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Gears have existed since the invention of rotating machinery. Because of their
force-multiplying properties, early engineers used them for hoisting heavy loads such as
building materials. The mechanical advantage of gears was also used for ship anchor
hoists and catapult pre-tensioning.
Early gears were made from wood with cylindrical pegs for cogs and were often
lubricated with animal fat grease. Gears were also used in wind and water wheel
machinery for decreasing or increasing the provided rotational speed for application to
pumps and other powered machines. An early gear arrangement used to power textile
machinery is illustrated in the following figure. The rotational speed of a water or horse
drawn wheel was typically too slow to use, so a set of wooden gears needed to be used
to increase the speed to a usable level.
The industrial revolution in Britain in the eighteenth century saw an explosion in the use
of metal gearing. A science of gear design and manufacture rapidly developed through
the nineteenth century.
Today, the most significant new gear developments are in the area of materials. Modern
metallurgy has greatly increased the useful life of industrial and automotive gears, and
consumer electronics has driven plastic gearing to new levels of lubricant-free reliability
and quiet operation.
GEAR
A gear or cogwheel is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, or cogs,
which mesh with another toothed part in order to transmit torque, in most cases with
teeth on the one gear being of identical shape, and often also with that shape on the
other gear. Two or more gears working in tandem are called a transmission and can
produce a mechanical advantage through a gear ratio and thus may be considered
a simple machine. Geared devices can change the speed, torque, and direction of
a power source. The most common situation is for a gear to mesh with another gear;
however, a gear can also mesh with a non-rotating toothed part, called a rack, thereby
producing translation instead of rotation.
The gears in a transmission are analogous to the wheels in a crossed
belt pulley system. An advantage of gears is that the teeth of a gear prevent slippage.
When two gears mesh, and one gear is bigger than the other (even though the size of
the teeth must match), a mechanical advantage is produced, with the rotational
speeds and the torques of the two gears differing in an inverse relationship.
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In transmissions which offer multiple gear ratios, such as bicycles, motorcycles, and
cars, the term gear, as in first gear, refers to a gear ratio rather than an actual physical
gear. The term is used to describe similar devices even when the gear ratio
is continuous rather than discrete, or when the device does not actually contain any
gears, as in a continuously variable transmission.[1]
The earliest known reference to gears was circa A.D. 50 by Hero of Alexandria,[2] but
they can be traced back to the Greek mechanics of theAlexandrian school in the 3rd
century B.C. and were greatly developed by the Greek polymath Archimedes (287212
B.C.).[3] The Antikythera mechanism is an example of a very early and intricate geared
device, designed to calculate astronomical positions. Its time of construction is now
estimated between 150 and 100 BC. [4]
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TYPES OF GEARS
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SPUR GEARS
Spur Gears are the most common and also the oldest type of gear
available. They are used in many different machines for a wide variety of functions.
Although they are very simple in design, several different, discrete types of spur gears
exist. Anyone who is interested in mechanical engineering or who is about to undertake
a project that involves the use of gears of any type ought to familiarize themselves with
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In general, spur gears are round metal disks with teeth cut around the
circumference. In order for the gear to qualify as a spur gear, the teeth must be cut so
that they run perpendicular to the gear's face. Spur gears are the simplest design of
gear produced. They are usually used for the transmission of rotary force. For instance,
if two shafts are parallel to one another, and one is spinning, a spur gear can help to
transfer that force onto the other shaft. Spur gears usually have an operating efficiency
of 98% to 99%.
Antibacklash spur gears, as their name suggests, have little to no backlash, and
so are used in high-precision applications. Often, these spur gears are built with springs
for proper tensoring. They are usually built from brass, aluminum or stainless steel. In
order for antibacklash spur gears to work together, they must have the same diametral
pitch and pressure angle.
Cluster spur gears come "clustered" together, usually on the same shaft, and
have varying diameters.
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Spur gear blanks are spur gears with no teeth cut into them. These types of spur
gears can be useful if you do not yet know the precise number of teeth you will require
for your spur gear's application.
Pinion Shafts
Pinion shafts are basically stretched-out spur gears, cylinders with teeth running
for their entire length.
Ratchets and pawls are two spur gears that work together. Ratchets are gear
wheels with teeth, while pawls are spring-loaded and pivot. Pawls are usually slanted.
Together, these gears allow for unidirectional movement.
Clamp Hub Spur Gears
Clamp hub spur gears are named for the manner in which they connect to their
shaft, that is, with a clamp at the spur gear's center.
Hubless spur gears have no hub and instead connect to their shafts through
friction or with adhesive.
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opposed to a clamp.
materials are often used for different types of applications. For instance, cast iron spur
gears are strong and are used in many commercial applications. Aluminum alloy spur
gears, conversely, are lighter but can also be built into more precise shapes, so they are
used for low-impact applications requiring high precision, such as measuring
instruments. Other materials from which spur gears are built include cast steels, carbon
steels, stainless steels, brass, magnesium and titanium alloys, and sometimes even
nylon.
Acetal is a plastic polymer that is used either in its pure state or slightly altered
state---e.g. Derlin---for a number of spur gears. The acetal polymer is much stronger
than common plastic, though it can be easily molded to any shape, including a spur
gear. Once acetal has hardened in the shape of a spur gear, it is stif, strong and
resistant to abrasion. The malleability, strength and resilience make it an ideal material
for spur gears.
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Cast Iron
Cast iron is, like acetal, an easily molded material. It is also highly resistant to
rust. Cast iron is not pure iron, and because of this, any given batch of cast iron will
have different ingredients. These different ingredients cohere for different degrees of
strength and durability. Cast iron is used in machine parts because it is relatively
inexpensive, rust resistant and easy to mold, though it may be either incredibly strong or
incredibly weak, depending upon the admixture.
Stainless Steel
Stainless steel is a metal alloy commonly used in the casting of spur gears. A
metal alloy is a metal composed of two or more distinct elements that are melted
together. Like cast iron, it is highly resistant to oxidation, and like acetal, it is resistant to
abrasions and other weakening blemishes. Stainless steels resistance to rust and
scarring is due to the infusion of chromium. The strength, durability and corrosion
resistance make stainless steel a popular material for spur gears.
SKEW GEARS
For a 'crossed' or 'skew' configuration, the gears must have the same pressure
angle and normal pitch; however, the helix angle and handedness can be different. The
relationship between the two shafts is actually defined by the helix angle(s) of the two
shafts and the handedness, as defined:[9]
for gears of the same handedness
for gears of opposite handedness
Where
is the helix angle for the gear. The crossed configuration is less
mechanically sound because there is only a point contact between the gears, whereas
in the parallel configuration there is a line contact. [9]
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Quite commonly, helical gears are used with the helix angle of one having the
negative of the helix angle of the other; such a pair might also be referred to as having a
right-handed helix and a left-handed helix of equal angles. The two equal but opposite
angles add to zero: the angle between shafts is zero that is, the shafts are parallel.
Where the sum or the difference (as described in the equations above) is not zero the
shafts are crossed. For shafts crossed at right angles, the helix angles are of the same
hand because they must add to 90 degrees.
DOUBLE HELICAL
Double helical gears, or herringbone gears, overcome the problem of axial thrust
presented by "single" helical gears, by having two sets of teeth that are set in a V
shape. A double helical gear can be thought of as two mirrored helical gears joined
together. This arrangement cancels out the net axial thrust, since each half of the gear
thrusts in the opposite direction resulting in a net axial force of zero. This arrangement
can remove the need for thrust bearings. However, double helical gears are more
difficult to manufacture due to their more complicated shape.
For both possible rotational directions, there exist two possible arrangements for
the oppositely-oriented helical gears or gear faces. One arrangement is stable, and the
other is unstable. In a stable orientation, the helical gear faces are oriented so that each
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axial force is directed toward the center of the gear. In an unstable orientation, both
axial forces are directed away from the center of the gear. In both arrangements, the
total (or net) axial force on each gear is zero when the gears are aligned correctly. If the
gears become misaligned in the axial direction, the unstable arrangement will generate
a net force that may lead to disassembly of the gear train, while the stable arrangement
generates a net corrective force. If the direction of rotation is reversed, the direction of
the axial thrusts is also reversed, so a stable configuration becomes unstable, and vice
versa.
Stable double helical gears can be directly interchanged with spur gears without
any need for different bearings.
BEVEL GEAR
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A bevel gear is shaped like a right circular cone with most of its tip cut off. When
two bevel gears mesh, their imaginary vertices must occupy the same point. Their shaft
axes also intersect at this point, forming an arbitrary non-straight angle between the
shafts. The angle between the shafts can be anything except zero or 180 degrees.
Bevel gears with equal numbers of teeth and shaft axes at 90 degrees are called mitre
gears.
Straight bevel gears have conical pitch surface and teeth are straight and
tapering towards apex.
Spiral bevel gears have curved teeth at an angle allowing tooth contact to be
gradual and smooth.
Zerol bevel gears are very similar to a bevel gear only exception is the teeth are
curved: the ends of each tooth are coplanar with the axis, but the middle of each
tooth is swept circumferentially around the gear. Zerol bevel gears can be thought of
as spiral bevel gears (which also have curved teeth) but with a spiral angle of zero
(so the ends of the teeth align with the axis).
Hypoid bevel gears are similar to spiral bevel but the pitch surfaces
are hyperbolic and not conical. Pinion can be offset above, or below,the gear
centre, thus allowing larger pinion diameter, and longer life and smoother mesh, with
additional ratios e.g., 6:1, 8:1, 10:1. In a limiting case of making the "bevel" surface
parallel with the axis of rotation, this configuration resembles a worm drive.
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A double-helical bevel gear made by Citroen in 1927 for the Miejovice water
power plant
The cylindrical gear tooth profile corresponds to an involute, whereas the bevel
gear tooth profile is an octoid. All traditional bevel gear generators (such as Gleason,
Klingelnberg, Heidenreich & Harbeck, WMW Modul) manufacture bevel gears with an
octoidal tooth profile. IMPORTANT: For 5-axis milled bevel gear sets it is important to
choose the same calculation / layout like the conventional manufacturing method.
Simplified calculated bevel gears on the basis of an equivalent cylindrical gear in normal
section with an involute tooth form show a deviant tooth form with reduced tooth
strength by 10-28% without offset and 45% with offset [Diss. Hnecke, TU Dresden].
Furthermore those "involute bevel gear sets" causes more noise.
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rb - Back-cone radius
Tooth shape for bevel gears is determined by scaling spur gear tooth shapes along the
face width. The further from the intersection of the gear and pinion axes, the bigger the
tooth cross sections are. If the tooth face were to extend all the way to the axes
intersection, the teeth would approach infinitesimal size there. The tooth cross-section
at the largest part of the tooth is identical to the tooth cross-section of a tooth from a
spur gear with Pitch Diameter of 2* rb, or twice the Back-Cone Radius, and with an
imaginary number of teeth (N) equal to
the Circular Pitch of the bevel gear (p). This method of obtaining the dimensions and
shape of the largest tooth profile is known at the Tredgold tooth-shape approximation.
Refer to the profiles shown near the Back-cone radius dimension in the drawing above.
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Mean radius:
The advantage of the spiral tooth over the straight tooth is that they engage more
gradually. The contact between the teeth starts at one end of the gear and then spreads
across the whole tooth. This results in a less abrupt transfer of force when a new pair of
teeth come into play. With straight bevel gears, the abrupt tooth engagement causes
noise, especially at high speeds, and impact stress on the teeth which makes them
unable to take heavy loads at high speeds without breaking. For these reasons straight
bevel gears are generally limited to use at linear speeds less than 1000 feet/min; or, for
small gears, under 1000 r.p.m.[1]
ZEROL TOOTH LINES
Zerol bevel gears are an intermediate type between straight and spiral bevel
gears. Their teeth are curved, but not angled. Zerol bevel gears are designed with the
intent of duplicating the characteristics of a straight bevel gear but they are produced
using a spiral bevel cutting process.
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HYPOID GEARS
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through one tooth at a time. The multiple contacts of hypoid gearing, with proper
lubrication, can be nearly silent, as well.
CROWN GEAR
A crown gear (or a contrate gear) is a gear which has teeth that project at right angles
to the face of the wheel. In particular, a crown gear is a type of bevel gear where
the pitch cone angle is 90 degrees.[1][2] A pitch cone of any other angle is simply called a
bevel gear.[3] Crown gears normally mesh with other bevel gears, or sometimes spur
gears.
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HELICAL GEARS
The teeth on helical gears are cut at an angle to the face of the gear. When two teeth
on a helical gear system engage, the contact starts at one end of the tooth and
gradually spreads as the gears rotate, until the two teeth are in full engagement.
This gradual engagement makes helical gears operate much more smoothly and quietly
than spur gears. For this reason, helical gears are used in almost all car transmissions.
Because of the angle of the teeth on helical gears, they create a thrust load on the gear
when they mesh. Devices that use helical gears have bearings that can support this
thrust load.
One interesting thing about helical gears is that if the angles of the gear teeth are
correct, they can be mounted on perpendicular shafts, adjusting the rotation angle by 90
degrees.
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Helix angle
The helix angle of helical gears is generally selected from the range
6,8,10,12,15,20 degrees. The larger the angle the smoother the motion and the higher
speed possible however the thrust loadings on the supporting bearings also increases.
In case of a double or herringbone gear values 25,30,35,40 degrees can also be
used. These large angles can be used because the side thrusts on the two sets of teeth
cancel each other allowing larger angles with no penalty.
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Pitch /module
For helical gears the circular pitch is measured in two ways
The traverse circular pitch (p) is the same as for spur gears and is measured along the
pitch circle
The normal circular pitch p n is measured normal to the helix of the gear.
The diametric pitch is the same as for spur gears
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p = Circular pitch = d g. / z g = d p. / z p
=Helix angle
a a = Addendum = m
a f =Dedendum = 1.25*m
-1
( tan.cos )
Angle) 1 - 2
a) Standards.
b) Books are available providing the necessary guidance.
c) Software is also available making the process very easy.
Bending
The Lewis formula for spur gears can be applied to helical gears
with minor adjustments to provide an initial conservative
estimate of gear strength in bending.
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Ft / cos
m = Module (mm)
When a gear wheel is rotating the gear teeth come into contact
with some degree of impact. To allow for this a velocity factor
is introduced into the equation. This is given by the Barth
equation for milled profile gears.
K v = (6,1 + V ) / 6,1
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Surface Strength
The allowable gear force from surface durability considerations is
determined approximately using the simple equation as follows
Fw = K v d p b a Q K / cos2
Q = 2. dg /( dp + dp ) = 2.zg /( zp +zp )
Fw = The allowable gear load. (MPa)
K = Gear Wear Load Factor (MPa) obtained by look up
ref Gear Strength Values
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Numb
er of
teeth
12
13
14
15
16
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Numb
er of
teeth
0.24
5
0.26
1
0.27
7
0.29
0
0.29
6
17
18
19
20
21
Numb
er of
teeth
0.30
3
0.30
9
0.31
4
0.32
2
0.32
8
22
24
26
28
30
Numb
er of
teeth
0.33
1
0.33
7
0.34
6
0.35
3
0.35
9
34
38
45
50
60
er of
teeth
0.37
1
0.38
4
0.40
1
0.40
9
0.42
2
75
100
150
300
Rack
0.43
5
0.44
7
0.46
0
0.47
2
0.48
5
WORM GEAR
Worm gears are used when large gear reductions are needed. It is common for
worm gears to have reductions of 20:1, and even up to 300:1 or greater.
Many worm gears have an interesting property that no other gear set has: the
worm can easily turn the gear, but the gear cannot turn the worm. This is because the
angle on the worm is so shallow that when the gear tries to spin it, the friction between
the gear and the worm holds the worm in place.
This feature is useful for machines such as conveyor systems, in which the
locking feature can act as a brake for the conveyor when the motor is not turning. One
other very interesting usage of worm gears is in the Torsen differential, which is used on
some high-performance cars and trucks.
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A worm gear is used when a large speed reduction ratio is required between
crossed axis shafts which do not intersect. A basic helical gear can be used but the
power which can be transmitted is low. A worm drive consists of a large diameter worm
wheel with a worm screw meshing with teeth on the periphery of the worm wheel. The
worm is similar to a screw and the worm wheel is similar to a section of a nut. As the
worm is rotated the worm wheel is caused to rotate due to the screw like action of the
worm. The size of the worm gearset is generally based on the centre distance between
the worm and the worm wheel.
If the worm gears are machined basically as crossed helical gears the result is a highly
stress point contact gear. However normally the wormwheel is cut with a concave as
opposed to a straight width. This is called a single envelope worm gearset. If the
worm is machined with a concave profile to effectively wrap around the wormwheel the
gearset is called a double enveloping worm gearset and has the highest power capacity
for the size. Single enveloping gearsets require accurate alignment of the worm-wheel
to ensure full line tooth contact. Double enveloping gearsets require accurate alignment
of both the worm and the wormwheel to obtain maximum face contact.
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The
worm is shown with the worm above the wormwheel. The gearset can also be arranged
with the worm below the wormwheel. Other alignments are used less frequently.
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As can be seen in the above view a section through the axis of the worm and the
centre of the gear shows that , at this plane, the meshing teeth and thread section is
similar to a spur gear and has the same features
n = Normal pressure angle = 20o as standard
= Worm lead angle = (180 / ) tan-1 (z 1 / q)(deg) ..Note: for n= 20o should be less
than 25o
b a = Effective face width of worm wheel. About 2.m (q +1) (mm)
b l = Length of worm wheel. About 14.m. (mm)
c = clearance c min = 0,2.m cos , c max = 0,25.m cos (mm)
d 1 = Ref dia of worm (Pitch dia of worm (m)) = q.m (mm)
d a.1 = Tip diameter of worm = d 1 + 2.h a.1 (mm)
d 2 = Ref dia of worm wheel (Pitch dia of wormwheel) =( p x.z/ ) = 2.a - d 1 (mm)
d a.2 = Tip dia worm wheel (mm)
h a.1 = Worm Thread addendum = m (mm)
h f.1 = Worm Thread dedendum , min = m.(2,2 cos - 1 ) , max = m.(2,25 cos - 1 )
(mm)
m = Axial module = p x / (mm)
m n = Normal module = m cos (mm)
M 1 = Worm torque (Nm)
M 2 = Worm wheel torque (Nm)
n 1 = Rotational speed of worm (revs /min)
n 2 = Rotational speed of wormwheel (revs /min)
p x = Axial pitch of of worm threads and circular pitch of wheel teeth ..the pitch between
adjacent threads = . m. (mm)
p n = Normal pitch of of worm threads and gear teeth (m)
q = Worm diameter factor = d 1 / m - (Allows module to be applied to worm ) selected
from (6 6,5 7 7,5 8 8,5 9 10 11 12 13 14 17 20 )
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p z = Lead of worm = p x. z 1 (mm).. Distance the thread advances in one rev'n of the
worm. For a 2-start worm the lead = 2 . p x
R g = Reduction Ratio
= coefficient of friction
= Efficiency
Vs = Worm-gear sliding velocity ( m/s)
z 1 = Number of threads (starts) on worm
z 2 = Number of teeth on wormwheel
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Worm gears provide a normal single reduction range of 5:1 to 75-1. The pitch
line velocity is ideally up to 30 m/s. The efficiency of a worm gear ranges from 98% for
the lowest ratios to 20% for the highest ratios. As the frictional heat generation is
generally high the worm box must be designed disperse heat to the surroundings and
lubrication is an essential requirement. Worm gears are quiet in operation. Worm gears
at the higher ratios are inherently self locking - the worm can drive the gear but the gear
cannot drive the worm. A worm gear can provide a 50:1 speed reduction but not a 1:50
speed increase....(In practice a worm should not be used a braking device for safety
linked systems e.g hoists. . Some material and operating conditions can result in a
wormgear backsliding )
The worm gear action is a sliding action which results in significant frictional losses.
The ideal combination of gear materials is for a case hardened alloy steel worm (ground
finished) with a phosphor bronze gear. Other combinations are used for gears with
comparatively light loads.
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Very simply a pair of worm gears can be defined by designation of the number of
threads in the worm ,the number of teeth on the wormwheel, the diameter factor and the
axial module i.e z1,z2, q, m .
This information together with the centre distance ( a ) is enough to enable calculation
of and any dimension of a worm gear using the formulea available.
0,6
0,8
1,0
1,25
12,5
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1,6
16,0
2,0
20,0
2,5
3,15
4,0
5,0
25,0
32,0
40,0
50,0
6,3
8,0
10,0
Material
Notes
applications
Worm
Acetal / Nylon
Cast Iron
Carbon Steel
Hardened Steel
Excellent machinability,
Used infrequently in
medium friction.
modern machinery
strength
rating.
durability
Acetal /Nylon
Phos Bronze
Cast Iron
efficiency
Excellent machinability,
Used infrequently in
medium friction.
modern machinery
40 | P a g e
A worm gear set normally includes some backlash during normal manufacture to
allow for expansion of the gear wheel when operating at elevated temperaturs.
The
The standard
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1) Initial information generally Torque required (Nm), Input speed(rpm), Output speed
(rpm).
2) Select Materials for worm and wormwheel.
3) Calculate Ratio (R g)
4) Estimate a = Center distance (mm)
5) Set z 1 = Nearest number to (7 + 2,4 SQRT (a) ) /R
b_1
12) Apply the relevent duty factors to the allowable torque and the actual torque
13) Compare the actual values to the permissible values and repeat process if
necessary
14) Determine the friction coefficient and calculate the efficiency.
15) Calculate the Power out and the power in and the input torque
16) Complete design of gearbox including design of shafts, lubrication, and casing
ensuring sufficient heat transfer area to remove waste heat.
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Worm gears are often limited not by the strength of the teeth but by the heat
generated by the low efficiency. It is necessary therefore to determine the heat
generated by the gears = (Input power - Output power). The worm gearbox must have
lubricant to remove the heat from the teeth in contact and sufficient area on the external
surfaces to distibute the generated heat to the local environment. This requires
completing an approximate heat transfer calculation. If the heat lost to the environment
is insufficient then the gears should be adjusted (more starts, larger gears) or the box
geometry should be adjusted, or the worm shaft could include a fan to induced forced
air flow heat loss.
FORMULAE
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M 2 = F gt* d 2 / 2
Relationship between the Worm Tangential Force F
wt
force F gt
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FRICTION COEFFICIENT
Note: The values of the coeffient of friction as provided in the table below are
based on the use of phosphor bronze wormwheels and case hardended , ground and
polished steel worms , lubricated by a mineral oil having a viscosity of between 60cSt,
and 130cSt at 60 deg.C .
Cast Iron and Phosphor Bronze .. Table x 1,15
Cast Iron and Cast Iron.. Table x 1,33
Quenched Steel and Aluminum Alloy..Table x 1,33
Steel and Steel..Table x 2
Friction coefficients - For Case Hardened Steel Worm / Phos Bros Wheel
46 | P a g e
Sliding
Friction
Sliding
Friction
Speed
Coefficient
Speed
Coefficient
m/s
m/s
0,145
1,5
0,038
0,001
0,12
0,033
0,01
0,11
0,023
0,05
0,09
0,02
0,1
0,08
10
0,018
0,2
0,07
15
0,017
0,5
0,055
20
0,016
0,044
30
0,016
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SELF LOCKING
Referring to the above graph , When the gear wheel is driving the curve points
intersecting the zero efficiency line identify when the worm drive is self locking i.e the
gear wheel cannot drive to worm.
using even the highest possible torque acting on the worm gear.
occurs when the worm lead angle ( ) equals atan (). (2o to 8o )
It is often considered that the static coefficient of friction is most relevant as the gear
cannot be started.
of friction as this comes into play if the gear set is subject to vibration.
Note: For designing worm gears to AGMA codes AGMA method of Designing
Worm Gears
The information below relates to BS721 Pt2 1983 Specification for worm gearing
Metric units. BS721 provides average design values reflecting the experience of
specialist gear manufacturers. The methods have been refined by addition of various
application and duty factors as used. Generally wear is the critical factor.
48 | P a g e
The permissible torque (M in Nm) on the gear teeth is obtained by use of the
equation
M b = 0,0018 X b.2 bm.2. m. l f.2. d 2.
( example 87,1 Nm = 0,0018 x 0,48 x 63 x 20 x 80 )
X b.2 = speed factor for bending (Worm wheel ).. See Below
bm.2 = Bending stress factor for Worm wheel.. See Table below
l f.2 = length of root of Worm Wheel tooth
d 2 = Reference diameter of worm wheel
m = axial module
= Lead angle
The permissible torque (M in Nm) on the gear teeth is obtained by use of the
equation
M c = 0,00191 X c.2 cm.2.Z. d 21,8. m
( example 33,42 Nm = 0,00191 x 0,3234 x 6,7 x 1,5157 x 80 1,8 x 2 )
X c.2 = Speed factor for wear ( Worm wheel )
cm.2 = Surface stress factor for Worm wheel
Z = Zone factor.
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-0,2
50 | P a g e
X b.2
0,62
0,56
0,52
0,44
0,42
0,37
0,33
RPM (n2)
600
1000
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
X b.2
0,3
0,27
0,23
0,18
0,16
0,14
0,13
The formula for the acceptable torque for wear should be modified to allow
additional factors which affect the Allowable torque M
M c2 = M c. Z L. Z M.Z R / K C
The torque on the wormwheel as calculated using the duty requirements (M e)
must be less than the acceptable torque M
c2
loading. For loading other than this then M e should be modified as follows
M e2 = M e. K S* K H
Thus
uniform load < 27000 hours (10 years) M e M c2
Other conditions M e2 M c2
Surface roughness (Z R ) ..
Z R = 1 if Worm Surface Texture < 3 m and Wormwheel < 12 m
else use less than 1
Tooth contact factor (K C
This relates to the quality and rigidity of gears . Use 1 for first estimate
51 | P a g e
K C = 1 For grade A gears with > 40% height and > 50% width contact
= 1,3 - 1,4 For grade A gears with > 30% height and > 35% width contact
= 1,5-1,7 For grade A gears with > 20% height and > 20% width contact
Starting factor (K S) ..
K S =1 for < 2 Starts per hour
=1,07 for 2- 5 Starts per hour
=1,13 for 5-10 Starts per hour
=1,18 more than 10 Starts per hour
SPEED FACTORS
X c.2 = K V .K R
Note: This table is not based on the graph in BS 721-2 (figure 7) it is based on another
more easy to follow graph. At low values of sliding velocity and RPM it agrees closely
52 | P a g e
with BS 721. At higher speed velocities it gives a lower value (e.g at 20m/s -600 RPM
the value from this table for X
c.2
Sliding speed
KV
Rotating Speed
m/s
KR
rpm
0,5
0,98
0,1
0,75
0,96
0,2
0,68
0,92
0,5
0,6
10
0,8
0,55
20
0,73
0,5
50
0,63
0,42
100
0,55
10
0,34
200
0,46
20
0,24
500
0,35
30
0,16
600
0,33
to
the
relevant
plot
in
BS
721
If the number of teeth on the gear is selected as 45 and the centre distance is 300 mm
then
value
for
the
worm
would
be
about
7.5
Important note: This table provides reasonable values for all worm speeds. However at
worm speeds below 300 rpm a separate plot is provided in BS721 which produces more
accurate q values.
higher than the values from this table. The above example at less than 300rpm should
be
increased
to
about
Table of Center distances "a" relating to q values and Number of teeth on Worm
gear z 2
Number of Teeth On Worm Gear (z 2)
q 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
6 150 250 380 520 700
6.5 100 150 250 350 480 660
7 70 110 170 250 350 470 620 700
7.5 50 80 120 180 240 330 420 550 670
8 25 50 80 120 180 230 300 380 470 570 700
8.5
28 90 130 130 180 220 280 350 420 500 600 700
9.5
10
11
12
13
27 45 52 75 90 105
can
be
completed
in
metric
units..
Good proportions indicate that for a centre to centre distance = C the mean worm dia
d 1 is
within
the
range
Imperial (inches)
( C 0,875 / 3 ) d 1
( C 0,875 / 1,6 )
Metric ( mm)
( C 0,875 / 2 ) d 1 ( C 0,875 / 1,07 )
The acceptable tangential load (W t) all
(W t) all = C s. d 20,8 .b a .C m .C v . (0,0132) (N)
The formula will result in a life of over 25000 hours with a case hardened alloy
steel
worm
and
Cs=
phosphor
bronze
Materials
wheel
factor
b a = Effective face width of gearwheel = actual face width. but not to exceed 0,67 . d
Cm=
Ratio
factor
C v = Velocity factor
Modified Lewis equation for stress induced in worm gear teeth .
a = W t / ( p n. b a. y )(N)
Wt=
Worm
gear
tangential
55 | P a g e
Force (N)
worm
lead
angle
at
mean
diameter
mean
dia
of
worm (mm)
C s values
Cs=
270
0,0063(C
) 3...
for
C 76mm
....Else
56 | P a g e
C s (Centrifugally cast gears ) = 1000 for d 1 635 mm ...else ... 1503 - 180 log (d 1 )
C m values
NG =
Number
of
teeth
on
worm
gear.
NW =
Number
of
starts
on
worm
gear.
(-0,2167
Vs)
C v values
C v (V s >
3,56
m/s
C v (3,56
m/s V s <
15,24
0,659
m/s
exp
=
(V s) -0,571 )
0,652
f values
f
f
(V s =
(0
<
V s 0,06
0)
m/s
=
0,124
exp
57 | P a g e
(-2,234
0,15
(
V s ) 0,645
NON-CIRCULAR GEAR
58 | P a g e
member with minimum noise and wear and with maximum efficiency, a non-circular
gear's main objective might be ratio variations, axle displacement oscillations and more.
Common applications include textile machines, [1] potentiometers, CVTs (continuously
variable transmissions),[2] window shade panel drives, mechanical presses and high
torque hydraulic engines.[1]
A regular gear pair can be represented as two circles rolling together without slip.
In the case of non-circular gears, those circles are replaced with anything different from
a circle. For this reason NCGs in most cases are not round, but round NCGs looking
like regular gears are also possible (small ratio variations result from meshing area
modifications).
Generally NCG should meet all the requirements of regular gearing, but in some
cases, for example variable axle distance, could prove impossible to support and such
gears require very tight manufacturing tolerances and assembling problems arise.
Because
of
complicatedgeometry,
NCGs
are
most
likely spur
A rack and pinion is a type of linear actuator that comprises a pair of gears which
convert rotational motion into linear motion. A circular gear called "the pinion" engages
teeth on a linear "gear" bar called "the rack"; rotational motion applied to the pinion
causes the rack to move, thereby translating the rotational motion of the pinion into the
linear motion of the rack.
For example, in a rack railway, the rotation of a pinion mounted on a locomotive or
a railcar engages a rack between the rails and forces a train up a steep slope.
For every pair of conjugate involute profile, there is a basic rack. This basic rack is the
profile of the conjugate gear of infinite pitch radius. [1] (I.e. a toothed straight edge.)
A generating rack is a rack outline used to indicate tooth details and dimensions for the
design of a generating tool, such as a hob or a gear shaper cutter.[1]
Rack and pinion combinations are often used as part of a simple linear actuator, where
the rotation of a shaft powered by hand or by a motor is converted to linear motion.
61 | P a g e
The rack carries the full load of the actuator directly and so the driving pinion is usually
small, so that the gear ratio reduces the torque required. This force, thus torque, may
still be substantial and so it is common for there to be a reduction gear immediately
before this by either a gear orworm gear reduction. Rack gears have a higher ratio, thus
require a greater driving torque, than screw actuators
62 | P a g e
EPICYCLIC GEAR
An epicyclic gear train consists of two gears mounted so that the center of one gear
revolves around the center of the other. A carrier connects the centers of the two gears
and rotates to carry one gear, called the planet gear, around the other, called the sun
gear. The planet and sun gears mesh so that their pitch circles roll without slip. A point
on the pitch circle of the planet gear traces an epicycloid curve. In this simplified case,
the sun gear is fixed and the planetary gear(s) roll around the sun gear.
An epicyclic gear train can be assembled so the planet gear rolls on the inside of the
pitch circle of a fixed, outer gear ring, which is called an annular gear. In this case, the
curve traced by a point on the pitch circle of the planet is a hypocycloid.
The combination of epicycle gear trains with a planet engaging both a sun gear and an
annular gear is called a planetary gear train.[1][2] In this case, the annular gear is usually
fixed and the sun gear is driven.
Epicyclic gears get their name from their earliest application, which was the modeling of
the movements of the planets in the heavens. Believing the planets, as everything in the
heavens, to be perfect, they could only travel in perfect circles, but their motions as
viewed from Earth could not be reconciled with circular motion. At around 500 BC, the
Greeks invented the idea of epicycles, of circles traveling on the circular orbits. With this
theory Claudius Ptolemy in the Almagest in 148 AD was able to predict planetary orbital
63 | P a g e
paths. The Antikythera Mechanism, circa 80 BC, had gearing which was able to
approximate the moon's elliptical path through the heavens, and even to correct for the
nine-year precession of that path. [3] (Of course, the Greeks would have seen it as not
elliptical, but rather epicyclic, motion.)
Epicyclic gearing is also available which consists of a sun, a carrier, and two planets
which mesh with each other. One planet meshes with the sun gear, while the second
planet meshes with the ring gear. For this case, when the carrier is fixed, the ring gear
rotates in the same direction as the sun gear, thus providing a reversal in direction
compared to standard epicyclic gearing.
History
In
the
2nd-century
AD
rotating deferent
and
epicycles that form epicyclic gear trains to predict the motions of the planets. Accurate
predictions of the movement of the Sun, Moon and the five planets, Mercury, Venus,
Mars, Jupiter and Saturn, across the sky assumed that each followed a trajectory traced
by a point on the planet gear of an epicyclic gear train. This curve is called
an epitrochoid.
Epicyclic gearing was used in the Antikythera Mechanism, circa 80 BCE, to adjust the
displayed position of the moon for its ellipticity, and even for the precession of the
ellipticity. Two facing gears were rotated around slightly different centers, and one drove
the other not with meshed teeth but with a pin inserted into a slot on the second. As the
slot drove the second gear, the radius of driving would change, thus invoking a
speeding up and slowing down of the driven gear in each revolution.
Richard of Wallingford, an English abbot of St Albans monastery is credited for
reinventing epicyclic gearing for an astronomical clock in the 14th century.[4]
65 | P a g e
In 1588, Italian military engineer Agostino Ramelli invented the bookwheel, a verticallyrevolving bookstand containing epicyclic gearing with two levels of planetary gears to
maintain proper orientation of the books. [4][5]
In this example, the carrier (green) is held stationary while the sun gear (yellow) is used
as input. The planet gears (blue) turn in a ratio determined by the number of teeth in
each gear. Here, the ratio is 24/16, or 3/2; each planet gear turns at 3/2 the rate of
the sun gear, in the opposite direction.
The gear ratio of an epicyclic gearing system is somewhat non-intuitive, particularly
because there are several ways in which an input rotation can be converted into an
output rotation. The three basic components of the epicyclic gear are:
Planet carrier: Holds one or more peripheral planet gears, all of the same size,
meshed with the sun gear
66 | P a g e
Annulus: An outer ring with inward-facing teeth that mesh with the planet gear or
gears
The overall gear ratio of a simple planetary gearset can be reliably calculated using the
following two equations,[6] representing the sun-planet and planet-annulus interactions
respectively:
OR
Considering
Where:
is
the angular
velocity of
Gear, Planet
if
the
number
of
teeth
on
each
gear
meets
the
, where
These relationships can be used to analyze any epicyclic system, including those, such
as hybrid vehicle transmissions, where two of the components are used as inputs with
the third providing output relative to the two inputs.[7]
In many epicyclic gearing systems, one of these three basic components is held
stationary; one of the two remaining components is an input, providing power to the
system, while the last component is an output, receiving power from the system. The
ratio of input rotation to output rotation is dependent upon the number of teeth in each
gear, and upon which component is held stationary.
In one arrangement, the planetary carrier (green) is held stationary, and the sun gear
(yellow) is used as input. In this case, the planetary gears simply rotate about their own
axes (i.e., spin) at a rate determined by the number of teeth in each gear. If the sun gear
has Ns teeth, and each planet gear has Np teeth, then the ratio is equal to Ns/Np. For
instance, if the sun gear has 24 teeth, and each planet has 16 teeth, then the ratio is
24/16, or 3/2; this means that one clockwise turn of the sun gear produces
1.5counterclockwise turns of each of the planet gear(s) about its axis.
This rotation of the planet gears can in turn drive the annulus (not depicted in diagram),
in a corresponding ratio. If the annulus has Na teeth, then the annulus will rotate
by Np/Naturns for each turn of the planet gears. For instance, if the annulus has 64
teeth, and the planets 16, one clockwise turn of a planet gear results in 16/64, or 1/4
clockwise turns of the annulus. Extending this case from the one above:
68 | P a g e
So, with the planetary carrier locked, one turn of the sun gear results in
turns
of the annulus.
The annulus may also be held fixed, with input provided to the planetary gear carrier;
output rotation is then produced from the sun gear. This configuration will produce an
increase in gear ratio, equal to 1+Na/Ns.[citation needed]
If the annulus is held stationary and the sun gear is used as the input, the planet carrier
will be the output. The gear ratio in this case will be 1/(1+Na/Ns). This is the lowest gear
ratio attainable with an epicyclic gear train. This type of gearing is sometimes used
in tractors and construction equipment to provide high torque to the drive wheels.
In bicycle hub gears, the sun is usually stationary, being keyed to the axle or even
machined directly onto it. The planetary gear carrier is used as input. In this case the
gear ratio is simply given by (Ns+Na)/Na. The number of teeth in the planet gear is
irrelevant.
69 | P a g e
70 | P a g e
The fundamental formula of the planetary gear train with a rotating carrier is
obtained by recognizing that this formula remains true if the angular velocities of the
sun, planet and annular gears are computed relative to the carrier angular velocity.
This becomes,
This formula provides a simple way to determine the speed ratios for the simple
planetary gear train under different conditions:
1. The carrier is held fixed, c=0,
Each of the speed ratios available to a simple planetary gear train can be obtained by
using band brakes to hold and release the carrier, sun or annular gears as needed. This
provides the basic structure for an automatic transmission.
71 | P a g e
A spur gear differential constructed by engaging the planet gears of two co-axial
epicyclic gear trains. The casing is the carrier for this planetary gear train.
A spur gear differential is constructed from two identical coaxial epicyclic gear trains
assembled with a single carrier such that their planet gears are engaged. This forms a
planetary gear train with a fixed carrier train ratio R = -1.
In this case, the fundamental formula for the planetary gear train yields,
or
72 | P a g e
Some epicyclic gear trains employ two planetary gears which mesh with each other.
One of these planets meshes with the sun gear, the other planet meshes with the
annulus (or ring) gear. This results in different ratios being generated by the planetary.
The fundamental equation becomes:
where
which results in:
when the carrier is locked,
when the sun is locked,
when the annulus is locked.
73 | P a g e
74 | P a g e
providing a larger (or smaller) gear ratio. This is the way some automatic
transmissions work.
During World War II, a special variation of epicyclic gearing was developed for
portable radar gear, where a very high reduction ratio in a small package was needed.
This had two outer annular gears, each half the thickness of the other gears. One of
these two annular gears was held fixed and had one tooth fewer than did the other.
Therefore, several turns of the "sun" gear made the "planet" gears complete a single
revolution, which in turn made the rotating annular gear rotate by a single tooth. [citation
needed]
Planetary gear trains provide high power density in comparison to standard parallel axis
gear trains. They provide a reduction volume, multiple kinematic combinations, purely
torsional reactions, and coaxial shafting. Disadvantages include high bearing loads,
constant lubrication requirements, inaccessibility, and design complexity.[9][10]
The efficiency loss in a planetary gear train is 3% per stage. This type of efficiency
ensures that a high proportion of the energy being input is transmitted through the
gearbox, rather than being wasted on mechanical losses inside the gearbox.
The load in a planetary gear train is shared among multiple planets, therefore torque
capability is greatly increased. The more planets in the system, the greater the load
ability and the higher the torque density.
75 | P a g e
The planetary gear train also provides stability due to an even distribution of mass and
increased rotational stiffness. Torque applied radially onto the gears of a planetary gear
train is transferred radially by the gear, without lateral pressure on the gear teeth.
beam instead of one. The planet gear is fixed to the connecting rod and thus does not
rotate around its own axis.
Note that the axle of the planet gear is tied to the axle of the sun gear by a link that
freely rotates around the axis of the sun gear and keeps the planet gear engaged with
the sun gear but does not contribute to the drive torque. This link appears, at first sight,
to be similar to a crank but the drive is not transmitted through it. Thus, it did not
contravene the crank patent.
The sun and planet gear converted the vertical motion of a beam, driven by a steam
engine, into circular motion using a 'planet', acogwheel fixed at the end of the
connecting rod (connected to the beam) of the engine. With the motion of the beam, this
revolved around, and turned, the 'sun', a second rotating cog fixed to the drive shaft,
thus generating rotary motion. An interesting feature of this arrangement, when
compared to that of a simple crank, is that when both sun and planet have the same
number of teeth, the drive shaft completes two revolutions for each double stroke of the
77 | P a g e
beam instead of one. The planet gear is fixed to the connecting rod and thus does not
rotate around its own axis.
Note that the axle of the planet gear is tied to the axle of the sun gear by a link that
freely rotates around the axis of the sun gear and keeps the planet gear engaged with
the sun gear but does not contribute to the drive torque. This link appears, at first sight,
to be similar to a crank but the drive is not transmitted through it. Thus, it did not
contravene the crank patent.
78 | P a g e
HARMONIC DRIVE
Harmonic Drive is a strain wave gear that can improve certain characteristics
compared to traditional gearing systems. Harmonic Drive is trademarked by the
Harmonic Drive company.
The strain wave gear was invented in 1957 by C.W. Musser. The advantages include:
no backlash, compactness and light weight, high gear ratios, reconfigurable ratios within
a standard housing, good resolution and excellent repeatability (linear representation)
when repositioning inertial loads, [1] high torque capability, and coaxial input and output
shafts.[2] High gear reduction ratios are possible in a small volume (a ratio from 30:1 up
to 320:1 is possible in the same space in which planetary gears typically only produce a
10:1 ratio).
They
are
typically
used
in
industrial motion
control, machine
tool, printing
machine, robotics[3] and aerospace,[4] for gear reduction but may also be used to
increase rotational speed, or for differential gearing.
79 | P a g e
History
The basic concept of strain wave gearing (SWG) was introduced by C.W. Musser in his
1957 patent.[5] It was first used successfully in 1960 by USM Co. and later by Hasegawa
Gear Works, Ltd. under license of USM. Later, Hasegawa Gear Works, Ltd. became
Harmonic Drive Systems Inc. located in Japan and USM Co. Harmonic Drive division
became Harmonic Drive Technologies Inc.
The electrically-driven wheels of the Apollo Lunar Rover included strain wave gears in
their gearing. Also, the winches used on Skylab to deploy the solar panels were
powered using strain wave gears. Both of these system were developed by The
Harmonic Drive Division of United Shoe Machinery Corp. [citation needed]
On January 1, 2006, Harmonic Drive Technologies/Nabtesco of Peabody, MA and HD
Systems of Hauppauge, NY, merged to form a new joint venture, Harmonic Drive LLC.
[2]
HD Systems, Inc. was a subsidiary company of Harmonic Drive System, Inc. Offices
are maintained in Peabody, MA, Hauppauge, NY, San Jose, CA and Oak Park, IL.
Harmonic Drive Systems, Inc., Japan is headquartered in Tokyo with its primary
manufacturing location in Hotaka, Japan. Harmonic Drive AG has its European
headquarters and manufacturing in Limburg/Lahn,Germany.
Mechanics
The strain wave gearing theory is based on elastic dynamics and utilizes the flexibility of
metal. The mechanism has three basic components: a wave generator, a flex spline,
and a circular spline. More complex versions have a fourth component normally used to
80 | P a g e
shorten the overall length or to increase the gear reduction within a smaller diameter,
but still follow the same basic principles.
The wave generator is made up of two separate parts: an elliptical disk called a wave
generator plug and an outer ball bearing. The gear plug is inserted into the bearing,
giving the bearing an elliptical shape as well.
The flex spline is like a shallow cup. The sides of the spline are very thin, but the bottom
is thick and rigid. This results in significant flexibility of the walls at the open end due to
the thin wall, but in the closed side being quite rigid and able to be tightly secured (to a
shaft, for example). Teeth are positioned radially around the outside of the flex spline.
The flex spline fits tightly over the wave generator, so that when the wave generator
plug is rotated, the flex spline deforms to the shape of a rotating ellipse but does not
rotate with the wave generator.
The circular spline is a rigid circular ring with teeth on the inside. The flex spline and
wave generator are placed inside the circular spline, meshing the teeth of the flex spline
and the circular spline. Because the flex spline has an elliptical shape, its teeth only
actually mesh with the teeth of the circular spline in two regions on opposite sides of the
flex spline, along the major axis of the ellipse.
Assume that the wave generator is the input rotation. As the wave generator plug
rotates, the flex spline teeth which are meshed with those of the circular spline change.
The major axis of the flex spline actually rotates with wave generator, so the points
where the teeth mesh revolve around the center point at the same rate as the wave
81 | P a g e
generator. The key to the design of the strain wave gear is that there are fewer teeth (for
example two fewer) on the flex spline than there are on the circular spline. This means
that for every full rotation of the wave generator, the flex spline would be required to
rotate a slight amount (two teeth, for example) backward relative to the circular spline.
Thus the rotation action of the wave generator results in a much slower rotation of the
flex spline in the opposite direction.
For a strain wave gearing mechanism, the gearing reduction ratio can be calculated
from the number of teeth on each gear:
CAGE GEAR
A cage gear, also called a lantern gear or lantern pinion has cylindrical rods for teeth,
parallel to the axle and arranged in a circle around it, much as the bars on a round bird
cage or lantern. The assembly is held together by disks at either end into which the
tooth rods and axle are set. Cage gears are more efficient than solid pinions, [citation
needed]
and dirt can fall through the rods rather than becoming trapped and increasing
wear. They can be constructed with very simple tools as the teeth are not formed by
cutting or milling, but rather by drilling holes and inserting rods.
Sometimes used in clocks, the cage gear should always be driven by a gearwheel, not
used as the driver. The cage gear was not initially favoured by conservative clock
82 | P a g e
makers. It became popular in turret clocks where dirty working conditions were most
commonplace. Domestic American clock movements often used them.
NOMENCLATURE
General nomenclature
83 | P a g e
Rotational frequency, n
Measured in rotation over time, such as RPM.
Angular frequency,
Measured in radians/second.
rad/second
Number of teeth, N
How many teeth a gear has, an integer. In the case of worms, it is the number of thread
starts that the worm has.
84 | P a g e
Gear, wheel
The larger of two interacting gears or a gear on its own.
Pinion
The smaller of two interacting gears.
Path of contact
Path followed by the point of contact between
two meshing gear teeth.
Line of action, pressure line
Line along which the force between two meshing gear teeth is directed. It has the
same direction as the force vector. In general, the line of action changes from
moment to moment during the period of engagement of a pair of teeth.
For involute gears, however, the tooth-to-tooth force is always directed along the
same linethat is, the line of action is constant. This implies that for involute
gears the path of contact is also a straight line, coincident with the line of action
as is indeed the case.
Axis
Axis of revolution of the gear; center line of the shaft.
Pitch point
Point where the line of action crosses a line joining the two gear axes.
Pitch circle, pitch line
85 | P a g e
Circle centered on and perpendicular to the axis, and passing through the pitch point. A
predefined diametral position on the gear where the circular tooth thickness, pressure
angle and helix angles are defined.
Pitch diameter, d
A predefined diametral position on the gear where the circular tooth thickness, pressure
angle and helix angles are defined. The standard pitch diameter is a basic dimension
and cannot be measured, but is a location where other measurements are made. Its
value is based on the number of teeth, the normal module (or normal diametral pitch),
and the helix angle. It is calculated as:
in metric units or
Module or modulus, m
86 | P a g e
in imperial units.[22]
where m is the module and p the circular pitch. The units of module are
customarily millimeters; an English Module is sometimes used with the units of inches.
When the diametral pitch, DP, is in English units,
in conventional metric units.
The distance between the two axis becomes
where a is the axis distance, z 1 and z2 are the number of cogs (teeth) for each of the two
wheels (gears). These numbers (or at least one of them) is often chosen
amongprimes to create an even contact between every cog of both wheels, and thereby
avoid unnecessary wear and damage. An even uniform gear wear is achieved by
ensuring the tooth counts of the two gears meshing together are relatively prime to each
other; this occurs when the greatest common divisor (GCD) of each gear tooth count
equals 1, e.g. GCD(16,25)=1; If a 1:1 gear ratio is desired a relatively prime gear may
be inserted in between the two gears; this maintains the 1:1 ratio but reverses the gear
direction; a second relatively prime gear could also be inserted to restore the original
rotational direction while maintaining uniform wear with all 4 gears in this case.
87 | P a g e
Mechanic engineers at least in continental Europe use the module instead of circular
pitch. The module, just like the circular pitch, can be used for all types of cogs, not
just evolvent based straight cogs.[23]
Pitch surface
In cylindrical gears, cylinder formed by projecting a pitch circle in the axial direction.
More generally, the surface formed by the sum of all the pitch circles as one moves
along the axis. For bevel gears it is a cone.
Angle of action
Angle with vertex at the gear center, one leg on the point where mating teeth first make
contact, the other leg on the point where they disengage.
Arc of action
Segment of a pitch circle subtended by the angle of action.
Pressure angle,
The complement of the angle between the direction that the teeth exert force on each
other, and the line joining the centers of the two gears. For involute gears, the teeth
88 | P a g e
always exert force along the line of action, which, for involute gears, is a straight line;
and thus, for involute gears, the pressure angle is constant.
Outside diameter,
Diameter of the gear, measured from the tops of the teeth.
Root diameter
Diameter of the gear, measured at the base of the tooth.
Addendum, a
Radial
distance
from
the
pitch
surface
to
the
outermost
point
of
the
tooth.
Dedendum, b
Radial
distance
from
the
depth
of
the
tooth
trough
to
the
pitch
surface.
Whole depth,
The distance from the top of the tooth to the root; it is equal to addendum plus
dedendum or to working depth plus clearance.
Clearance
Distance between the root circle of a gear and the addendum circle of its mate.
89 | P a g e
Working depth
Depth of engagement of two gears, that is, the sum of their operating addendums.
Circular pitch, p
Distance from one face of a tooth to the corresponding face of an adjacent tooth on the
same gear, measured along the pitch circle.
Diametral pitch, DP
Ratio of the number of teeth to the pitch diameter. Could be measured in teeth per inch
or teeth per centimeter, but conventionally has units of per inch of diameter. Where the
module, m, is in metric units
in English units
Base circle
In involute gears, where the tooth profile is the involute of the base circle. The radius of
the base circle is somewhat smaller than that of the pitch circle
90 | P a g e
Contact between teeth other than at the intended parts of their surfaces.
Interchangeable set
A set of gears, any of which mates properly with any other
Angle between a tangent to the helix and a plane perpendicular to the axis. Note that
the complement of the helix angle is usually given for helical gears.
Pitch diameter,
Same as described earlier in this list. Note that for a worm it is still measured in a plane
perpendicular to the gear axis, not a tilted plane.
Subscript w denotes the worm, subscript g denotes the gear.
Line of contact
Path of action
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Line of action
Plane of action
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Arc of action
Length of action
Limit diameter
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Face advance
Zone of action
Point of contact
Any point at which two tooth profiles touch each other.
Line of contact
A line or curve along which two tooth surfaces are tangent to each other.
Path of action
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The locus of successive contact points between a pair of gear teeth, during the phase of
engagement. For conjugate gear teeth, the path of action passes through the pitch
point. It is the trace of the surface of action in the plane of rotation.
Line of action
The path of action for involute gears. It is the straight line passing through the pitch
point and tangent to both base circles.
Surface of action
The imaginary surface in which contact occurs between two engaging tooth surfaces. It
is the summation of the paths of action in all sections of the engaging teeth.
Plane of action
The surface of action for involute, parallel axis gears with either spur or helical teeth. It
is tangent to the base cylinders.
Zone of action (contact zone)
For involute, parallel-axis gears with either spur or helical teeth, is the rectangular area
in the plane of action bounded by the length of action and the effective face width.
Path of contact
The curve on either tooth surface along which theoretical single point contact occurs
during the engagement of gears with crowned tooth surfaces or gears that normally
engage with only single point contact.
Length of action
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The distance on the line of action through which the point of contact moves during the
action of the tooth profile.
Arc of action, Qt
The arc of the pitch circle through which a tooth profile moves from the beginning to the
end of contact with a mating profile.
Arc of approach, Qa
The arc of the pitch circle through which a tooth profile moves from its beginning of
contact until the point of contact arrives at the pitch point.
Arc of recess, Qr
The arc of the pitch circle through which a tooth profile moves from contact at the pitch
point until contact ends.
Contact ratio, mc,
The number of angular pitches through which a tooth surface rotates from the beginning
to the end of contact. In a simple way, it can be defined as a measure of the average
number of teeth in contact during the period in which a tooth comes and goes out of
contact with the mating gear.
Transverse contact ratio, mp,
The contact ratio in a transverse plane. It is the ratio of the angle of action to the angular
pitch. For involute gears it is most directly obtained as the ratio of the length of action to
the base pitch.
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Limit diameter
Diameter on a gear at which the line of action intersects the maximum (or minimum for
internal pinion) addendum circle of the mating gear. This is also referred to as the start
of active profile, the start of contact, the end of contact, or the end of active profile.
Start of active profile (SAP)
Intersection of the limit diameter and the involute profile.
Face advance
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Distance on a pitch circle through which a helical or spiral tooth moves from the position
at which contact begins at one end of the tooth trace on the pitch surface to the position
where contact ceases at the other end.
Tooth thickness
Thickness relationships
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Chordal thickness
Span measurement
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Circular thickness
Length of arc between the two sides of a gear tooth, on the specified datum circle.
Transverse circular thickness
Circular thickness in the transverse plane.
Normal circular thickness
Circular thickness in the normal plane. In a helical gear it may be considered as the
length of arc along a normal helix.
Axial thickness
In helical gears and worms, tooth thickness in an axial cross section at the standard
pitch diameter.
Base circular thickness
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In involute teeth, length of arc on the base circle between the two involute curves
forming the profile of a tooth.
Normal chordal thickness
Length of the chord that subtends a circular thickness arc in the plane normal to the
pitch helix. Any convenient measuring diameter may be selected, not necessarily the
standard pitch diameter.
Chordal addendum (chordal height)
Height from the top of the tooth to the chord subtending the circular thickness arc. Any
convenient measuring diameter may be selected, not necessarily the standard pitch
diameter.
Profile shift
Displacement of the basic rack datum line from the reference cylinder, made nondimensional by dividing by the normal module. It is used to specify the tooth thickness,
often for zero backlash.
Rack shift
Displacement of the tool datum line from the reference cylinder, made non-dimensional
by dividing by the normal module. It is used to specify the tooth thickness.
Measurement over pins
Measurement of the distance taken over a pin positioned in a tooth space and a
reference surface. The reference surface may be the reference axis of the gear,
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a datum surface or either one or two pins positioned in the tooth space or spaces
opposite the first. This measurement is used to determine tooth thickness.
Span measurement
Measurement of the distance across several teeth in a normal plane. As long as the
measuring device has parallel measuring surfaces that contact on an unmodified portion
of the involute, the measurement wis along a line tangent to the base cylinder. It is used
to determine tooth thickness.
Modified addendum teeth
Teeth of engaging gears, one or both of which have non-standard addendum.
Full-depth teeth
Teeth in which the working depth equals 2.000 divided by the normal diametral pitch.
Stub teeth
Teeth in which the working depth is less than 2.000 divided by the normal diametral
pitch.
Equal addendum teeth
Teeth in which two engaging gears have equal addendums.
Long and short-addendum teeth
Teeth in which the addendums of two engaging gears are unequal.
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PITCH NOMENCLATURE
For other uses, see Pitch.
Pitch is the distance between a point on one tooth and the corresponding point on an
adjacent tooth.[7] It is a dimension measured along a line or curve in the transverse,
normal, or axial directions. The use of the single word pitch without qualification may be
ambiguous, and for this reason it is preferable to use specific designations such as
transverse circular pitch, normal base pitch, axial pitch.
Pitch
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Tooth pitch
Principal pitches
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Circular pitch, p
Arc distance along a specified pitch circle or pitch line between corresponding profiles of
adjacent teeth.
Transverse circular pitch, pt
Circular pitch in the transverse plane.
Normal circular pitch, pn, pe
Circular pitch in the normal plane, and also the length of the arc along the normal pitch
helix between helical teeth or threads.
Axial pitch, px
Linear pitch in an axial plane and in a pitch surface. In helical gears and worms, axial
pitch has the same value at all diameters. In gearing of other types, axial pitch may be
confined to the pitch surface and may be a circular measurement. The term axial pitch
is preferred to the term linear pitch. The axial pitch of a helical worm and the circular
pitch of its worm gear are the same.
Normal base pitch, pN, pbn
An involute helical gear is the base pitch in the normal plane. It is the normal distance
between parallel helical involute surfaces on the plane of action in the normal plane, or
is the length of arc on the normal base helix. It is a constant distance in any helical
involute gear.
Transverse base pitch, pb, pbt
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In an involute gear, the pitch on the base circle or along the line of action.
Corresponding sides of involute gear teeth are parallel curves, and the base pitch is the
constant and fundamental distance between them along a common normal in a
transverse plane.
Diametral pitch (transverse), Pd
Ratio of the number of teeth to the standard pitch diameter in inches.
Angular pitch, N,
Angle subtended by the circular pitch, usually expressed in radians.
degrees or
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radians
BACKLASH
Backlash is the error in motion that occurs when gears change direction. It exists
because there is always some gap between the trailing face of the driving tooth and the
leading face of the tooth behind it on the driven gear, and that gap must be closed
before force can be transferred in the new direction. The term "backlash" can also be
used to refer to the size of the gap, not just the phenomenon it causes; thus, one could
speak of a pair of gears as having, for example, "0.1 mm of backlash." A pair of gears
could be designed to have zero backlash, but this would presuppose perfection in
manufacturing, uniform thermal expansion characteristics throughout the system, and
no lubricant. Therefore, gear pairs are designed to have some backlash. It is usually
provided by reducing the tooth thickness of each gear by half the desired gap distance.
In the case of a large gear and a small pinion, however, the backlash is usually taken
entirely off the gear and the pinion is given full sized teeth. Backlash can also be
provided by moving the gears further apart. The backlash of a gear train equals the sum
of the backlash of each pair of gears, so in long trains backlash can become a problem.
springs between the two halves providing relative torque between them, so that one
achieves, in effect, a single gear with expanding teeth. Another method involves
tapering the teeth in the axial direction and providing for the gear to be slid in the axial
direction to take up slack.
Shifting of gears
In some machines (e.g., automobiles) it is necessary to alter the gear ratio to suit the
task, a process known as gear shifting or changing gear. There are several ways of
shifting gears, for example:
Manual transmission
Automatic transmission
Derailleur gears which are actually sprockets in combination with a roller chain
There are several outcomes of gear shifting in motor vehicles. In the case of vehicle
noise emissions, there are higher sound levels emitted when the vehicle is engaged in
lower gears. The design life of the lower ratio gears is shorter, so cheaper gears may be
used, which tend to generate more noise due to smaller overlap ratio and a lower mesh
stiffness etc. than the helical gears used for the high ratios. This fact has been used to
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analyze vehicle-generated sound since the late 1960s, and has been incorporated into
the simulation of urban roadway noise and corresponding design of urban noise
barriers along roadways.[24]
TOOTH PROFILE
Undercut
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A profile is one side of a tooth in a cross section between the outside circle and the root
circle. Usually a profile is the curve of intersection of a tooth surface and a plane or
surface normal to the pitch surface, such as the transverse, normal, or axial plane.
The fillet curve (root fillet) is the concave portion of the tooth profile where it joins the
bottom of the tooth space.2
An undercut is a condition in generated gear teeth when any part of the fillet curve lies
inside of a line drawn tangent to the working profile at its point of juncture with the fillet.
Undercut may be deliberately introduced to facilitate finishing operations. With undercut
the fillet curve intersects the working profile. Without undercut the fillet curve and the
working profile have a common tangent.
GEAR MATERIALS
Numerous nonferrous alloys, cast irons, powder-metallurgy and plastics are used in the
manufacture of gears. However, steels are most commonly used because of their high
strength-to-weight ratio and low cost. Plastic is commonly used where cost or weight is
a concern. A properly designed plastic gear can replace steel in many cases because it
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has many desirable properties, including dirt tolerance, low speed meshing, the ability to
"skip" quite well[25] and the ability to be made with materials not needing additional
lubrication. Manufacturers have employed plastic gears to reduce costs in consumer
items including copy machines, optical storage devices, cheap dynamos, consumer
audio equipment, servo motors, and printers.
Standard pitches and the module system[edit]
Although gears can be made with any pitch, for convenience and interchangeability
standard pitches are frequently used. Pitch is a property associated with
linear dimensions and so differs whether the standard values are in the Imperial (inch)
or Metric systems. Using inchmeasurements, standard diametral pitch values with units
of "per inch" are chosen; the diametral pitch is the number of teeth on a gear of one inch
pitch diameter. Common standard values for spur gears are 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20,
24, 32, 48, 64, 72, 80, 96, 100, 120, and 200. [26][27] Certain standard pitches such
as 1/10 and 1/20 in inch measurements, which mesh with linear rack, are actually
(linear) circular pitch values with units of "inches"[27]
When gear dimensions are in the metric system the pitch specification is generally in
terms of module or modulus, which is effectively a length measurement across the pitch
diameter. The term module is understood to mean the pitch diameter in millimeters
divided by the number of teeth. When the module is based upon inch measurements, it
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is known as the English module to avoid confusion with the metric module. Module is a
direct dimension, unlike diametral pitch, which is an inverse dimension ("threads per
inch"). Thus, if the pitch diameter of a gear is 40 mm and the number of teeth 20, the
module is 2, which means that there are 2 mm of pitch diameter for each tooth. [28] The
preferred standard module values are 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.25, 1.5, 2.0,
2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 32, 40 and 50. [29]
MANUFACTURE
cast metal
gears),
but
powdered
metal
gears
castings or investment castings require gear cutting or other machining to finish them.
The most common form of gear cutting is hobbing, but gear shaping, milling,
and broaching also exist. 3D printing as a production method is expanding rapidly. For
metal gears in the transmissions of cars and trucks, the teeth are heat treated to make
them hard and more wear resistant while leaving the core soft and tough. For large
gears that are prone to warp, a quench press is used.
Inspection
Overall gear geometry can be inspected and verified using various methods such
as industrial CT scanning, coordinate-measuring machines, white light scanner or laser
scanning. Particularly useful for plastic gears, industrial CT scanning can inspect
internal geometry and imperfections such as porosity.
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Modern physics adopted the gear model in different ways. In the nineteenth
century, James Clerk Maxwell developed a model of electromagnetism in which
magnetic field lines were rotating tubes of incompressible fluid. Maxwell used a gear
wheel and called it an "idle wheel" to explain the electrical current as a rotation of
particles in opposite directions to that of the rotating field lines. [33]
More recently, quantum physics uses "quantum gears" in their model. A group of gears
can serve as a model for several different systems, such as an artificially constructed
nanomechanical device or a group of ring molecules. [34]
The Three Wave Hypothesis compares the waveparticle duality to a bevel gear.[35]
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