Style.

Atermdenotingmannerofdiscourse,modeofexpressionmoreparticularlythemannerin
whichaworkofartisexecuted.Inthediscussionofmusic,whichisorientatedtowards
relationshipsratherthanmeanings,thetermraisesspecialdifficultiesitmaybeusedto
denotemusiccharacteristicofanindividualcomposer,ofaperiod,ofageographicalareaor
centre,orofasocietyorsocialfunction.

1.Definition.
Styleismanner,modeofexpression,typeofpresentation.Fortheaestheticianstyleconcerns
surfaceorappearance,thoughinmusicappearanceandessenceareultimatelyinseparable.
Forthehistorianastyleisadistinguishingandorderingconcept,bothconsistentofand
denotinggeneralitiesheorshegroupsexamplesofmusicaccordingtosimilaritiesbetween
them.AstylemaybeseenasasynthesisofotherstylesobviouscasesareJ.S.Bachs
keyboardstyleorMozartsoperaticstyle(bothcomprisedistinctivetexturalstyles,distinctive
harmonicstyles,distinctivemelodicstyles,etc.,andbotharefusionsofvariousstylistic
traditions).Astylealsorepresentsarangeorseriesofpossibilitiesdefinedbyagroupof
particularexamples,asinsuchnotionsashomophonicstyleandchromaticstyle.
Style,astyleorstyles(orallthree)maybeseeninanyconceptualunitintherealmofmusic,
fromthelargesttothesmallestmusicitselfisastyleofart,andasinglenotemayhave
stylisticimplicationsaccordingtoitsinstrumentation,pitchandduration.Style,astyleorstyles
maybeseenaspresentinachord,phrase,section,movement,work,groupofworks,genre,
lifeswork,period(ofanysize)andculture.Stylemanifestsitselfincharacteristicusagesof
form,texture,harmony,melody,rhythmandethosanditispresentedbycreative
personalities,conditionedbyhistorical,socialandgeographicalfactors,performingresources
andconventions.

2.Importofstyle.
StylederivesfromthewordforaGreekandRomanwritingimplement(Lat.
stilus
),atoolof
communication,theshaperandconditioneroftheoutwardformofamessage.Whilethe
antithesisofappearanceandessence,orstyleandimport,isclearinthisoriginalgraphical
usage,therelationshipismorecomplexthansimpleantithesiswhereartisconcerned.Itis
widelyaccepted(e.g.bySachs,1946,andLippman,
MGG1
)thatinspeakingofthestyleof
anepochorcultureoneistreatingofimport,asubstantivecommunicationfromasociety,
whichisasignificantembodimentoftheaspirationsandinnerlifeofitspeople.Thesameis
trueofsmallerunitsofartisticendeavourgenresspeakofthemenwhocreatedthemandthe
peoplewhoreadilyreceivedthem,andapersonalstylespeaksoftheartistsviewoflife.But
intheindividualartworkother,moreintentionalmessagesarealsopresent.
Thesearenotofcoursemessagesintheverbalsense.Butbytheactofcreativewilla
composerassertssomethinghemakesastatementofsomekind.Heinheritsausablepast
andactsbyintuitivevision.Theproductofhisvisionbuildsonastylisticheritage,hasastyle

andimportofitsownandbequeathsanalteredheritage.Thestylisticheritagemaybeseen
asgeneralprocedureswhichconditionthecomposersintuitivechoiceandinvention,the
generalwhichlimitstheparticular,therelevantavailableresource,theessentialcontextof
creation.SuchnotionsareembodiedinSchoenbergsoppositionofstyleandidea,thoughthis
isanoppositionwhich,sadly,Schoenbergtookontrustinhisbook,asintheessayfrom
whichitstitlederives.
Theideaworksthroughstyle.Thustheopeningofthe
themaregium
inBachs
Musical
Offering
isastately,measured,disjunct,minor,monophonicmelodysuitableforfugal
treatment,ratherthansimplyfiveminimsC,E ,G,A ,B.Animportantpartofthe
significanceofthisthemeistheconcatenationofqualitiesenumeratedabove,andtosome
extenttheparticularideaactsasthemediumofstyleandtheplayofsuccessiveand
coincidentstylesasthesubstanceofthemusic.Buttheparticulararticulationofthestylistic
concatenationisalsopartofthesignificancefiveminimsC,E ,F,G,Bwouldfitthisalbeit
crudestylisticanalysis,butBachs(orFredericktheGreats)creationisspecificallynotthat.In
musictheparticularandthegeneralembodiedthereinandarticulatedtherebytogetherform
meaningorsignificance.Theydosobecausemusicisstylized.Thereisnoconsistentnatural
meaninginmusicbyrelationtonaturalevents,andthereisnospecificarbitrarymeaningasin
language.Themeaninginmusiccomesfromarbitraryorderevolvedintoinheritedlogicand
developeddynamically.Agoodlistenerhearsbothstyleandutterance,andsavoursmeaning
throughhistory.Styleisthusthegeneralwhichsurroundstheparticularandgivesit
significance.

3.Phenomenaofstyle.
Brossard,Apel,BukofzerandLippmanregardstyleandformasopposed.Styleinthissense
maybeusedtodescribetheshapeofdetails,andformtheshapeofthewhole.Thewhole,
however,ismadeupofitspartsandtheirrelationships,andformmayberegardedasa
phenomenonofstyle.Eachpiecehasitsownuniqueform,whichcontrols,relatesand
comprehendsallitsdetails.Thisformbelongstoaclassofforms,andclassesofformsby
characteristicprocedureswhichconcentrateonparticularpartsofmusicaltechniquegenerate
andcarrydistinctivestylisticdetails.Fugalstyleandsonatastylearefamiliartermsvariation
styleandternarystylearealsomeaningfulandimportant,thoughnotoftenusedasconcepts.
Formsmayalsobeviewedastakingtheirbeginningsfromstylisticdetailsitwascertain
featuresinthedetailsofmusicallanguagearound1750thatpromotedtheevolutionand
prominenceofsonataform.Formssuggest,incorporate,belongtoandgrowoutofspecific
styles.
Indifferentperiodscharacteristicformshavedependedondifferentelementsofmusical
materialindifferentemphases.ThusintheArsNova,forinstance,texturewasanimportant
formaldeterminant,whereasintheClassicalandRomanticperiodsformslargelydepended
onlongrangethematicandharmonicthinking.Whateverparameterisusedasthechief
presenterofform,twogeneralformalprinciplesmaybepostulated.Formscanbebasedon
continuityorondiscontinuity(evolutionorcontrast,flowordisjunction).Thetwoprinciples
neverexistinisolation,andspecificformshavecharacteristicmixturesofthem.Abasically

continuousformlikeaBachfugueshowspointsofarticulationandchangesofmaterial,but
theoverridingimpulseiscustomarilyoneofevolutionandgrowthratherthancontrastand
comparison.Discontinuousforms,suchasthesectional
formesfixes
of14thand
15thcenturysecularpolyphony,havecontinuitywithinsections,andnoformcanavoid
temporalsequence.Inthe19thcenturycontinuousforms,amongwhichsonataformwas
prime,werecomplicatedbygreatercontrastelements,anddisjunctiveformssuchasthe
multimovementstructureofsonata,quartetandsymphony,andsuchasternaryandrondo
forms,werecomplicatedbyincorporatingthematicsimilaritiestobridgethepointsof
articulation.Thisbridgingofarticulationsincontrastformshadhappenedbefore(e.g.inthe
15thcenturycyclicmass).Repetitionisatypeofcontrast,andvariedrepetitionis,perhaps
paradoxically,formallymoreevolutionarythismaybeunderstoodbycomparingstrophicand
variationforms.
Textureisthedispositionoftheelementsofmusicalargumentonthechosenforcesitis
sonority,andisconditionedbytonecolour,idiomandcompositionaltechnique.Theterm
appliesbothtosimultaneousandtoconsecutivesounds.Aswithform,textureisameansof
presentingstyle,andindeedtexturalfeatureshavegivenrisetostylisticnames:monodic
style,homophonicstyle,polyphonicstyle(stratifiedorimitative),keyboardstyle,etc.Agood
composerwillusetexturalpossibilitiestoshapeandenhancehismusicalstatement,and
textureswillbothgenerateandbegeneratedbythemusicalmaterial.Textureissometimesof
formalsignificance,asinthemotet(ofanyperiod)orthefugue.
Theopposingprinciplesoftexturearehomogeneityandheterogeneity.Thisbeginswiththe
selectionofmusicalforces,whichmaybe,inthetermsofthelateRenaissance,eithera
wholeconsortorabrokenconsort.Awholeconsortisaselectionofinstrumentsor
resourcesofthesamefamilybutdifferentpitches,andabrokenconsortisamixtureof
differentinstrumentsorresources.Voicesalonearethusawholeconsort,buttheyreadilymix
withinstrumentsevenfromearliestpolyphonictimestoformabrokenconsort.Thetextureof
acompositionmaylikewisedependonsimilarconstituents(voicesorpartswhichdosimilar
things)orstratifiedconstituents.StratifiedtextureisafeatureoftheFranconianmotet,
whereashomogeneoustextureoccursinthe16thcenturymotet.Theoppositeprinciples,as
withthoseofform,arenotmutuallyexclusive:heterogeneoustexturesblendintheearand
homogeneoustexturesconsistofdifferentparts.Idiomaticusageswilllinkbrokenconsorts
andheterogeneoustexture,andwholeconsortsareaptforhomogeneoustexture.
Harmonyasavehicleforstyleismostlyanindicatorofhistoricalpositionitispartofidiom,
anditsproceduresmustberegardedinthelightofchangingconventions.Itmaybemodal,
diatonic,chromaticoratonal.Somecomposershoweverhavestretchedandenrichedthe
harmonicresourceoftheirtimesforexpressivepurposes(Gesualdo,WagnerandDebussy),
andoperacomposershaveoftendeliberatelyjuxtaposeddifferentharmonicstylesforsuch
reasons(
Parsifal
ismerelyagreatexampleamongmanythatusechromaticismasasymbol
forevil,magicorsensualityanddiatonicismforgoodness,naturalnessandinnocence).
Besidesbeingrhetoricalorexpressive,orboth,harmonyalsohasoppositeprinciplesrelated
totheseprinciplesresultingfrompartwritingorresultingfromsonorousimagination.
Harmonyresultingprimarilyfrompartwritingisacharacteristicofsuccessivecomposition,
suchasoccurredinpreandearlyRenaissancetimes,andcanwellbeseeninMachauts

MassharmonyresultingfromsonorousimaginationmaybeseeninsomeWagnerand
Impressioniststyles.Againthetwoprinciplesneverexistinisolation.Successivelycomposed
partswerewrittenwithsomeawarenessofhowtheywouldfitWagnersharmonicexpression
isoftenthroughchordjuxtapositions,and
Tristan
showsharmonicsensuousnessexpressed
throughcounterpoint.
Melodyisofgreatimportanceasamusicalfeatureitispossibletoregarditastheessential
conditionofmusic,whichisguidedbyform,supportedbyharmonyandarticulatedbytexture
andrhythm.Whilethatissomewhatmetaphysical,thereisnodoubtthattheethosofthe
generativethemesforatonalpiecerepresentsaverylargepartofthemusicalstatementand
impact,orthatthecharacteristicconvolutionsofanearlyRenaissancelineareabeguiling,
immediateandforcefulexperience.Melodyshouldnotbeunderratedasanelementofformit
isnotabyproductornecessaryevilwhichthemusicalacceptasameanstohigherkindsof
statement,norisitsomethingtobeseparatedfromthetotalformassomethingbetterthan
that.Melodyisaprimeconnectivefeatureinthecontinuumofaudibletime,andassuchisan
importantandformcarryingstylisticphenomenon.Itconsistsofasinglelineofrelated
pitches,butarpeggiobasedmelodies(especiallyoftheBaroqueperiod)canimplymorethan
oneline(oratleaststronglysuggesttheirownharmony),contrapuntalformscombine
melodiessimultaneously,andmodernmusiccanexistasatexturalsequence(asin
Pendereckis
Polymorphia
)insuchcasesthehorizontalexpandsintoandblendswiththe
vertical.Melodicstylesmayberegularorirregular,flowingorspasmodic,motivicoradditive,
presentationalordevelopmental,conjunctordisjunct,vocalorinstrumental,ornamentalor
structural,decoratedorsimple.
Rhythmistheverylifebloodofmusicitisthetermfororderedchange,howevercomplex.It
isanintegralpartofformal,textural,harmonicandmelodicconsiderations.Musicalrhythm
maybeviewedasacombinationofobjectivetemporalsegments(pulse)andemotional
sequence(theebbandflowcreatedby,forinstance,discordandresolution,cadence,
differentiatedmelodicandharmonicnotevalues,melodicshape,agogicaccents,
syncopation).Suchafeltexperienceoftimegainssignificancefromitsenforcedcomparison
withpulse.Pulsesmaybemoreorlessstronglygroupedinmetres,eachwithitsownstylistic
suggestions,andtheebbandflowoffeelingmoreorlessstronglyorganizedinphrases,
periodsorsections.Irregularityofmetreorphrasestructurehasanaturaltendencyto
contrastwithregularity.Rhythmicstylesmayfavouranevenprogression,asinmuch
preRenaissanceanddancemusic,ortheexcitementofgrowthtoandrecessionfrompoints
ofclimaxoranimation,asinmuch19thcenturymusic.Onthesmallscaleundifferentiatedor
disjunctrhythmicstylesoffermuchscopefordistinctiveutterance.Intherhythmicaspectof
styletheartformsofmusicanddanceareclosest,andtheinfluenceofdanceonmusicisan
importantareaofcriticism.
Theseaspectsofmusicallanguagewhichpresentstyleareunitedinuniqueblendsbyunique
expressivepurposes.Theadditionoffactorsdoesnotexplaintheirrelationship,andthe
factorsassumenewsignificanceinnewrelationshipsandcontexts.Theexpressivepurpose
mayberelatedtosocialfunction,ortoamoreorlessdetailedprogramme(asinthe
symphonicpoem,andanysettingofwords),ormaybemoreabstractanexpressive
purposetobeseenandsavouredinpurelymusicalterms.Expressivepurposesmayalso

havestylenames,bothgeneral(sacredstyle,secularstyle)ormorespecific(heroicstyle,
reflectivestyle,everydaystyle,pastoralstyle)andcharacterdescriptionslikesad,desolate,
happy,ebullient,carrystylisticimplications.

4.Conditionersanddynamicsofstylisticdifferences.
Personalstyleisoneofthecommonestunitsfordiscussioninmodernmusiccriticism.Asa
differentiatingfactorinstyleitisofvariableimportance,partlybecauseofthediffering
attitudesofsocietiesandcomposers.ItisnotanimportantfeatureinmanynonWestern
musicalcultures,inplainchantorinWesternfolkmusicssuchrepertoriesmaydependfor
theirformationonindividualsandtheiridiosyncraticperformingstyles,butinthisformationthe
individualissubordinatetoacommunalartisticpurpose.Personalstylemaybemore
importanttoobjectiveanalysisthantothesocietyinwhichtheartistworked,asinGerman
Baroquemusic,orpersonaldifferencesmaybeencouragedbysocialattitudessothat
personalstylesbecomemoredistinctive,asinthe19thcentury.Therelativeimportanceof
personalstyleisasignificantandtosomeextentdistinguishingfeatureoftheWestern
tradition,anditmaybeseenwithnotationaspartoftheprocessofcomparativelyfast
developmentofmusicalidiomintheWest.
Stylisticchangeisinherentinmeaningfulcreation,atleastwithintheWesterntradition,and
thepersonalstylesofgreatcomposersarehardlyeverstaticsuchacomposerlearnsfrom
himselfandisconstantlyaddingtohisusablepast.Theamountofchangeoveralifetime
variesaccordingtoitslength,accordingtopersonalityandintellectualdevelopment,and
accordingtooutwardculturalandeconomiccircumstances.Normalprocessesof
apprenticeship,maturityandrefinementmaybelargelyundisturbed(PalestrinaandBrahms),
orhaveimposedonthemmoredramaticchangesaffectingstyleandderivingfromachange
ofideals(Liszt,Wagner)orchangesinexternalrequirements(BachandHandel).
Stylesofcomposersworkingatthesametimemaybecompared,likethoseofHaydnand
MozartorBrucknerandMahler,andwhensimilaritiesaredrawnquestionsofepochalstyle
mayarise.Suchaconceptdenotesageneralrangeofresourceandusageavailableatany
onetimelikepersonalstyle,epochalstyleisthereforeinaconstantstateofflux.Itispossible
howevertousetheconceptstretchedoverlargeperiodsoftimebecausethisfluxshows
differingtypesofchangesomechangeshavebeenmuchmoreradicalordramatic,orboth,
thanothers.HistoriansfromAdleronwardshavedividedWesternmusicalstyleatabout1000
and1600.Thechangefromthemonophoniceratothepolyphonicwasgradual,with
polyphonyimprovisedatleastasearlyasthe9thcenturyandplainsongcomposedevenafter
the14th.Butthedevelopmentofmonophonyintopolyphonybywayofparallelism(a
differentiationoftexture)tomelodicandrhythmicindependenceofparts,andtheevolutionof
polyphonyfromanimprovisedsemiautomaticelaborationintoawrittenandcomposed
phenomenonformafundamentalchangeinthemeansofexpressionachangethatjustifies
groupinginmajorstyleareasthemusicbeforeandafterit.Similarlythedevelopmentsof
modalityintotonalityandoflinearintoharmonicthoughtwhichreachedacruxaround1600
arealsobothgradualandfundamentalchangesintechnique.Afurtherchangeofthistype
andmagnitude,awayfromtonality,maybeseenaround1900.

Inmorerecenthistoriography,writers(e.g.Reese,Bukofzer,Blume)havefurtherdivided
musicsince1000andtheepochalstylesofArsAntiqua,ArsNova,Renaissance,Baroque,
ClassicalandRomantichavebecomefamiliarconcepts.Blumehasconvincinglyarguedthe
innercoherenceofClassicandRomanticasonestylisticperiod,andtheseepochsthen
dependonsignificantandradicalstylisticchangeatintervalsofabout150years(thougha
detailedchronologyofstylisticdevelopmentsinthe12thcenturyisamatterforconjecture).
Newstylesgrowoutofsuggestionsinherentintheold,andanyexampleofastylewillhave
relicsofitspredecessorsandpremonitionsofitssuccessors.
Thechangesinthe12thcenturyandinabout1300,1450,1600,1750and1900show
consistentlynewtreatmentsofrhythminmostcasesformal,textural,harmonicandmelodic
characteristicschangetoo,butrhythmicchangeisastronganddramaticinitialfactorinthe
formationoftheseepochalstyles.The12thcenturysawtheadoptionofmodalrhythmasa
centralfeaturethebeginningoftheArsNovadependsonincreasedimportanceofduple
rhythmandsyncopation,andthatoftheRenaissanceonthehomogenizationoftherhythmic
constituentsofpolyphonictextureandanawarenessoftherhythmofgrowth.TheBaroque
beginswiththenewaffectiverhythmofmonody,thecontinuomadrigalandFrescobaldis
toccatastheClassicalperiodbeginswithanewinterestinphrasestructureandagreater
diversityofnotevalueswithinmelodiesandthemodernperiodbeginswiththerhythmic
revitalizationsofBartkandStravinsky.
TheepochalstylesarehowevernotalwaysbestcharacterizedinrhythmictermstheBaroque
forinstanceisprimarilytheageofthecontinuo,theClassicandRomanticperiodtheageof
tonalityasalargescalestructuralforce,themoderneratheageofalternativestotonalityand
triadicharmony.Theaphoristiccharacterizationofeachperiodhoweverisalways
problematic,forperiodsthemselvesincludemuchchangestylesbegin,growanddie.Initially,
newtechniquesofexpressionareexploredandadjustedtobycomposerslearning,like
children,thepossibilities.Thesetechniquesareincorporatedintosuitableformswhich
becomeestablishedinaphaseofconsolidation,whichmaybeseenintermsofabalance
betweencontrolleddevelopmentofstyleandnewnessofimport.Consolidationleadsto
refinementandcomplication,andthestylesofcomposersattheendofepochs,suchas
Bach,BrahmsandWagner,arenothingifnotcomplexsometimesthisphaseincludeswhat
areafterregardedasoverripemodesofexpression,liketheelaborationsofPetrusdaCruce,
GesualdoandReger.
Styleisgreatlyconditionedbytheexpectationsandrequirementsofanaudienceorother
patronsofcomposers,especiallyinmattersofgenreandethos.Thegenresofmass,opera
andchambermusicbecomepopularwithcomposerspartlybecauseofpopulardemand,and
theycarrytheirownstylisticcharacteristics.Associatedethos,suchastheexpressionof
religiousemotionsinchurch,oftheatricalemotionsinoperaandofrefinementinthechamber
arealsotheresultofsocialexpectationsandtaste.Sometimesmorethanacceptabilityand
expectationisinvolvedthereisafunctionalroleanddemandformilitarymusic,andthe
requirementsofSovietrealismhaveaquasilegalforce.Stylisticcrossovers,suchasMahlers
useofmilitarymusicinasymphonyorStrausssuseofchambermusicinanopera
(
Capriccio
),havedenotivevalue.

Geographicallocationisastrongconditionerofstyle,andcaninvolveparticularsocial
pressureswhichexistonlyincertainplaces:examplesarethebirthofoperainItaly,the
requirementsofthe17thcenturyFrenchcourt,andRussianrealismofboththe19thand20th
centuries.Geographicaldifferencesareimportantinculturaldevelopmentbecauseof
difficultiesofcommunication,andlocalstylesmaygrowupinacity(suchasMannheimor
Vienna),aregion(aswiththevariousGermanorganschoolsofthemiddleBaroque),a
countryoracontinent.Thefolkcultureofacountryoftenhasstronginfluencesonstyle
(especiallyinthe19thcentury),andtheseinfluencesmaybeconsciouslyenhancedby
composersasameansofnationalassertion.Languagealsohasadecisiveeffectonnational
styles,asAbrahamhasshowninhisfascinatingcomparisonofItalianandCzechstyles
(1974,chap.4).Apreferenceofsouthernracesformelodyandofnorthernracesforthe
greatertechnicalintricaciesofcounterpointhasbeenremarked,andisattributedto
interactionsofclimate,religion,personalityandlanguage.Sometimesstylesbecome
international,aswithlateRenaissanceNetherlandishstyle,BaroqueItalianopera,orearly
19thcenturyGermanicstyle.Theinteractionofstylesbornindistinctlocalitiesisanabsorbing
study.ThemutualinfluenceofDuFayandDunstapleandthewaysinwhichDunstaplediffers
fromEnglishcomposersworkinginEnglandshowsomeoftheintricacyoftheissues.
Historicalaccidentsofcommunicationcanhavefarreachingconsequencesfortheevolution
ofmusicalstyleAgincourt,spreadingtheEnglishstyleontheContinentatatimewhen
Renaissancestylewasinembryo,andthemarriageofPhilipIIofSpain,bringingtheIberian
keyboardvariationtoEnglandintimefortheEnglishvirginaliststodevelop,haveartisticas
wellaspoliticalsignificance.
Theresourcesofperformanceareimportantformativeinfluencesonstyle,andParry(1911)
usedtherelationshipbetweenresourcesandutteranceasthestartingpointforandmain
featureofadefinitionofstyle.Characteristicsoundsareadirectelementofstyle,whilethe
techniquesofperformingonspecificresources,withattendantidiomaticproclivitiesand
possibilities,influencemelody,rhythmandtexture.Conventionsinthegroupingofresources
andinperformingpracticeunderlievariousdistinctivepersonal,epochal,socialand
geographicstyles.Eachresourcehasitsownespeciallysuitableformsofexpression.Voices
aregoodatsustained,conjunctmusic,whileinstrumentsaresuitedtoagilityanddisjunction.
Theviolinhasacapacityforwiderangingmelody,asCorelliexploited,andveryhigh
tessitura,asRomanticcomposersfoundtheorganpedalsparticularlyrequirefigures
involvingtheuseofalternatefeet,givingrisetopatternsthatbecameafeatureoflate
BaroqueGermanorganmusic.
Instrumentscome,developandgo,andthetechniquesofplayingthemdevelop(usuallyin
thedirectionofgreaterfacilityandcomplication,butnotalways,asmaybeseenfromhorn
andtrumpettechniqueinthe18thcentury)suchchangesareintegralindeterminingstyle.
Idiomsfromoneinstrumentpassintootherusages,asdidthevocalornamentsofthelate
RenaissanceintotheviolinrepertoryandthelutestyleoftheearlyBaroqueintokeyboard
resource.
Forfurtherdiscussionofthefactorsgoverningepochalstyles,
see

Arsantiqua

Arsnova

Ars
subtilior

Medieval

Renaissance

Baroque

Rococo

Galant

Empfindsamkeit

Classical

Biedermeier
and

Romanticism

seealso

Historiography
and

Musicology,II,1

Geographicalandinstrumentalstylesarediscussedinentriesofthecountriesand
instrumentsconcerned.

5.Stylisticawareness.
Composershavealwaysbeenawareofstylisticdifferences,asmayeasilybeseenfromany
cursoryexaminationofWesternmusicanditssupportingbodyoftheoreticalliterature.Thatis
whyplainchantcomposersproducedalleluiamelodiesdifferentfromsettingsoftheAgnus
Dei,whyDuFaywrotechansonsintrebledominatedstyleanddiscanttenorstyle,andwhy
Lisztwrotedifferentlyforthepianoandfortheorchestra.Theoristsandcriticstoohavebeen
awareofstylisticdistinctions.MusicalstyleinGreecewasasubjectforphilosophersbecause
oftheethicandeducativepowersofdifferentstylesJohannesdeGarlandia(13thcentury)
distinguishedbetweendiscant,copulaandorganum,andJohannesdeGrocheo(c1300)
between
musicavulgaris
,
musicacomposita
or
mensurata
and
musicaecclesiastica
.Itwas
howeverinthelateRenaissanceandearlyBaroquethattheoreticaldiscussionofstyle
becameanimportantareaofliteraryproductionindeedthewordstyleentersthevocabulary
ofmusiccommentaryatthistime.
Monteverdi(likePhilippedeVitrybeforehimandC.P.E.Bachafterhim)wasoneofthegreat
composerswhowasalsoanimportanttheorist.Hedrewdistinctionsbetween
primapratica
(reallylateRenaissancestyles)and
secondapratica
(thenewaffectivestylesoftheearly
Baroque),andbetween
stileconcitato
,
molle
and
temperato
(intheprefacetotheeighthbook
ofmadrigals,1638)hedividedsecularmusicinto
teatrale
,
dacamera
and
daballo
.The
distinctionbetweenthetwopracticescontinuedinDoni(
Compendio
,1635),whospokeof
stileantico
and
stilemoderno
,andinChristophBernhard(
Tractatuscompositionis
augmentatus
,c1657),whospokeof
contrapunctusgravis
or
stylusantiquus
and
contrapunctusluxurians
or
stylusmodernus
.Bernhardalsointroducedtheconceptsof
FigurenlehreandAffektenlehre,whichcombinestylisticdetailsandexpressivepurposes
andwhicharesoimportantforthehighBaroqueaesthetic.Kircher(
Musurgiauniversalis
,
1650)synthesizedastylisticsystemthatfoundmuchpopularityandacceptance,basedon
differencesofmusicalpurpose,genre,personality,locationandmood.Styledependenton
personalityandtemperamentKirchercalled
stylusimpressus
,styledependentontechnique
andAffekt
stylusexpressus
furtherhedistinguished
stylusecclesiasticus
,
canonicus
,
motecticus
,
phantasticus
,
madrigalescus
,
melismaticus
,
choriacussivetheatralis
and
symphoniacus
.Brossard(1703)andJ.G.Walther(1732)followedhim.Theimportantbasic
stylisticclassificationofthelateBaroqueperiodhoweverwas
stylusecclesiasticus
,
stylus
cubicularis
and
stylusscenicus
.ThisappearedfirstinMarcoScacchi(
Brevediscorsosoprala
musicamoderna
,1649)andwascontinuedbyBerardi(
Ragionamentimusicali
,1681)and
Mattheson(
DasbeschtzteOrchestre
,1717
DervollkommeneCapellmeister
,1739
GrundlageeinerEhrenPforte
,1740).Matthesonalsospokeofnationalstyles(welschenund
frantzsischen)towhichScheibe(
CritischeMusikus
,1745)addedperformingpracticeasa
stylisticphenomenontheyfollowedBach,Telemann,Rameauandotherswhocomposed
musicinspecific,andspecified,nationalorlocalstyles.Thedifferencesbetweenandthe

relativemeritsoftheFrenchandItalianstylesofcompositionandperformance,inparticular,
wereanimportantpartof18thcenturymusicalconsciousness.
IntheClassicalandRomanticperiodsthefashionforstylistictheoryabated,butbytheendof
the19thcenturythefundamentalconcernsofmodernmusicologyasadisciplineofcultural
historywerewellestablished.Adler(18551941)describedmusichistoryasthehistoryof
style,andthetheoryofstyleasanepochalconceptwassubsequentlytreatedofbyBcken,
Mies,Riemann,Handschin,GurlittandSchering.Epochalnamesweretakenfromarthistory
andfromliterature.MajormodernachievementsinepochalhistoriographyaretheOxford
HistoryofMusicandtheNortonseriesincludingworkbyReese,BukofzerandEinstein.
Studiesofpersonalstyles,beginningwithworkbyBainiandWinterfeldintheearly19th
century,werecontinuedinthe20thbysuchasJeppesensstudyofPalestrina(1922)and
RosensofHaydn,MozartandBeethoven(1971).Thestudyoffolkcultureswasanimportant
aspectof19thcenturymusicologyandwasexpandedinthe20thcenturybythedisciplineof
ethnomusicology.Analysisofthestyleofexamplesofmusicisbasictoallthesebranchesof
musicologysuchanalysishasbecomemorejustifiedinitsownrightsincetheworkof
SchenkerandTovey.(Foradiscussionofstyleanalysis,
see

Analysis,II,5

.)Stylistic
criticismisthemeansofbothculturalhistoryandthehumanresponsetoanartwork.It
distinguishestheblendandoriginofstylesastheyarepresentedintheindividualartwork,
whichisafixingorcrisisoftradition.Aworkcannotproperlybeappreciatedorstudiedin
isolationneithercanstylisticevolutionandtrendsbedistinguishedwithoutathorough
understandingofindividualexamples.Bytheapplicationofstylisticquestionsonemayarrive
atadeeperviewofmusicalutterance,anintellectualinterpretationofmusicwhichenriches
theresponsetoit.

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