R. M. Howard 2013

48

10.0

Analysis vs Simulation

Simulation of circuits is facilitated by software packages such as

PSPICE.
Analysis of circuits is facilitates by software packages such as
Maple/Mathematica.
Note: in general, simulation of a circuit will give specific, not general, information about a circuit. The information given depends
on the parameter values chosen. When the parameter values
change the simulation needs to be redone and new information
generated.
In contrast, analysis leads to general results. Such results facilitate
optimization of performance etc.

R. M. Howard 2013

49

11.0

Review of Basic Electromagnetics

The basis of electrostatics is the existence of forces between

charges:
r
q1

q2

According to Coulombs formula the magnitude of the force that

charge q 2 exerts on charge q 1 equals the magnitude of the force

that q 1 exerts on q 2 with the magnitude of the force being given

by:
F 12 = F 21

q1 q2
1
= ------------ ---------4 o r 2

Here r is the distance between the two charges and o is the permittivity of free space ( 8.85x10

R. M. Howard 2013

12

C N m ).

50

11.1

Electric Field

Consider the case where there exists a fixed charge, or fixed

charges, at various point is space. Consider the case of a test
charge of q Coulomb being placed at an arbitrary point.
q1
q2

F(r)

This test charge will experience a force consistent with Coulombs

law. The magnitude of this force will depend on the magnitude of
the test charge. A measure of this force is defined for the case of a
test charge of 1 Coulomb and is called the Electric Field:
Definition: Electric Field
The electric field, denoted E , at a point in space is the force per
point. That is
unit charge experienced at that
R. M. Howard 2013

51

F
E = ---q

NC

or

Vm

where q is the test charge at the point being considered and F is

the force that the test charge experiences.

R. M. Howard 2013

52

11.2

Implications of Electrostatic Force

1. The first consequence of electrostatic force is the movement of

free charge. The movement of free charge is consistent with current flow:
current density

J = E

normalized force
conductivity
(measure of resistance to force)

2. The second consequence of electrostatic force is that a charge at

a given point r has potential energy due to the effect of the forces

of other charges.
Definition: Potential
The potential at a set point is the potential energy that a charge
of one Coulomb would have at that point.

R. M. Howard 2013

Thus for a charge of q Coulomb at a point r , which has a potential

energy of E P Joules, the potential of the charge is

53

EP ( r )
( r ) = ------------q

JC

or

V ( Volt )

Definition: Potential Difference

The potential difference, measured in volts, between two points is
the difference in potential at the two points. For the illustration
below
V 21 = ( r 2 ) ( r 1 )

( r2 )

+
r2

V 21
r1 ( r )
1

R. M. Howard 2013

Potential at point 2 with respect to point 1

Interpretation: The potential difference is the gain in energy, per

Coulomb of charge, as a charge moves from the initial point to the
final point.

54

11.3

Relationships Between Charge, Electric Field and Potential

a) The source of the electrostatic electric field is charge. Consider

Gausss law in differential form
D =

where D is the electric flux density is the charge density and

= i +j +k
x
z
y

For a linear homogenous medium with a permittivity of it follows that D = E . For this case, and in one dimension, the relation

ship D = implies

(x)
d
E X ( x ) = ----------
dx

R. M. Howard 2013

()
E X ( x ) = ----------- d

55

b) The relationships between electrostatic potential and the electrostatic electric field E ,

( xo )
E X ( x o )i
x

xo
E

for the one dimensional case, are:

EX ( x ) =

d
(x)
dx

( x ) = E X ( ) d

where E X ( x ) is the component of the E field in the x direction.

c) The potential difference between two points x 2 and x 1 (potential

at point x 2 with respect to point x 1 ) is, for the 1D case:
x2

x2

V 21 = 21 = ( x 2 ) ( x 1 ) = E X ( ) d = ( E ( ) i ) d

R. M. Howard 2013

x1

x1

56

12.0

Definitions for Resistance, Capacitance and Inductance

Definition: Resistance
The resistance between two equipotential surfaces is
potential difference between surfaces
R = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------current flow between surfaces

Definition: Capacitance
The capacitance of an entity consisting of two separated conductive plates
Q
+++++++++++++++++
---------------------------- Q

is defined as the charge required on the plates to establish a potential difference between the plates of one volt, i.e.
R. M. Howard 2013

57

Q
C = ---

Definition: Inductance
The self inductance of a loop carrying a current I
I
B

is
magnetic flux through loop generated by I
L = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------I

R. M. Howard 2013

58

Capacitance and Inductance of 2 Wires

Using the above general definitions it can be shown that the capacitance and inductance of two wires in free space
wire radius = r o

is
o
C = ------------------------d
ln 1 + ---ro
o
d
L = ------ ln 1 + ---
ro

R. M. Howard 2013

Fm

Hm

59

13.0

Device Modelling: Large and Small Signal Operation

It is the case that many electronic devices are operated in a manner

such that two distinct current (or voltage) components can be
defined:
a) The first component is a DC component and this component
determines the region of operation of the device. This component is
usually the dominant component.
b) The second component, usually a fraction of the level of the first
component, is usually a time varying signal that contains information to be modified (usually amplified) by the device. This component results in small variations in the properties of the device; the
properties essentially being determined by the first DC component.
To illustrate the two components consider a diode which is driven
by a DC voltage source and a AC signal source as illustrated
below:

R. M. Howard 2013

60

v(t)

VB

VD
-

ID

V B for Bias Voltage

First, consider the case where V B > 0 and v ( t ) = 0 . The diode is

operating on the I D vs V D curve as illustrated below. The diode
voltage equals the bias voltage V B and the resulting current flow,
I B , is determined by the diode characteristic curve.

R. M. Howard 2013

61

ID
IB

Operating Point
VB

VD

Definition: Operating Point, Bias Point

The operating point, or bias point, of a device is the current-voltage pair - ( I B, V B ) for the diode circuit illustrated above - that is
determined by the DC conditions applied to the device.
For most electronic devices correct operation is dependent on a
correct, or appropriate, bias point being established. The major
exception are devices that are operated digitally (these devices can
be considered to be operating at either of one of two possible operating points).
R. M. Howard 2013

62

Second, consider the case of V B > 0 and v ( t ) V B . For this case

the voltage v ( t ) results in small changes, as illustrated below,
around the operating point. In this diagram i ( t ) = I D ( t ) I B .
i( t)

ID

IB

VB

VD

linear approx.

v( t)

t
R. M. Howard 2013

63

Note: for the case where the maximum magnitude of v ( t ) is small

relative to the bias voltage V B the diode characteristic curve, as
given by the I D V D relationship, is close to being affine (linear)
around the bias point defined by ( V B, I B ) .
Definition: Small Signal Operation (Linear Operation)
A device with a set bias point is said to be operating in a small signal manner, i.e. small signal operation, if the signal variation
around the operating point is small enough such that linear operation is valid.
Small signal operation is consistent with linear operation and as
far as the small input signal is concerned the device can be
replaced by an equivalent small signal model.

R. M. Howard 2013

64

14.0

Modelling of Power Supply

The following is a model for an ideal power supply:

V CC

+
V CC
-

Consistent with this model the output of the power supply is a set
voltage, independent of its load. Hence, there is no variation - no
small signal variation - at the output of the power supply. As far as
small signals in a circuit are concerned the power supply terminals
act as a point where there is no variation, i.e. a ground point.
Thus: All power supply nodes are treated as ground points for
small signal analysis of a circuit.

R. M. Howard 2013

65

15.0
15.1

Modelling of Diode
Large Signal Model

The following is a large signal model for a diode that is valid at low
frequencies. More complicated models that incorporate non-linear
capacitances are required to predict high frequency performance.
+

anode
ID

VD
-

cathode

circuit symbol

R. M. Howard 2013

ID

VD
-

ID = IS ( e

VD VT

1)

model

66

First order low frequency models for restricted regions of operation are:
+
VD

ID
ID = 0

reverse bias

VD

ID
ID = IS e

VD VT

forward bias

The following definition is used:

Definition: Thermal Voltage
kT
The thermal voltage is defined as V T = ------- where k is Boltzq
manns constant, T is the absolute temperature, and q is the electronic charge.

At 300K V T = 0.025875 . It is usual to use a value of V T = 0.0259

(a value of V T = 0.026 is also commonly used).
R. M. Howard 2013

67

15.2

Small Signal Model for Diode

Assuming the diode is biased with an operating point defined by

( V B, I B ) the following small signal models for a diode are valid:

rD

C D + C Dif

forward bias

CD
reverse bias

In these models
rD

VT
= ------IB

CD ( 0 )
-------------------CD ( VD ) =
VD
1 ------j
R. M. Howard 2013

VD < j 2
j = junction potential
68

kd ID ( VD )
C dif ( V D ) = -----------------------IS

Note: the parameters in the small signal model depend on the bias
or operating point, of the diode.
In general, parameters in a small signal model of a device depend
on the bias or operating point of the device.
15.3

Enhanced Small Signal Model

A more accurate small signal model for a diode, as shown below,

can be proposed:
CC
rS

CJ
rJ

R. M. Howard 2013

LL

69

Here r J is the resistance associated with the junction, C J is the

junction capacitance and the other parameters are defined based
on the following observations:
1) The finite conductivity in the p and n regions lead to a small
resistance r S in series with the junction resistance and junction
capacitance.
2) The two metal contacts result in a small capacitance C C in parallel with the components modelling the interior of the diode.
3)The leads of the diode result in lead inductance and this is
accounted for by the inductor L L .
For example, the model for a Schottky diode manufactured by
Hewlett Packard, and suitable for GHz operation, has the following parameters with a 50 A bias current.
r J = 618
C C = 0.02pF
R. M. Howard 2013

C J = 0.12pF

r S = 4.7

L L = 0.1nH
70

16.0

Modelling of BJT

The two transistor types that underpin the modern electronics and
communications industry are the bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
and the field effect transistor (FET). The modern electronics era is
usually traced to the invention of the BJT in 1947 by Bardeen,
Brattain and Schottky who were researchers at the Bell Telephone
Laboratories in the USA.
The BJT was the device that underpinned the early development of
the electronics/electronics revolution. In recent decades the MOSFET has become the dominant device. However, the BJT has many
good characteristics and is still an important device.

R. M. Howard 2013

71

There are two types of BJTs: The NPN and the PNP. Their respective structures are illustrated below:
C

n
B

1m

n
p

metal contact
E
npn transistor

E
pnp transistor

The terminals are labelled B for base, E for emitter, and C for
collector. The base region is normally very thin with a distance
between the collector and emitter regions of the order of 1m .

R. M. Howard 2013

72

The following circuit symbols are used for the NPN and PNP transistors.
C
NPN

E
B

B
E

PNP
C

In essence, a BJT consists of two back to back pn junctions. These

junctions can be either forward or reverse biased and this leads to
the following possibilities:

R. M. Howard 2013

Bias on PN Junctions NPN Case

Bias on PN Junctions PNP Case

Mode of
Operation

B-E junction reverse biased

B-C junction reverse biased

E-B junction reverse biased

C-B junction reverse biased

Cut-off

B-E junction reverse biased

B-C junction forward biased

E-B junction reverse biased

C-B junction forward biased

Reverse Active Mode

B-E junction forward biased

B-C junction reverse biased

E-B junction forward biased

C-B junction reverse biased

Forward Active
Mode

B-E junction forward biased

B-C junction forward biased

E-B junction forward biased

C-B junction forward biased

Saturation
73

For linear operation, where the goal is signal amplification, the

forward active mode of operation is used. For digital circuits one
option is to establish two distinct states by making transitions from
the cut-off mode to saturation.

R. M. Howard 2013

74

16.1

Current Flow in a BJT when Operating in the FAM

The following diagram illustrates the movement of carriers in a

NPN transistor operating in the forward active region.
D - Diffusion
E

electrons

n type

D
R

holes

R - Recombination

C
holes

n type

B
E

R. M. Howard 2013

drift force on electrons

E
x

75

The following diagram illustrates the definitions for currents in a

npn and a pnp transistor.

IE

IC

IB

IB
NPN

IE

IC
PNP

Definition: Beta of a Transistor

The ratio of the collector current to the base current in the forward active mode of a transistor is called the beta (forward beta)
of the transistor and is denoted , i.e.
IC
= ----IB

With this definition the collector and base currents are

R. M. Howard 2013

76

IC = IS e

V BE V T

IB

I S V BE V T
= ----- e

where I S is the saturation current.

From KCL it follows that
IE = IB + IC

R. M. Howard 2013

1
+ 1 V BE V T
I E = --- + 1 I C = ------------ I S e

77

Definition: Alpha (Common Base Current Gain)

By definition the alpha (forward alpha) of the transistor is the
ratio of the collector current to the emitter current in the forward
active mode of operation, i.e.
IC
= ----IE

From the definition it follows that

IC

= ----- = -----------IE
+1

= -----------1

and the emitter current can be written as

I S V BE V T
I E = ----- e

R. M. Howard 2013

78

16.2

Large Signal Models for BJT in Forward Active Region

To establish a large signal model for a npn transistor operating in

the forward active region note:
1. The terminal current are:
IC = IS e

V BE V T

IB

I S V BE V T
= ----- e

1
I E = I B + I C = ( + 1 )I B = 1 + --- I C

2. The terminal currents depend on the forward bias of the baseemitter junction in a manner which is identical to that of a forward
biased pn junction. The base-emitter acts as a diode.
3. The terminal currents are independent of the reverse bias across
the base-collector junction and, hence, the base-collector voltage.
In particular the collector current is independent of the base-collector voltage and can be modelled as a voltage dependent current
source.
R. M. Howard 2013

79

The following model can be proposed:

IB
IC
B
C
+
IS
V BE
I B
----
IE
E

IB

I S V BE V T
= ----- e

This model is useful for determining the bias in a circuit involving

a npn transistor.
Note: The parameters associated with diode symbol is the diode
saturation current.

R. M. Howard 2013

80

16.3

PNP Transistor Operation

The operation of a pnp transistor is analogous to that of a npn

transistor except:
1. The current directions are reversed:
IE

IC
NPN

IB

IB
IE

PNP
IC

2. The voltages required to forward bias the B-E and the B-C junctions are the negative of the voltages required for the npn transistor. Hence, a E-B voltage ( V EB ) of about 0.6 to 0.7 volts is required
to forward bias the B-E junction for a pnp transistor; a B-E ( V BE )
voltage of about 0.6 to 0.7 volts is required to forward bias the B-E
junction in a npn transistor.
By analogy with the npn transistor the terminal currents for a pnp
transistor are given by
R. M. Howard 2013

81

IC = IS e

V EB V T

IB

I S V EB V T
= ----- e

1
I E = I B + I C = ( + 1 )I B = 1 + --- I C

4. The large signal model is analogous to that of a npn transistor

with appropriate reversal of voltage definitions and reversal of
current directions. The following models are valid for forward
active mode operation:
E
IE

+
V EB
B-

R. M. Howard 2013

IB

IS
----

I B
IC

IB

I S V EB V T
= ----- e

This model is useful for determining the bias in a circuit involving

a npn transistor.

82

16.4

Current - Voltage Characteristics of a BJT Transistor

NPN Transistor

1. The most common way of displaying the voltage and current

characteristics of a npn transistor is to graph the collector current
vs the C-E voltage for different values of base current. These characteristics, idealized, are shown below:
Saturation Region
IB > IB > IB > IB

IC
I B
I B
I B
I B

IB

IB
Forward Active Mode

2
1

0.3

R. M. Howard 2013

IB
IB

4
3

2
1

V CE
Cutoff Mode
83

2. Cutoff occurs when the B-C junction is reverse biased and V BE

is such that the collector current flow is negligible
3. In the forward active mode the relationship between the collector current and the base current, as indicated on the above diagrams is
I C = I B

4. The base current, and hence the collector current, is dependent

on the B-E voltage via the relationship:
I S V BE V T
I B = ----- e

IC = IS e

V BE V T

I B, I C

0.7V
R. M. Howard 2013

V BE
84

PNP Transistor

The characteristics of a pnp transistor are analogous to those of

the npn transistor provided the E-C voltage is considered and the
current directions are taken as those defined for a pnp transistor:
IE
IB

PNP
IC

The idealized characteristics are shown below:

IC
I B

I B

IB

IB

IB

IB
0.3

R. M. Howard 2013

I B
I B

IB > IB > IB > IB

3

4
3

2
1

V EC
85

16.5

Small Signal Model for a BJT

The major interest is in the small signal model for a BJT when it is
operating in the forward active region. The npn case is considered.
The small signal model for a pnp transistor is identical to the npn
small signal model.
The small signal model utilizes the following relationships:
Fundamental Definitions

Definition: Transconductance
The transconductance, denote g m , of a BJT, when operating in the
forward active mode with a collector current I C ( V BE ) , is defined
according to
gm

R. M. Howard 2013

I C ( V BE )
= --------------------VT

I C ( V BE ) = I S e

V BE V T

86

Definition: r
The resistance r is defined as the ratio of the small signal change in the
base emitter voltage to the small signal current change when the base current is I B ( V BE ) . Hence,

VT
-------------------r =
I B ( V BE )

I S V BE V T
I B ( V BE ) = ----- e

Fundamental Relationship

From the definitions for g m and r , and the definition = I C I B , it

follows that

gm r =

R. M. Howard 2013

87

Small Signal Equivalent Model

A detailed analysis can be used to show the following:
1) A small change in V BE to V BE + v , results in a corresponding
linear change in the collector current, i c , according to
v
i c = ------- I C ( V BE ) = g m v
VT

2) A small change in the B-E voltage from V BE to V BE + v ,

results in a corresponding linear change in the base current, i b ,
according to
v
v
i b = ------- I B ( V BE ) = -----VT
r

Noting that the base-collector voltage has no influence on these

relationships the following model can be proposed consistent with
the changes in the base voltage, base current and collector current:
R. M. Howard 2013

88

B
+
v

i b

i c

g m v

Notes:
v
1. This model implies a base current of i b = ------ .
r

2. This model implies a collector current of i c = g m v .

3. In this model the terminal currents and voltages are independent of the B-C voltage
4. The small signal parameters are dependent on the bias conditions. Specifically, r depends on the bias voltage I B ( V BE ) and g m
depends on I C ( V BE ) .
R. M. Howard 2013

89

5. The model (i.e. linear operation) is valid for the case where the
change in B-E voltage around the bias point of V BE is much less
than the thermal voltage V T (25.9 mV).
6. The model is called the (low frequency) Hybrid-Pi model for a
BJT.

R. M. Howard 2013

90

Complete Small Signal Model - The Hybrid-Pi Model

The complete small signal model for a BJT (the model is suitable
for both the npn and pnp transistor), named the Hybrid-Pi model,
is shown below:

ib

rx

+
v
-

r C

ic

gm v

ro

C
I C ( V BE )
g m = --------------------VT
gm r =

In this model C accounts for the diffusion and depletion capaci-

tance of the Base-Emitter junction and C accounts for the depletion capacitance of the Base-Collector junction.

R. M. Howard 2013

C ( 0 )
C ( V BC ) = ---------------------------m
V
BC
1 --------
j

m 0.7, j 0.7
91

It is common to define, for a BJT, the unity gain bandwidth f T

according to
fT

gm
= ------------------------------2 ( C + C )

Values of f T are usually given on a data sheet for a BJT. Once C

and g m have been determined C can be ascertained, e.g.
gm
C = ------------ C
2f T

R. M. Howard 2013

92

The resistance r x accounts for the resistance in the narrow base

region:
E
p

n
n

r x is the resistance of this path

Typical values for r x are in the range of 20-100 Ohms.

The resistance r o accounts for the non-zero slope of the I C vs V CE
curves:
VA
-------------------ro =
I C ( V BE )

where V A is the early voltage. A typical value for r o is 100 k .

Typical Parameter Values: See Exercise 11.

R. M. Howard 2013

93

16.6

Three Amplifier Structures

The three basic single stage transistor amplifiers are the common
emitter amplifier, the common collector amplifier and the common
base amplifier:
V CC
RC
Vo
decoupling capacitor

+
vS

RE

CE
V CC

R. M. Howard 2013

common emitter amplifier

94

V CC

V CC

RC
+
vS

RE

Vo
V CC

common collector

Vo
CC
+
vS

IE
V CC
common base

R. M. Howard 2013

95

17.0

Physical Constants
Table 2:

Fundamental Constants

Parameter
proton mass
- electron mass

me

mh

1.67x10

27

9.11x10

31

- effective electron mass for Si

1.18m

- effective hole mass for Si

0.81m
19

- electronic charge

1.6x10

- Boltzmanns constant

1.38x10

23

- Plancks constant

6.62x10

34

8.85x10

12

- Permittivity of free space

1 Electron Volt
R. M. Howard 2013

Value

1.6x10

19

kg
kg

JK

Js
2

C N m

96

Table 2:

Fundamental Constants

Parameter

- velocity of light in free space

Light wavelength - visible

Table 3:

Value
8

3.0x10 ms

400 to 700 nm

Constants for Silicon

Parameter

EG

R. M. Howard 2013

- Energy gap

- Permittivity

ni

- Nominal Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

Value at 300K

1.12 eV
11.8 o
10

10

cm

- Electron mobility (low doping levels)

1360 cm V s

- Hole mobility (low doping levels)

460 cm V s

ln

and l p - Diffusion Length

2 1 1

2 1 1

2 m

97

Table 3:

Constants for Silicon

Parameter

Value at 300K

Recombination time

typically

1 sec

Typical doping Density in CMOS

R. M. Howard 2013

NA

3x10

15

ND

1x10

15

cm
cm

3
3

98

Appendix 1:

Proof of Theorem: Interpretation of TF

The Laplace transform of x ( t ) = A sin [ w c t ]u ( t ) is

Aw c
X ( s ) = ----------------2
2
s + wc

As Y ( s ) = H ( s )X ( s ) it follows that
Aw c
----------------Y( s) = 2
H( s)
2
s + wc

With the assumptions it follows that H ( s ) can be written in the following partial fraction form:
h1
hN
H ( s ) = -------------- + --------------s + p1
s + pN

R. M. Howard 2013

99

where N is the degree of the denominator polynomial, p 1 p N

are the roots of this polynomial, and h 1, , h N are the coefficients

that can be determined by the partial fraction expansion.
As the partial fraction form for
Aw C
x1
x1
---------------------------------------------=
+
2
2
s + jw c s jw c
s + wc

for appropriately defined constants x 1 and x 2 , it follows that a full

partial fraction expansion for Y ( s ) is

k1
k1
g1
gN
Y ( s ) = ----------------- + ---------------- + -------------- + --------------s + jw c s jw c s + p 1
s + pN

It then follows that

R. M. Howard 2013

100

k1 =

lim ( s + jw c )Y ( s ) =

s jw c

lim

s jw c

Aw c
---------------- H ( s )
s jw c

Aw c
A
= -------------- H ( jw c ) = ------- H ( jw c )
2j
2jw c
k2 =

lim ( s jw c )Y ( s ) =

s jw c

lim

s jw c

Aw c
----------------- H ( s )
s + jw c

Aw c
A
= ----------- H ( jw c ) = ----- H ( jw c )
2jw c
2j

Hence
g1
gN
A H ( jw c ) H ( jw c )
Y ( s ) = ----- ------------------------ + ------------------ + -------------- + --------------2j s + jw c
s jw c
s + p1
s + pN

Using the inverse Laplace transform result

1 pt
---------e
s+p
R. M. Howard 2013

101

it follows that
jw c t
jw c t
A
y ( t ) = ----- [ H ( jw c )e
+ H ( jw c )e ]
2j

+ g1 e

p1 t

+ + + gN e

pN t

For the case, as assumed, of all roots of the denominator polynomial

having
negative
real
parts,
consistent
with
Re [ p 1 ] > 0, , Re [ p N ] > 0 , it follows that
jw c t

jw c t

H ( jw c )e
H ( jw c )e
y SS ( t ) = lim y ( t ) = A ----------------------------------------------------------------------2j
t

To simplify this expression H ( jw c ) can be written in polar form

according to
H ( jw c ) = H ( jw c ) e
R. M. Howard 2013

j ( w c )

102

To find the relationship between H ( jw c ) and H ( jw c ) consider the

definition of H ( s ) :

H ( s ) = h ( t )e

st

dt

It then follows that

H ( jw c ) = h ( t )e

jw c t

dt

H ( j w c ) = h ( t )e

jw c t

dt

and that
*

H ( j w c ) = h ( t )e

j wc t

dt = H ( jw c )

0
*

or H ( j w c ) = H ( jw c ) (this property is called Hermitian symmetry).

R. M. Howard 2013

103

Hence
H ( j w c ) = H ( jw c ) e

j ( w c )

Thus
jw c t

jw c t

H ( jw c )e
H ( jw c )e
---------------------------------------------------------------------y SS ( t ) = A
2j
j ( w c ) jw c t

j ( w c ) jw c t

e
e
e
e
= A H ( jw c ) -----------------------------------------------------------------2j
j [ wc t + ( wc ) ]

j [ wc t + ( wc ) ]

e
e
= A H ( jw c ) ----------------------------------------------------------------------2j
= A H ( jw c ) sin [ w c t + ( w c ) ]

as required.

R. M. Howard 2013

104

18.0

Exercises

The following exercises are provided to assist your education. It is

expected that you are proactive with respect to your education and
are progressing towards the standard where you learn independently, attempt problems prior to a tutorial, and know why your
answer to a set problem is correct.
Exercise 1
If
k ( 1 + s z1 )
H ( s ) = ---------------------------( 1 + s p1 )

then evaluate an expression for H M ( f ) and H ( f ) . Assume

k, z 1, p 1 > 0 . Sketch H M ( f ) and H ( f ) for the case of k = 10 ,

z 1 = 210 and p 1 = 2 .

R. M. Howard 2013

105

Exercise 2
If
k ( 1 + s z1 )
H ( s ) = ---------------------------------------------------( 1 + s p1 ) ( 1 + s p2 )

then evaluate an expression for H M ( f ) and H ( f ) . Assume

k, z 1, p 1 > 0 . Sketch H M ( f ) and H ( f ) for the case of k = 10 ,

z 1 = 210 , p 1 = 2 and p 2 = 2100 .

R. M. Howard 2013

106

Exercise 3
If
k ( 1 + s z1 ) ( 1 + s z2 )
H ( s ) = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------( 1 + s p1 ) ( 1 + s p2 ) ( 1 + s p3 )

then evaluate an expression for H M ( f ) and H ( f ) . Assume

k, z 1, z 2, p 1, p 2, p 3 > 0 and z 1 p 1 z 2 p 2 p 3 Sketch H M ( f ) and

H ( f ) for the general case consistent with z 1 p 1 z 2 p 2 p 3 .

Specify the maximum gain.

R. M. Howard 2013

107

Exercise 4
Establish the transfer function between the input and output of the
following op. amp. circuit.
Rf
R1

vS ( t )

vo ( t )

Use the following model for the op. amp.

+

+
Vi

R. M. Howard 2013

+
A ( s )V i V o
-

Ao
------------------A(s) =
1 + s so

108

Exercise 5
Determine bandwidth expressions for the following transfer functions:
a)

k
H ( s ) = -----------------1+sp

k
b) H ( s ) = -------------------------2(1 + s p)

R. M. Howard 2013

p>0
p>0

109

Exercise 6
Consider the following circuit:

a) Determine an expression for the impedance, Z , of the circuit:

b) Write this impedance in the form
k
Z = -----------------1+sp

Specify k and p in terms of R and C .

k
c) Given an impedance Z = ------------------ , determine the values of R
1+sp
and C consistent with the above circuit.

R. M. Howard 2013

110

Exercise 7
Determine an expression for V Y . as defined in the following circuit.
R

V Y +L

i2 ( t )

i1 ( t )

VB

R. M. Howard 2013

111

Exercise 8
Consider the common base amplifier:
V CC
RC
Vo
CC
+
vS

I EE
V CC

Specify how the operating point I B, I C, I E , as well as the output

voltage V o , can be determined.

R. M. Howard 2013

112

Exercise 9
Using the approximation of V EB = 0.7V establish, for the following circuit, I B, I C, I E for the BJT, I 1 and I 2 , and the voltages V B
and V o .

V CC
RB

I1
1

VB
RB

Assume:

= 50 ,

RE
V EB +
-

I2

Vo

RC

R B = 5k ,
1

R C = 1k and V CC = 12V .
R. M. Howard 2013

R B = 10k ,
2

R E = 500 ,

113

Exercise 10
a) Complete the design, i.e. specify appropriate resistance values,
for the following circuits when the requirements are:
I C = 1mA
V o = 8V

Assume V CC = 12V , = 100 , forward active mode of operation

where V BE = 0.7V when I C = 1mA .
b) Comment on the temperature stability of each of these circuits.

R. M. Howard 2013

114

V CC
RB

RC

RB

Vo

circuit 1
RB

V CC
RC

Vo

circuit 2
2

V CC
RB

RB

circuit 3
R. M. Howard 2013

V CC

RC

RC
Vo

RE

RB

Vo

circuit 4

RE
V CC
115

Exercise 11
Consider the following BJT amplifier:
V CC
RC
Vo

RS
+
vS

RE
V CC

Typical

parameter

values

are:

I C = 1mA ,

V CC = 12V ,

R S = 50 , R C = 5k , R E = 11.3k , V BE = 0.7 , = 100 and

f T = 100MHz .

Determine g m , r , C and C . Assume C ( 0 ) = 3.3pF ,

R. M. Howard 2013

j = 0.7V and m = 0.5 .

116

19.0

R. M. Howard 2013

Solution to Exercises

117