CONCRETE DURABILITY

Seminar #2
Physical Properties and Causes of
Deterioration of Construction Materials
90-553

by:

Alvin Olar

OVERVIEW
Define durability
Exposure conditions
Chemical and Physical

Durability factors
w/c ratio and degree of hydration

Components and testing of mass transfer

Mechanisms and tests of deterioration
Recommendations and Q&A

WHAT IS DURABILITY?
No material itself is durable or nondurable: it is the interaction of the material
with its in-service environment that
determines its durability. L. Masters
Durable concrete is concrete that will
withstand the conditions for which it has
been designed, without deterioration, over a
period of years

EXPOSURE CONDITIONS
Chemical attack:

Leaching and efflorescence (P)

Sulfate attack (P)
Alkali-aggregate reaction (A)
Acids (P)
Corrosion of reinforcement (R)

A = Aggregate, P = Paste, R = Reinforcement

EXPOSURE CONDITIONS
Physical attack:

Freezing and thawing (P,A)

Wetting and drying (P)
Temperature Changes (P,A)
Wear and abrasion (P,A)

A = Aggregate, P = Paste, R = Reinforcement

DETERIORATION
Can be caused by the adverse performance
of the A, P, or R and can be due to chemical
and/or physical causes listed
Common defects;
Scaling / spalling / popouts
Cracking / disintegration
Efflorescence / incrustation

DURABILITY FACTORS
Single parameter having the largest
influence on durability is the W/C ratio
W/C ratio dictates the porosity and permeability
of the paste
Permeability determines the vulnerability of
concrete to external agencies,
in order to be durable, concrete must be relatively
impervious

Lower W/C ratio increases the strength of

concrete and resistance to internal stresses

w/c =
0.475

CAPILLARY PORES
W/C ratios > 0.38, all the cement can
hydrate but capillary pores will also be
present
Capillary pores represent that part of the
gross volume not filled by the products of
hydration
The volume of the capillary system is
reduced with the progress of hydration

CAPILLARY PORES
Interconnected Pores
mainly responsible for the permeability of the
hardened cement paste and its vulnerability to
deterioration

Discontinuous Pores
as paste matures, the additional products of
hydration fill the water filled capillary voids
producing discontinuity

Cementitious Materials

MASS TRANSFER
The permeability of concrete to liquids,
gases, and ions is of direct relevance to
durability
The rate at which water and aggressive
agents penetrate into the pores of concrete is
directly related to its resistance to both
chemical and physical attack
Higher permeability results in quicker and
more severe deterioration

MASS TRANSFER
Three stages of moisture front propagation
in concrete can be defined;
for partial vapor pressures below 0.45, before a
meniscus is formed, the moisture movement is
controlled by adsorption and surface diffusion
for partial vapor pressures between 0.45 and close to
1, moisture transfer is achieved through vapor
diffusion and capillary tension
in saturated or nearly saturated material, moisture
transfer is mainly due to laminar flow, controlled by
viscosity and defined by Darcys Law

ADSORPTION
At low relative vapor pressures (p/ps < 0.45)
mass transfer of water vapor occurs by
molecular migration rather than coherent
flow
This type of flow does not contribute
significantly to mass transfer of water
through cement paste

SURFACE DIFFUSION
Loosely bound top molecular layers of the
adsorbed water may slide over the
underlying layer, thus wetting bounding
surfaces and hence causing mass transfer

VAPOR DIFFUSION
At p/ps > 0.45 when a meniscus can form,
vapor diffusion occurs in accordance with
Ficks Law;
Q = Dp dp/dx
where

Q = mass transport rate

Dp = diffusion coefficient
dp/dx = vapor pressure potential
gradient

VAPOR DIFFUSION
The continuous film of moisture in a
partially saturated sample of hardened
cement paste produces a short circuit
allowing rapid moisture transfer without
coherent flow

BULK FLOW
Movement of liquid through an unsaturated
of saturated matrix, or both
In unsaturated material with one end
exposed to water the other to the
atmosphere, capillary tension (absorption)
creates mass transfer
Once pores are saturated, the curvature of
the meniscus is zero and a pressure head is
required to drive water through the matrix

BULK FLOW
Pressure driven flow is governed by
Darcys Law;
< = Kp *h/*l
where < is the velocity of flow, *h is the head loss
over a flow path of length *l and Kp is the
permeability coefficient

PERMEABILITY TESTING
Gas Flow
pressure induced gas flow follows Darcys Law
directly measure gas permeability through a
field or laboratory specimen

Gas Diffusion
measures the concentration of a chosen gas
(usually oxygen) across the sample, due to
exposure at the upstream face

PERMEABILITY TESTING
Water-Vapor Diffusion
measures the movement of water vapor across
the sample driven by a difference in partial
pressure between the upstream and downstream
faces
placing a sample on a saturated sand bed with a
desiccant on the downstream (top) face and
periodically weighing the sample and desiccant
the diffusion coefficient is based on Ficks law

PERMEABILITY TESTING
Absorption and Rate of Absorption
measure the weight gain of a sample, volume of
water entering the sample, depth of penetration,
or a combination thereof
ASTM C642 - Test Method for Specific
Gravity, Absorption, and Voids in Hardened
Concrete, is a popular test that gives reliable
results

r = (4:
: /Po) .d/%
%t
r = mean pore radius (m)
:= viscosity of water (Pa.s)
Po= atm. pressure (Pa)
d = depth of penetration (m)
t = time (s)

PERMEABILITY TESTING
Water Penetration
measuring the depth of penetration or volume
of water entering the sample when one end of
the unsaturated sample is subjected to a
pressure head In situ test
an in-situ test is the Figgs test
a 10mm dia. by 40mm deep hole is drilled into the
surface being tested and the time to disperse a
known volume of water is measured

Initial moisture conditions effect results

PERMEABILITY TESTING
Pressure induced water flow through a
saturated sample follows Darcys Law
The test is performed on a water-saturated
specimen and involves subjecting one end
of the sample to a pressure head
The measurement of outflow determines the
permeability coefficient

PERMEABILITY TESTING
Ionic Diffusion
because of the extent of reinforcement
corrosion damage and freeze thaw deterioration
due to de-icing and marine salts, the main
concern with ionic diffusion is chloride ion
migration into concrete
testing includes establishing chloride ion
concentration profiles of in-situ concrete by
analyzing cores at successive depths

PERMEABILITY TESTING
use of a concrete slice as a membrane between
two salt solutions
the ion concentration change on the lower
concentration side is monitored and correlated to a
diffusion coefficient using Ficks Law
may take months to establish steady state

ASTM C1202 - Test Method for Electrical

Indication of Concretes Ability to Resist
Chloride Ion Penetration
measure total charged passed in 6h across a sample

PERMEABILITY TESTING
sandwiched between NaOH and NaCl solutions.
the driving force is a 60-V dc current
measures the effect of all dissolved ions in the
concrete, without emphasis on a particular ion

CHEMICAL ATTACK
Leaching and Efflorescence
salts left behind on the surface by evaporation
of water or interaction with CO2 in the
atmosphere leads to efflorescence
typical salts are sulfates and carbonates of Na,
K, and Ca
an aesthetic rather than a durability problem,
however, efflorescence indicates substantial
leaching is occurring

CHEMICAL ATTACK
Sulfate Attack
External - caused by ingress of sulfate from
soils, groundwater, and acid rain
Internal - caused by extensive sulfate content of
cement, aggregates, mineral or chemical
admixtures, and mix water

CHEMICAL ATTACK
External Sulfate Attack
results in microstructural changes leading to
deterioration of mechanical properties
common type is MgSO4
C-S-H
Mg - S - H - has no cementing
properties

CHEMICAL ATTACK
Internal Sulfate Attack
Delayed Ettringite Formation - DEF
caused by decomposition and reformation of
ettringite due to improper curing procedures
reformed ettringite is expansive and results in
the formation of peripheral cracks/gaps around
the aggregate

CHEMICAL ATTACK
Tests for Sulfate Attack
the resistance of concrete to sulfate attack can
be tested in the laboratory by storing specimens
in a solution of sodium or magnesium sulfate,
or in a mixture of the two
the effects of exposure can be estimated by;

the loss in strength

changes in dynamic modulus
its expansion
loss of weight

CHEMICAL ATTACK
Alkali-Aggregate Reaction - AAR
reactions taking place in the presence of water
between the alkalis in Portland cement and
certain rocks and minerals containing active
siliceous or carbonate materials
the reactions result in large volume increases
producing cracking, spalling, and popouts

CHEMICAL ATTACK
Tests for AAR
ASTM C 227 - Test Method for Potential
Alkali Reactivity of Cement-Aggregate
Combinations (Mortar-Bar Method)
measures physical reactivity of aggregate

ASTM C 289 - Test Method for Potential

Alkali-Silica Reactivity o f Aggregates
(Chemical Method)
measures the silica content of the aggregate

CHEMICAL ATTACK
Acid Attack
in damp conditions SO2, C02, and other acid
fumes present in the atmosphere attack concrete
by dissolving and removing part of the set
cement, leaving behind a soft, mushy mass
various physical and chemical tests on the
resistance of concrete to acids have been
developed, but there are no standard procedures
results should be carefully interpreted

CHEMICAL ATTACK
Corrosion of Reinforcement
for corrosion of steel embedded in concrete to
occur, the following conditions must all be met;
the provision of an anode-cathode couple with at
least part of the steel acting as an anode
the maintenance of an electrical current
the presence of moisture
the presence of oxygen

CHEMICAL ATTACK
High alkaline conditions present within
concrete (ph of 12 to 12.5) cause a passive
oxide film to form on the surface of the iron
and prevent corrosion
Atmospheric Carbonation reduces the ph by
converting calcium hydroxide in cement paste
to calcium carbonate
Chloride ions have the ability to destroy the
passive oxide film of steel at high alkalinities

PHYSICAL ATTACK
Freezing and Thawing
Porous materials containing moisture are
susceptible to damage under cycles of freezing
and thawing (frost attack)
freeze-thaw depends on the moisture content
and rate of replenishment
higher porosity means more freezable water
essential that substantial hydration takes place
before exposure to frost - lower porosity and
permeability

PHYSICAL ATTACK
Mechanisms of frost attack
2 main dilating pressures exist - hydraulic and
diffusion pressures

Hydraulic pressure
9% increase in volume as water freezes
excess water in the cavity is expelled
hydraulic pressure developed depends on the
resistance to flow- length of path and
permeability of the paste between air void

PHYSICAL ATTACK
if the concrete is at least 91% (critically)
saturated hydraulic pressure can exist

PHYSICAL ATTACK
Diffusion pressure
caused by osmotic pressure brought about by
local increases in solute concentration due to
the separation of frozen (pure) water from the
solution
cations from deicing salts cause an increase in
the number of pores occupied by adsorbed
water and thus becoming osmotically active
deicing salts tend to accelerate deterioration

PHYSICAL ATTACK
When dilating pressure in the concrete
exceeds its tensile strength, damage occurs
scaling, spalling, to complete disintegration

Freeze thaw deterioration is a function of

the amount of adsorbed water relative to
free void space
W/C ratio, degree of hydration, and
moisture content

PHYSICAL ATTACK

PHYSICAL ATTACK
Tests for freeze thaw and salt scaling
resistance
ASTM C 666 - Test Method for Resistance of
Concrete to Rapid Freezing and Thawing
A) Rapid freezing and thawing in water
B) Rapid freezing in air and thawing in water
cycle - 40oF - 0oF and 0oF to 40oF

PHYSICAL ATTACK
Durability factor
(D.F.) = # of cycles
x
relative
at end of test
dynamic modulus
# of cycles at which
exposure is to be determined
If the surface area of the cement paste can be
determined the amount of adsorbed water can
be determined
by nitrogen adsorption or X-ray scattering

PHYSICAL ATTACK
ASTM C 457 - Test Method for Microscopical
Determination of Parameters of the Air-Void
System in Hardened Concrete
most significant parameter determined is the air void
spacing factor (limit = 0.004 - 0.008in or 0.1 0.2mm)

PHYSICAL ATTACK
ASTM C 672 - Test Method for Scaling
Resistance of Concrete Surfaces Exposed to
Deicing Chemicals (ponding method)
sample is dried for 14 days at 23oC and 50% RH
test surface is covered with a salt solution and the
specimen is submitted to a series of 50 daily
freezing and thawing cycles
the deterioration is evaluated visually (drawback)

PHYSICAL ATTACK
CSA CAN3 A23.1.2 - Brine Immersion Test
sample is dried to a constant mass at 110oC
specimen is immersed in a 3% by mass NaCl
solution for 24 hours
submitted to 50 daily cycles of freezing and thawing
weight loss of sample is monitored

PHYSICAL ATTACK
Wetting and Drying
deterioration due to wetting and drying cycling
is caused by volume changes and is an osmotic
diffusion pressure dilation
depends on pore size, pore size distribution, and
permeability - ions increase critical pore size
tests for total porosity, capillary rise, depth of
penetration, and adsorption give indication of
wetting and drying resistance

PHYSICAL ATTACK
Temperature Changes;
Differential coefficients of thermal expansion
between cement paste and aggregate may lead
to cracking
Generally concretes with a higher coefficient of
thermal expansion are less resistant to
temperature changes

Heated and cooled

between 4 and 60oC
at 2.2oC per minute

PHYSICAL ATTACK
Wear and Abrasion;
Under may circumstances, concrete surfaces are
subjected to wear - (pavements, sidewalks,
hydraulic structures)
The test employed should match the cause of
wear
Function of compressive strength of concrete
and aggregate, and w/c ratio

PHYSICAL ATTACK
ASTM C 779 - Test Method for Abrasion
Resistance of Horizontal Concrete Surfaces
A) the revolving disk machine operates by sliding
and scuffing of steel disks in conjunction with
abrasive grit
B) the dressing wheel machine operates by impact
and sliding friction of steel dressing wheels
C) the ball bearing machine operates by high contact
stresses, impact, and sliding friction from steel balls
Measures depth of wear with respect to exposure
time

CONCLUSION
The mix proportions and degree of
hydration play the largest role in concrete
durability, irrespective of the type of attack
The rate of which moisture and ions
penetrate into concrete give indication of its
ability to withstand deterioration
Both chemical and physical attack has been
cause for large amounts of damage

RECOMMENDATIONS
Cement, aggregate, water, and admixtures
are required to meet normal specifications
for average use
W/C ratio should be not exceed 0.45
Good curing to obtain adequate hydration
Air entraining should be used for severe
exposure
Air drying after curing and before exposure

RECOMMENDATIONS
Adequate drainage and run-off features in
the design of concrete elements and
structures
Q and A