Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
AMENDMENT RECORD
Amd No
Date
Text Affected
REVISION NOTE
This standard is raised to Issue 1 to update its content.
HISTORICAL RECORD
This standard supersedes the following:
Naval Engineering Standard (NES) 738 Issue 2 dated August 1992.
Ministry of Defence
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
August 1992
Record of Amendments
AMDT
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
INSERTED BY
DATE
ECROWN COPYRIGHT
Published by:
Director of Naval Architecture
Procurement Executive, Ministry of Defence
Sea Systems, Foxhill, Bath BA1 5AB
i
ii
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
SCOPE
1.
This NES is a guide to the use of preferred metallic materials for use in selected applications
in Surface Ships and Submarines. General information is given on the properties and selection
of metals, metal processing and finishing, testing, failure modes, and corrosion.
2.
It does not give detailed properties of any metal or alloy for which reference must be made to
the relevant material specification or data sheet.
3.
It is not an authority for departure from the material specified on drawings, etc, for which
established concession procedures are to be followed.
iii
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
iv
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
FOREWORD
Sponsorship
1.
This Naval Engineering Standard (NES) is sponsored by the Procurement Executive, Ministry
of Defence, Director Naval Architecture (Submarines) (DNA(SM)), Section NA 115.
2.
3.
4.
Any user of this NES either within MOD or in industry may propose an amendment to it.
Proposals for amendments which are:
a.
not directly applicable to a particular contract are to be made to the Sponsor of the NES;
b.
directly applicable to a particular contract are to be dealt with using existing procedures
or as specified in the contract.
5.
No alteration may be made to this NES except by the issue of an authorized amendment.
6.
Unless otherwise stated, reference in this NES to approval, approved, authorized or similar
terms means by the Ministry of Defence in writing.
7.
Any significant amendments that may be made to this NES at a later date will be indicated
by a vertical sideline. Deletions will be indicated by 000 appearing at the end of the line
intervals.
8.
This NES has been reissued to reflect changes in nomenclature, departmental reorganization
and technical changes.
Conditions of Release
General
9.
This Naval Engineering Standard (NES) has been prepared for the use of the Crown and of
its contractors in the execution of contracts for the Crown. The Crown hereby excludes all
liability (other than liability for death or personal injury) whatsoever and howsoever arising
(including but without limitation, negligence on the part of the Crown, its servants or agents)
for any loss or damage however caused where the NES is used for any other purpose.
10.
This document is Crown Copyright and the information herein may be subject to Crown or
third party rights. It is not to be released, reproduced or published without written permission
of the MOD.
11.
The Crown reserves the right to amend or modify the contents of this NES without consulting
or informing any holder.
v
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
This NES is the property of the Crown and unless otherwise authorized in writing by the MOD
must be returned on completion of the contract, or submission of the tender, in connection
with which it is issued.
13.
When this NES is used in connection with a MOD tender or contract, the user is to ensure that
he is in possession of the appropriate version of each document, including related documents,
relevant to each particular tender or contract. Enquiries in this connection may be made of
the local MOD(PE) Quality Assurance Representative or the Authority named in the tender
or contract.
14.
When NES are incorporated into MOD contracts, users are responsible for their correct
application and for complying with contracts and any other statutory requirements.
Compliance with an NES does not of itself confer immunity from legal obligations.
Related Documents
15.
In the tender and procurement processes the related documents listed in each section and
Annex A can be obtained as follows:
a.
British Standards
b.
Defence Standards
c.
d.
Other documents
All applications to Ministry Establishments for related documents are to quote the relevant
MOD Invitation to Tender or Contract Number and date, together with the sponsoring
Directorate and the Tender or Contract Sponsor.
17.
Prime Contractors are responsible for supplying their subcontractors with relevant
documentation, including specifications, standards and drawings.
This NES may call for the use of processes, substances and/or procedures that may be injurious
to health if adequate precautions are not taken. It refers only to technical suitability and in
no way absolves either the supplier or the user from statutory obligations relating to health
and safety at any stage of manufacture or use. Where attention is drawn to hazards, those
quoted may not necessarily be exhaustive.
vi
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
CONTENTS
Page No
TITLE PAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iii
FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sponsorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conditions of Release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MOD Tender or Contract Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Related Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Health and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
v
v
v
v
vi
vi
vi
vi
CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vii
SECTION
1.
METALLIC MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1
SECTION
2.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1
SECTION
3.
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
SECTION
4.
4.1
4.2
4.3
MODES OF FAILURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plastic Collapse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Brittle Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FIGURE 4.1 FRACTURE APPEARANCE IN THE
CHARPY TEST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fatigue and Corrosion Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FIGURE 4.2 TYPICAL SN CURVE FOR
UNWELDED STEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vii
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.3
3.4
3.4
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.7
3.8
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.4
4.5
4.5
4.5
SECTION
5.
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.1
5.1
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.3
5.3
5.4
SECTION
6.
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
SHAPING OF METALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cold Forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hot Forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shaping Weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Machining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.2
SECTION
7.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
HEAT TREATMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Normalizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Interrupted Quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tempering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flame Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Induction Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stress Relief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Non-Ferrous Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solution Treatment and Precipitation Hardening . .
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
SECTION
8.
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.10
8.11
8.12
8.13
SURFACE TREATMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Surface Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Carburizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pack Carburizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Liquid Carburizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gas Carburizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steels for Carburizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nitriding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ion-Nitriding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steels for Nitriding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Carbon-nitriding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nitriding v Carburizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Patented Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Surface Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1
8.1
8.1
8.1
8.1
8.1
8.1
8.2
8.2
8.2
8.2
8.2
8.2
8.2
viii
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
SECTION
8.14
8.15
8.16
8.17
8.18
8.19
8.20
8.21
8.22
8.3
8.3
8.4
8.4
8.4
8.4
8.4
8.4
8.5
9.
9.1
9.2
9.1
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
9.12
9.13
9.14
9.15
9.16
9.17
9.18
9.19
9.20
9.21
9.22
9.23
9.24
ix
9.2
9.3
9.3
9.3
9.4
9.4
9.4
9.5
9.5
9.5
9.5
9.6
9.6
9.7
9.7
9.7
9.9
9.10
9.10
9.11
9.11
9.12
9.12
9.12
9.12
9.12
9.12
9.12
9.13
9.13
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
SECTION
SECTION
10.
10.1
10.2
10.3
11.
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
10.1
10.1
10.2
10.2
STAINLESS STEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Austenitic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ferritic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Martensitic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TABLE 11.1 TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF TYPE 410
MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEEL AFTER
VARYING HEAT TREATMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Duplex (Austenitic-Ferritic) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Precipitation Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Corrosion Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stress Corrosion Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Carbide Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stainless Steels for Naval Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TABLE 11.2 WROUGHT STAINLESS STEELS
FOR NAVAL USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TABLE 11.3 CAST STAINLESS STEELS FOR
NAVAL USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1
11.1
11.1
11.1
SECTION
12.
SECTION
13.
SECTION
14.
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
11.2
11.2
11.2
11.2
11.3
11.3
11.3
11.4
11.5
12.1
12.2
13.1
13.3
13.5
13.6
13.7
13.10
14.1
14.1
14.1
14.1
14.1
14.2
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
SECTION
15.
SECTION
16.
TITANIUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.1
SECTION
17.
DAMPING ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.1
SECTION
18.
BEARING ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TABLE 18.1 PLAIN BEARING ALLOYS FOR
NAVAL USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.1
18.2
SECTION
19.
19.1
19.2
MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shape Memory Effect (SME) Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lead and Zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TABLE 19.1 NAVAL USES OF LEAD AND ZINC
19.1
19.1
19.1
19.1
SECTION
20.
20.1
20.2
CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mechanisms of Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bimetallic Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TABLE 20.1 POTENTIALS IN SEA WATER
AGAINST A SILVER/SILVER CHLORIDE
ELECTRODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Formation of Surface Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Protective Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Selective Phase Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crevice Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Impingement Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cavitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hot Spot Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exfoliation of Aluminium Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Harbour and Estuarine Waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.1
20.1
20.1
21.
21.1
21.2
21.3
CATHODIC PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sacrificial Anode System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP)
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.1
21.1
21.1
SECTION
22.
22.1
22.2
22.3
MARINE FOULING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Outer Bottom Fouling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fouling of Sea Water Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fouling by Bacteria and Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.1
22.1
22.1
22.1
SECTION
23.
ANTIFOULING METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.1
SECTION
24.
24.1
SECTION
25.
FRETTING CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25.1
SECTION
26.
LUBRICATING OILS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.1
ANNEX
A.
RELATED DOCUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.1
ANNEX
B.
B.1
20.3
20.4
20.5
20.6
20.7
20.8
20.9
20.10
20.11
20.12
SECTION
ALPHABETICAL INDEX
xi
20.2
20.3
20.3
20.4
20.4
20.4
20.5
20.5
20.5
20.6
20.6
21.1
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
xii
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
1.
METALLIC MATERIALS
a.
The wide range of metals and alloys used in Surface Ships and Submarines is
listed in Sections 10. to 19. of this NES. In generic terms they cover carbon and
low alloy steels, stainless steels, cast irons, copper and copper alloys, nickel and
nickel alloys, aluminium and aluminium alloys, titanium and titanium alloys,
plus various other metals for specific use.
1.1
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
1.2
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
2.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
a.
2.1
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
2.2
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
3.
3.1
Physical properties .
(2)
Mechanical properties.
(3)
Chemical properties.
These properties are intrinsic to the material and those of principal engineering
interest are:
(1)
Density.
(2)
Specific heat.
(3)
Thermal expansion.
(4)
Melting point.
(5)
Thermal conductivity.
(6)
(7)
(8)
Mechanical Properties
a.
3.3
(1)
Physical Properties
a.
3.2
Tensile and shear properties are used in determining the safe loading to be
placed on a component or structure. The properties associated with tensile and
shear loading revolve around the elastic constants E and N, and the relationship
between stress and strain. Most metals are utilized under elastic conditions,
which means that when the metal is deformed the deformation is not
permanent and it returns to its original shape upon removal of the load. To take
account of local overloading it is also necessary to have a measure of the metals
ductility. Initially, ductility is determined from percentage elongation and
reduction of area in the tensile test, but a further property of notch ductility is
considered later. The tensile and shear properties concerned are:
(1)
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
3.2
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Proof Stress (N/mm 2)usually defined as 0.1% or 0.2% proof stress and
is the stress required to produce a permanent elongation of 0.1% or 0.2X
of the original gauge length in the tensile test.
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
3.4
3.5
Unless otherwise stated, the tests to determine the above properties are carried
out at room temperature or at a nominal 20 C. Tensile strength generally
decreases as temperature increases.
b.
c.
Notch Toughness
a.
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
3.6
3.7
b.
c.
d.
Creep
a.
b.
Creep occurs in three stages. The primary stage is when upon application of the
load extension occurs as a result of elastic strain and some plastic strain; the rate
of creep then gradually decreases. The secondary stage follows: creep rate is at
a minimum and extension occurs at a uniform rate. The tertiary stage then
takes place when the creep rate increases markedly leading to eventual rupture.
Most components spend their life in the second stage of creep.
Stress Relaxation
a.
3.4
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
3.8
Fatigue
a.
3.9
Corrosion Fatigue
a.
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
3.10
3.11
Chemical Properties
a.
b.
3.12
Selection of Metals
a.
3.6
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
3.7
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
3.13
b.
c.
Experience of use of the metal must also be sought. Risk increases where
experience is scant.
d.
Finally the availability of the metal in the form, shapes and sizes that are
required has to be investigated. As much as possible is to be found out about the
manufacturing route of the metal and the other uses being made of it.
Toxicity of Metals
a.
Many metals and their oxides are toxic if inhaled in a finely divided form. The
hazard may be a metal powder or as a metal fume from a working process such
as brazing, welding or metal spraying. Of particular risk are beryllium and
tellurium followed by cadmium, lead, zinc, chromium etc. Guidance on the use
of hazardous metals is issued by the Health and Safety Executive.
3.8
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
4.
MODES OF FAILURE
a.
4.1
(1)
Plastic collapse.
(2)
Brittle fracture.
(3)
(4)
Corrosion.
(5)
(6)
Plastic Collapse
a.
4.2
Over the years much data has been collected on engineering failures and this
has gradually led to a better understanding of metals and their properties. Most
failures can be ascribed to one or more of the following mechanisms.
Brittle Fracture
a.
Brittle fracture is a rare event in a large monolithic steel structure but it can
result in total loss. Some of the more notable failures have been the Americanbuilt liberty ships in World War II, and the offshore drilling rig, Sea-Gem. Brittle
failure of minor items such as fasteners, chain cables, etc can have potentially
serious results.
b.
c.
d.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Service temperature.
(4)
Rate of loading.
(5)
Size effect.
The effect of (1) to (4) above is described in Clauses 3.5a. to 3.5d. The size effect
relates both to the thickness of plates and sections and to the overall size of the
structure. Brittle behaviour is more likely to occur in heavy structures made
from thick plate and sections rather than in structures of lighter scantlings.
This is partly due to metallurgical effects such as segregation and the difficulty
of obtaining uniform cooling, and partly due to geometric and stress conditions.
4.1
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
e.
(2)
(3)
4.2
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
4.3
b.
Fatigue fractures are usually initiated at stress concentrations which may result
from a design error such as an abrupt change of section or from a surface flaw,
such as a chisel mark or weld reinforcement. The mechanism of failure is that
a small crack forms at the stress concentration and slowly spreads with repeated
loading. The crack will extend in a direction normal to the direction of the main
tensile stress.
c.
d.
e.
4.3
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
g.
h.
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
4.4
4.5
Corrosion
a.
The mechanism of various forms of corrosion and their preventive measures are
covered in Section 20. of this NES. A brief note on corrosion is included in this
section since it accounts for some costly failures in metals.
b.
c.
4.6
Although not a widespread problem, failure from stress corrosion can occur
where both stress, internal or external, and a corrosive environment are
present. The corrosion is specific to the material and its environment, and the
stress, whether imposed or residual internal, has to be tensile. The mechanism
differs according to the material and the environment but failure would not
occur if either stress or corrosion were absent.
The fact that a material fails in a shear mode when tested at its service
temperature is not always a guarantee of safety. Failure by low energy ductile
tearing is possible and suspect materials are to be assessed by the J-integral
method, see Clauses 9.12a.9.12d.
4.5
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
4.6
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
5.
5.1
With the exception of a relatively small number of sintered products, metals are
used either in the cast or wrought form.
Cast Metals
a.
Sand castings.
(2)
Shell moulding.
(3)
(4)
Centrifugal.
(5)
Investment.
(6)
Continuous.
b.
Sand casting is the best known method. Foundry sand is rammed around a
wooden pattern which is contained within a moulding box. The moulding box
is separated in two halves and the pattern is withdrawn leaving a cavity into
which the metal can be poured. Sand casting is a highly skilled process and
selection of a modern foundry with appropriate experience in the alloy
concerned is vital to achieve good quality components free of defects.
c.
d.
Die casting is mainly confined to zinc and aluminium alloys with some use of
magnesium alloys and low melting brasses. In gravity die casting, the metal is
fed by gravity into the die and in pressure diecasting it is forced into the die
under considerable pressure. A run of castings is required to justify the cost of
the die and provided the design is satisfactory output can be high. Dimensional
accuracy and surface finish are very good: fine screw threads may be accurately
incorporated into the casting. Not all light alloys can be die cast because of their
high shrinkage characteristics which leads to cracking.
e.
f.
Investment casting is used for the production of small items requiring close
tolerances. Non-machinable and non-forgeable alloys can be cast to finished
dimensions by this process. The item to be cast is made of a low melting point
material, originally beeswax, enclosed in a mould which is heated to remove the
wax, and then the molten metal is run in.
g.
Continuous casting is used for producing solid and hollow bar, pipe and billet
in a continuous process. The molten metal passes through a cooled die emerging
as a just solidified bar or tube.
5.1
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
5.2
5.3
5.4
The main advantage of castings is that large and intricate shapes can be
produced generally in one piece more economically than by any other process.
Batch production of castings of smaller items is frequently cheaper than by
manufacture from wrought material. Ability to achieve the required shape
without expensive forging and machining is where the principal savings lie.
b.
Wrought Products
a.
b.
Wrought material is not without its defects. The original ingot can suffer from
pipes, segregation, blowholes, inclusions and cracks. Primary piping may be
cropped from the ingot but if a secondary pipe exists it could ultimately appear
as centre-line porosity in a bar product or as laminations in a plate. Blowholes
may be welded up by the working process or remain as a defect although altered
in shape. Inclusions will be elongated and generally well dispersed. They can,
however, appear as stringers and are then more serious. Internal cracks and
bursts can result from forging and various surface defects can result from the
working process. Blooms for forging made from continuously cast metal will
contain fewer defects than those from cast ingots.
c.
Control measures are possible. These start with the material production process
and control over impurities. Other defects such as piping, porosity, etc can be
reduced by the method used in the melt or casting of the ingot and subsequent
control of the cropping process to ensure defective material is removed from the
top and bottom of the ingot. Thereafter working can produce directionality of
properties or conversely a more isotropic condition if required. Measures can
also be taken to produce a satisfactory surface finish.
Working Processes
a.
The principal working processes are rolling, forging, upsetting, drawing and
extrusion. From the ingot stage hot rolling produces semi-finished products
such as blooms and slabs. Subsequently hot rolling is used for the reduction of
these products to plate, sheet, sections and rods.
5.2
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
b.
Cold working is used, where required, as a finishing process. Its purpose is to:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
5.5
c.
d.
Most forging is now power assisted although hand forging is still practised by
smiths. Where large numbers of similar articles are to be produced, drop or
closed die forging may be used. By this method heated bars or billets are forged
between dies; the hammer is raised by power and allowed to fall under gravity.
Modifications of this process use a power-assisted hammer or hydraulic press.
A further development is high-energy rate forging which utilizes pneumatic
power.
e.
Hot pressing may be used for items of simple geometry. The hammer is replaced
by a hydraulic ram and the heated material is gradually squeezed into shape by
the static pressure of the ram. One of the advantages of this process is that the
metal is worked in depth and not primarily in the surface layer, as with hammer
forging.
f.
Upset forging or heading is used in the production of bolts, rivets and similar
items. The end of the bar is heated and the head is forged in a single operation
in a machine. Dependent on the size of the item and the material, cold heading
may be used instead of hot forging.
Extrusion
a.
5.6
The extrusion process may be direct or indirect. In the direct process metal is
forced through a die, and in the indirect process the die is forced into the metal
thereby extruding the required shape through the die. The ram in each case is
powered hydraulically. Metals that can be extruded include aluminium, brasses
and ferrous alloys. The extrusion process is usually carried out hot, up to 500 C
for aluminium alloys, 800 C for brasses and 1250 C for steels, but certain alloys
may also be extruded cold.
Powder Metallurgy
a.
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
b.
5.7
Clad Metals
a.
5.4
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
6.
SHAPING OF METALS
6.1
Cold Forming
6.2
6.3
a.
The most economical method of shaping metals is by cold forming which may
be by rolling, bending or pressing. The metal being formed must have adequate
ductility and its properties must not be seriously impaired by the forming
process. The extent of cold work must not produce cracking.
b.
c.
Hot Forming
a.
Where the required deformation is such that the strain limit on cold work will
be exceeded it will be necessary to work the metal in the hot condition. It is
important to question the effect of hot work on the metal concerned. If the metal
is in the heat treated condition prior to forming then subsequent heat
treatment, such as quenching and tempering, or normalizing will be necessary.
Alternatively, the metal may have been purchased in a cold worked, hardened
condition to meet design strength requirements. The extra strength induced by
cold work will be lost on hot working as the metal reverts to a softened state.
b.
The working temperatures and particularly the finishing temperature will have
a crucial effect on the structure of the metal and on its properties. If the working
temperatures are not clearly specified then specialist advice must be sought.
Temperatures for structural steels are defined in NES 706 and NES 770, Part 1.
Shaping Weldments
a.
6.4
If the item to be worked has been fabricated by welding then the effect of the
work on the weld metal must be considered. Normally mild steel weldments
may be worked hot or cold but where a steel needs to be quenched and tempered
after forming then the weld metal will need to be cut out and the joint rewelded.
See NES 706 and NES 770, Part 1.
Spinning
a.
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
6.5
Machining
a.
The ease with which metals can be machined is a function of their mechanical
properties and metallurgical structure. Ductile metals tend to spread and are
not as easily machined as harder and more brittle metals. The difference is
shown in the turnings: ductile metals produce continuous coils of turnings
whereas in the more brittle but more easily machined metals the turnings break
off in small chips.
b.
Finely dispersed inclusions assist chip forming and the compositions of metals
can be modified to produce such inclusions. The addition of sulphur to steels
containing manganese creates manganese sulphide inclusions. These are the so
called sulphur bearing free machining steels. Other free machining steels
contain lead which exists as microscopic globules in the steel structure. The
advantage of lead is that it has little effect on the other mechanical properties
of the steel; manganese and sulphur can considerably reduce notch ductility.
Other treated metals are stainless steels with added selenium or molybdenum,
and copper alloys and nickel silver with lead additions.
c.
The aim of free machining metals is to reduce machining costs. Free cutting
steels owe much of their development to their cost advantage in automatic
screw cutting. These steels may be unsuitable for steam or sea water
applications and specialist advice is to be sought.
6.2
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
7.
HEAT TREATMENT
a.
7.1
Steel
a.
7.2
Quenching
b.
7.5
Annealing of steel is carried out principally to soften the alloy and to improve
ductility. It also relieves the internal stresses caused by previous treatments.
The workpiece is heated to 40 C above the upper critical point and held
sufficiently long at that temperature, dependent on its size, to ensure a
thorough soak, and then cooled very slowly, preferably in the furnace. This is
sometimes known as full annealing. A slightly different operation is process
annealing; here the steel is heated just above the lower critical point,
550 C650 C, and then cooled. Its purpose is to remove hardening effects
produced by cold work and is used extensively in the production of sheet and
wire. The rate of cooling in process annealing is not so critical since reliance is
placed on temperature to partially soften the steel and relieve internal stresses.
Normalizing
a.
7.4
The properties of steel may be altered with relative ease by heat treatment and
this is one reason why steel is so useful. The critical factors are the temperature
to which it is heated, the time it is held at that temperature, and initially, the
rate at which it is cooled. The temperatures at which transformation takes place
in the solid state are called critical temperatures or critical points and will vary
with the particular composition of the alloy. In steel we are mainly concerned
with the upper and lower critical points.
Annealing
a.
7.3
The heat treatment of metal alloys is carried out in order to produce the desired
properties for the service intended. In addition to mechanical properties this
could also mean a stress-free condition or enhanced corrosion resistance. The
alteration of properties is obtained in the solid state by properly controlled
heating and cooling and is directly related to changes produced in the
microstructure. Alloying additions play a vital role in the transformation of
microstructure.
Interrupted Quenching
a.
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
7.6
Tempering
a.
7.7
Flame Hardening
a.
7.8
Thermal stress relieving may be carried out on castings, welded fabrications and
repairs, and on severely cold worked items to relieve internal stress. The process
involves heating the item to a temperature below the lower critical point, approx
575 C, holding at that temperature for one hour per inch of thickness and then
cooling in still air.
Non-Ferrous Alloys
a.
7.11
Where components are large and it is impossible to heat the whole surface at
once with a torch then induction heating is the preferred alternative. The object
to be surface hardened is enclosed in a coil through which a high frequency
current is passed. The resultant induced current on the workpiece raises the
surface temperature above the upper critical point. The frequency of the
current determines the depth of hardening. Coils can be specially shaped to the
workpiece being treated and can incorporate a spray so that a rapid quench
follows the heating.
Stress Relief
a.
7.10
This process produces a hard surface on medium carbon steels while leaving a
softer and tougher core. The surface of the workpiece is rapidly heated by
oxyacetylene torch or other high temperature flame followed immediately by a
rapid quench. For some applications it is possible to attach a quenching spray
to the torch. Flame hardening relies on the fact that heat is applied very rapidly,
building up a high thermal gradient and raising the surface temperature above
the upper critical point prior to the rapid quench.
Induction Hardening
a.
7.9
b.
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
c.
Care must be exercised when welding, or heating for any reason, precipitation
hardened alloys as the mechanical properties may be impaired and only
partially recoverable by further heat-treatment.
d.
Precipitation hardening does not apply only to non-ferrous alloys; it also applies
to certain steels when tempered after quenching and to precipitation hardening
stainless steels.
7.3
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
7.4
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
8.
SURFACE TREATMENT
a.
8.1
Surface Hardening
a.
8.2
8.6
Liquid Carburizing
a.
8.5
Pack Carburizing
a.
8.4
Many moving components used in engineering such as cams, gears and shafts
require a surface that is resistant to hard wear and must also possess a tough
interior. Surface hardening by heat treatment is described in Clauses 7.7a. to
7.8a.; other means of surface hardening are by carburizing, nitriding,
ion-nitriding, or carbon-nitriding.
Carburizing
a.
8.3
The surface treatments covered in this section are the surface hardening of
steels and the application of coatings to both ferrous and non-ferrous alloys in
order to improve corrosion, heat and wear resistance.
The liquid used in this carburizing process is a cyanide-rich bath of fused salts
comprising up to 50% sodium cyanide together with sodium carbonate and
sodium or barium chloride. The molten salts are held at a temperature of
870 C950 C and the steel components to be hardened are lowered into the
bath in wire baskets. The process is ideal for small parts requiring shallow
hardening.
Gas Carburizing
a.
b.
After carburizing, further heat treatment of the steel is required to toughen the
core and for some applications to produce the required hardness in the surface.
The heat treatment required will depend on the carburizing temperature used,
the composition of core and case, and the properties required for the component
to function properly. Quenching and tempering or interrupted quenching (see
Section 7.) will be required.
A wide variety of steels are used for carburizing. Low carbon steels up to 0.2% C
provide a ductile core. Steels with a higher carbon content or low alloy steels will
be used if greater strength is required. The advantage of the low alloy steels is
that the toughness of the core is retained despite the increase in hardness.
8.1
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
8.7
8.8
Nitriding
a.
b.
Ion-Nitriding
a.
8.9
8.10
In addition to the very high hardness that is possible, nitrided steels have the
advantages of being more corrosion resistant with greater resistance to fatigue
than carburized steels. Nitrided steels are also better at elevated temperatures.
No quenching is required after nitriding and items can be machine finished
before treatment. The disadvantage with nitriding is the high cost of capital
equipment which makes the process economical only where large numbers of
items have to be treated. Carburizing can produce a much deeper, tougher case
but due to distortion considerable grinding of the hardened surface is necessary.
Main propulsion gears in MOD ships are now carburized after earlier failures
with nitrided gears.
Patented Processes
a.
8.13
Nitriding v Carburizing
a.
8.12
Nitriding can be used to surface harden many steels but where a high surface
hardness is required steels of special composition are necessary. The steels must
contain those elements such as aluminium, chromium, vanadium, titanium,
tungsten and molybdenum, which form hard stable nitrides. Steels of special
composition for nitriding are produced and are known as nitro-alloys.
Carbon-nitriding
a.
8.11
There are several patented processes for surface hardening of steel, some of
which confer improved properties, eg Sulphanizing and Tufftriding.
Surface Coatings
a.
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
8.14
8.15
The coatings used in the hot dip process are zinc and tin. These have relatively
low melting points enabling steel products to be dipped in molten baths of the
coatings. The component must be cleaned by degreasing and acid picking prior
to dipping. Fluxes are used to assist in obtaining a good bond between coating
and base metal.
(1)
(2)
Electroplated Coatings
a.
(2)
(3)
(4)
Zinc plating is widely used for fasteners and similar articles where
uniformity and control of thickness of film is important and in this respect
the process is preferred to hot-dipping.
(5)
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
8.16
Electroless Plating
a.
8.17
Sherardizing
a.
8.18
Phosphating
a.
8.21
Ion-Plating
a.
8.20
Calorizing
a.
8.19
(2)
Anodizing
a.
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
8.22
Metal Spraying
a.
Metal spraying methods are defined in Def Stan 036. A wide variety of coatings
are available for restoring worn parts and for improving wear resistance and
corrosion resistance. Other coatings improve heat resistance or provide
electrical conduction or electrical resistance. Metal spraying also has a wide
application in view of its portability and flexibility. Critical parts of steel ship
structure can be sprayed with zinc or aluminium to give sacrificial protection
from corrosion. Wear and corrosion resistant ceramic materials are also
thermally sprayed.
b.
All the metals used for coating by hot dipping and electroplating, and many
more besides, can be deposited by metal spraying. Sprayed coatings are porous
which is an advantage for certain coatings used as oil-lubricated bearings, but
in a corrosive environment coatings require sealing.
8.5
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
8.6
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
9.
Tests used on metallic materials to ensure that the required properties are being
achieved may be classified as:
(1)
Laboratory and type tests used initially when introducing a new material
into service.
(2)
b.
Metals and alloys are required to comply with defined compositions and to meet
mechanical and other type tests. Exceptionally metallurgical examination of
the microstructure is also required. Chemical analysis to determine that the
composition is within the required tolerances is the first test in the production
route.
c.
(2)
Hardness.
(3)
Notch toughness.
(4)
Material cleanness.
(5)
Fatigue limit.
(6)
Creep.
(7)
Corrosion resistance.
(8)
(9)
9.1
Strength and ductility are measured by the tensile test in accordance with BS
EN 10 002.1. The results are influenced by the shape and size of test specimen,
the rate of loading under test, and the elastic compliance of the testing machine.
By standardizing tests we arrive at meaningful and comparable results.
b.
The tensile test is suitable for laboratory and production use. From it are
determined:
c.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Elongation.
(4)
Reduction of area.
The tensile properties for steel plate are often only determined for one direction
in a plate. There are, however, three principal directions affecting properties in
a rolled plate, these are:
9.1
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
9.2
(1)
(2)
Transverse to rolling.
(3)
d.
The difference in the tensile test results for longitudinal and transverse
direction may not be great and will depend on the degree of cross-rolling of the
plate in manufacture. Most structural steels have a dramatic fall-off in ductility
in the short transverse direction. The fall-off is directly attributable to the steel
making process and in particular with the degree of inclusion in the steel, ie the
material cleanness.
e.
Hardness
a.
b.
Hardness values may indicate the strength of a metal but do not represent the
ductility and more particularly the notch ductility (notch toughness) of the
metal.
9.2
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
9.3
Notch Toughness
a.
b.
9.4
9.5
(2)
(2)
(3)
crack propagation.
For production testing the Izod test is generally used for non-ferrous metals and
the Charpy V notch for steels. Both tests are defined in BS 131, Part 1 and
BS EN 10 045.1 and involve the measure of energy absorbed in fracturing a
specimen which has a sharp notch machined into its surface. Izod tests are
carried out at room temperature, Charpy specimens are tested over a range of
temperatures.
b.
The Charpy test illustrates the transition behaviour of steel with regard to
temperature, as shown in FIGURE 9.1. Different steels exhibit different levels
of absorbed energy and different positions of the transition curve with regard
to temperature.
c.
(2)
the specimen position within the thickness of the plate: lower values may
be obtained at mid-thickness in thick plates.
Some or all of the following tests are used for evaluating metals for MOD(PE)
use. Steel for submarine pressure hulls commands a wider range of testing than
steel for uses of lesser importance.
(1)
Drop-weight test.
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
9.6
(7)
9.7
(6)
This test is carried out in air with the target plate at specified sub-zero
temperatures. The temperature of the target plate is lowered in dry ice. Crack
starters are used similar to those used in the drop weight test. The charge weight
and its stand-off distance from the target plate are aimed at producing a
reduction in thickness of 3% on the first shot. The arrangement of the test is
shown in FIGURE 9.3.
9.4
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
b.
9.8
(2)
(3)
crack path;
(4)
severity of deformation.
In this test a crack is initiated from a saw-cut in a plate loaded to defined levels
of elastic stress, see FIGURE 9.4. By cooling the end containing the saw-cut
with liquid nitrogen a temperature gradient can be obtained along the length
of the plate. The gradient can be monitored from a series of thermocouples.
Cracking can be initiated by impact near the saw-cut as shown and the
temperature at which the crack is arrested can be associated with the
background stress that has been applied. From this data a crack-arrest curve
can be drawn.
9.10
(1)
9.9
Tests are made on plain plate, welded butts, and welded T-butts. The criteria
used in assessing performance are:
If the crack arrest test is carried out at various levels of uniform temperature
it is possible to find the transition temperature for through cracks. This is the
isothermal crack arrest test.
The wide plate test uses a large specimen to determine the background stress,
at pre-determined temperatures, which is just sufficient to initiate cracking
from a precut notch, see FIGURE 9.5. Variations of the test can be used to
examine heat affected zones and weld metal.
9.5
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
9.11
In the Dynamic Tear Test the resistance of a steel to the propagation of fracture
can be measured as a function of temperature and section thickness. It features
the worst mechanical condition that can be expected to occur in a structure, ie,
high strain rate and a sharp, highly constrained crack. In the test, a notched
specimen is simply supported at its ends and then impacted by a drop-weight
or pendulum. The energy required for a through fracture is measured. See
FIGURE 9.6.
b.
(2)
9.6
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
propagation of fracture;
Crack Arrest Test;
Isothermal Crack Arrest Test;
Dynamic Tear Test.
9.12
b.
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
KIc
COD
JIc
LEFM
GYFM
EPFM
The methods of testing are described in BS 5447 for KIc, BS 5762 for COD, and
ASTM E 813 for JIc.
c.
KIc, the stress intensity factor at the crack tip leading to rapid crack
extension under plane strain conditions, typified by a flat fracture.
(2)
COD, the crack opening displacement used under plane stress conditions
and typified by shear fracture.
(3)
d.
FIGURE 9.8 illustrates the field of use of KIc and COD. The value JIc can be
used as a fracture criterion for ductile materials and can also be used to estimate
KIc values for those materials where yielding does not occur. All three methods
can be used to evaluate materials in terms that can be significant to design
particularly in estimating the critical defect size to cause failure. COD values
have been used by some UK companies to fix acceptance levels for weld defects
and inspection sensitivity, and more generally as a basis for material and weld
metal selection: the J-integral (JIc) approach to fracture safety is appropriate
to most non-ferrous alloys and to the austenitic and ferritic stainless steels.
e.
The use of KIc and COD to assess the critical size of defects is hampered by the
following:
f.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
residual stress system can vary with the method of welding and fit-up etc;
(5)
(6)
All the notch toughness tests listed in Clause 9.5a. are suitable for laboratory
use only. Each test gives a result which is a characteristic of the test itself. There
is, therefore, a need to carry out a multi-test approach to obtain sufficient
assurance that the metal is tough enough for the service intended. Correlation
with the Charpy results is essential since the Charpy will be used for quality
assurance testing in production runs.
9.8
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
9.9
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
9.13
Material Cleanness
a.
Reference was made in Clause 9.1d. to the lack of ductility in the short
transverse direction, ie, through the thickness, found in structural steels. The
fall-off in properties in this direction may be due to any of the following:
(1)
inclusions and laminations of a macro nature arising from dirty ingots and
insufficient cropping of the tops and bottoms of ingots. These may be
revealed in the shipyard when cutting affected plates;
(2)
(3)
to a lesser extent lamellar tearing can also arise from alloy segregation;
MOD(PE) specified structural steels are not normally affected.
b.
c.
Nick fracture tests may also be specified. In this test full plate thickness
specimens are nicked and bent until fractured. The standard of acceptance is
based on the crystallinity and laminations exhibited by the fracture face.
Determination of crystallinity is made in accordance with BS 131, Part 5.
9.10
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
9.14
9.15
Creep tests are made by subjecting a tensile type specimen to constant load at
a constant temperature and then measuring the increase in length as a function
of time. Tests are usually made at temperature levels of interest and at various
levels of stress. High stresses and high temperatures will increase the minimum
creep rate during the secondary stage and will decrease the time required for
rupture.
b.
Stress rupture tests are used for the preliminary screening of prospective
materials for high temperature duties. Specimens are tested to failure at various
temperatures and stresses of interest; the time to failure and elongation at
failure are measured, the creep rate is not measured by extensometry. A family
of stressrupture curves at various temperatures can be produced with
time-to-rupture plotted against stress.
Fatigue Limit
a.
b.
c.
9.16
In the laboratory, fatigue tests are normally only possible on relatively small size
specimens. Tests are carried out by axial loading and loading by bending on:
(1)
plain metal;
(2)
(3)
welded butts;
(4)
fillet welds;
(5)
T-butt welds.
size of specimen;
(2)
(3)
(4)
What fatigue tests will show is whether there is a fatigue problem which is an
inherent property of the material. One important fact that has emerged from
fatigue testing welded specimens is that within the range 104 to 106 a single
SN curve represents structural steels. The effect of welds on stress-raisers is
to reduce to a common level the fatigue life despite the difference on tensile
properties.
The majority of fatigue tests are carried out in air but the effect of the
environment on certain metals can be significant both on fatigue life and on the
susceptibility to stress-corrosion cracking. Pre cracked specimens are used and
either immersed in salt water for example or subjected to salt water spray and
controlled humidity conditions during test. Specimens must include welded
joints, where relevant, to ensure that heat-affected zones and weld metals are
also tested.
9.11
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
9.17
9.18
b.
c.
Non-Destructive Examination
a.
9.19
Ultrasonics
a.
9.20
Used for detecting internal defects in castings, forgings and welded structures.
Magnetic Particle
a.
9.23
Eddy currents are used to detect physical and chemical changes in conducting
materials. It is particularly suitable for automated production lines and is used
for detecting cracks, folds, and other defects in bar and tube. Suitable for
surface and near surface defects but generally limited to specimens of simple
geometry.
Radiography
a.
9.22
Used for the detection of cracks, voids, laminations and macro-inclusions in cast
and wrought materials and for thickness gauging. Difficulties can be
experienced with many cast metals because of the high attentuation of energy
caused by the cast structure. Normalizing may reduce this attenuation in some
alloys.
Eddy Current
a.
9.21
Dye Penetrant
a.
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
9.24
Quality Assurance
a.
9.13
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
9.14
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
10.
10.1
Many elements will combine with iron to form a wide range of steels. The most
important of these elements is carbon, the combination of iron and carbon to
form iron carbide is the basis of all steel. Iron with a carbon content less than
0.03% is known as pure iron; steels have a carbon content of 0.03%1.7%;
further up the scale cast irons have a carbon content of 1.7% to 6.67%.
b.
Mild steel is probably the most commonly used engineering material; it has a
carbon content of up to 0.25%. Carbon in medium carbon steels ranges from
0.25% to 0.45%, above 0.45% the steels are classified as high carbon steels. In
all these steels other alloying elements will be present in small quantities, some
as impurities. The most frequently found are sulphur, phosphorus, manganese,
and silicon.
c.
d.
e.
The usefulness of manganese by reason of its affinity for sulphur has already
been stated. In small quantities up to 0.2%, manganese also increases strength
and lowers the transition temperature. With 1.5% manganese a steel has
increased strength in the as rolled condition and increased strength and good
ductility in the heat treated condition. Such steels are known as
carbon-manganese steels and are superior to the plain carbon steels of the same
carbon content and at very low extra cost for the alloying content. Increasing
percentages of manganese lowers ductility and in steels with over 2%
manganese the effect is very marked. Manganese is also a deoxidizer and is often
used in conjunction with silicon for this purpose.
f.
Silicon acts as a deoxidizing agent. Killed steels are those that have been
completely deoxidized in the refining process, this results in practically no gas
evolution on solidification. Such steels have a good uniformity of composition
and are free from blowholes. Up to 0.4% silicon raises both the yield and
ultimate strength of steel. Above this amount there is a decline in ductility.
g.
Aluminium is a deoxidizer and grain refiner. Steels that are deoxidized with
aluminium have finer grain characteristics than those deoxidized with silicon.
Low strength and inadequate notch ductility at low temperatures are the major
limitations on the use of mild steel in the construction of warships and
submarines. Increasing the carbon content of plain carbon steels can lead to
higher strength but at the expense of ductility, notch ductility, and weldability.
TABLE 10.1 shows the MOD(PE) structural steels. The limitations of mild steel
have been overcome by the addition of other alloying elements which sometimes
needs to be accompanied by heat treatment.
10.1
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
10.2
10.3
In general, the term low alloy steel refers to steel with an overall alloy content
of less than 10%. The principal alloying elements additional to those found in
plain carbon steels are nickel, chromium, and molybdenum. Added in specified
amounts these will result in increased strength and higher notch ductility at the
same time maintaining good weldability. Heat treatment such as normalizing
or quenching and tempering may be necessary to achieve the required
properties.
b.
Other low alloy steels such as the 1% Cr or 0.5% Mo have been developed for
service at elevated temperatures because of their good creep resistance.
c.
Low alloy steels are considerably more expensive to purchase than plain carbon
steels and are more costly to fabricate. Although of higher strength, low alloy
steels may not perform well under corrosion fatigue conditions despite showing
an adequate performance under air fatigue.
TABLE 10.1 to TABLE 10.4 show the principal uses of plain carbon and low
alloy steels in surface ships and submarines. Examples are shown of the use of
rolled plate and section, forgings, and castings.
10.2
Spec
UTS N/mm 2
Mild Steel
430
Yield or Proof
Stress N/mm 2
245
430
245
B Quality CMn
450
310
BX Quality CMn
450
280
CMn
BS EN 10025 Fe
510DI
NES 736 Part 1
500
340
550
Material
10.3
Q1N
Ni C M
NiCrMo
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
BS 3059 Part 1
320
Carbon Steel
360
215
CMn
DGS 6142
Seamless
BS 3602 360
360 to 500
215
CMn
BS 3602 410
410 to 500
245
Mild Steel
NES 791
300
26 Carbon
BS 970 Part 3
070M20
BS 970 Part 3
080M40
BS 970 Part 1
150M19
400*
200*
509*
247*
509*
247*
40 Carbon
28 carbon
Manganese
Spec
UTS N/mm 2
10.4
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
Carbon Steel
Yield or Proof
Stress N/mm 2
195
Material
Yield or Proof
Stress N/mm 2
Spec
UTS N/mm 2
Carbon Steel
430 to 650
Q1(N)
NiCrMo
CrMo
DGS 6019
930
740
CrMo
NES 380
850
635
NiCrMo
DGS 6022
850 to 1540
665 to 1125
CMn
490 to 610
280 to 305
NiCrMoV
BS 1503
224490
NES 380
700
520
NiCr
DGS 6017
1000
Material
547
10.5
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
430
Mo (Types D, E and
F)
NES 849
460
260
MoV (Type G)
NES 849
540
325
Q1(N) NiCrMo
550
Spec
UTS N/mm 2
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
Yield or Proof
Stress N/mm 2
230
Material
10.6
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
11.
11.1
11.2
STAINLESS STEEL
a.
b.
The stainless steels produced by alloying may be grouped into five main classes:
Austentic.
(2)
Ferritic.
(3)
Martensitic.
(4)
Duplex.
(5)
Precipitation hardening.
Austenitic
a.
Austenitic stainless steels generally contain not less than 18% chromium and
8% nickel. Other elements such as molybdenum and manganese are added
dependent on the design requirements for the alloy. The fully austenitic
structure is soft and ductile but because of its pronounced work hardening
characteristics the UTS is relatively high. Ductility is good down to very low
temperatures.
b.
Austenitic alloys are not heat treatable but the mechanical properties can be
improved by cold work. Cold work also increases the magnetic permeability in
an alloy which is otherwise considered to be non-magnetic.
Ferritic
a.
11.3
(1)
This group contains chromium generally in excess of 14% with small amounts
of carbon, usually 0.1% maximum. These steels are not hardenable by heat
treatment. Typical yield and UTS values are 255 N/mm2 and 560 N/mm 2. These
figures can be raised by cold work at the expense of ductility. With a low carbon
content corrosion resistance is very good except in association with chlorides.
Ferritics are also highly resistant to stress corrosion cracking.
Martensitic
a.
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
TEMPERING
Temp
Annealed
UTS
N/mm 2
480
YS
N/mm 2
240
ELONG
(2!)
30
R OF A
%
70
IZOD ROCKWELL
(Joules)
Hardness
95
As Quenched
C43
205 C
1310
1000
15
55
48
C41
315 C
1240
965
15
55
48
C39
425 C
1345
1030
17
55
C41
540 C
1000
790
20
65
C31
650 C
760
585
23
65
102
B97
760 C
620
205
30
70
136
B89
11.4
Duplex (Austenitic-Ferritic)
a.
11.5
Precipitation Hardening
a.
b.
11.6
This group of stainless steels are chromiumnickel steels with other alloying
elements such as aluminium or copper. They can be hardened to high strength
by solution treatment and ageing. Modifications of compositions has produced
three types of alloy that can be hardened in different ways:
(1)
(2)
(3)
The precipitation hardening stainless steels find more use in the aircraft and
missile industry than in warships.
Corrosion Resistance
a.
Stainless steels obtain their corrosion resistance from a passive oxide film which
forms on the surface of the metal in the presence of oxygen. This occurs freely
in air or oxygenated water. The nature of this mechanism of protection gives rise
to two major corrosion problems, namely crevice attack and pitting.
b.
c.
The availability of oxygen to local areas can be reduced by deposits on the metal
surface. When the film is thus locally damaged the exposed metal is anodic to
the generally extensive surrounding area. The resulting galvanic action causes
localized pitting.
11.2
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
d.
11.7
11.8
Carbide Precipitation
a.
11.9
Most stainless steels are susceptible to crevice attack and pitting in sea water
or in a sea-damp atmosphere. Susceptibility varies with different grades. The
only cure is to avoid crevices. Sealants in the crevices can reduce or delay
corrosion but should not be regarded as a permanent cure. Where there is any
doubt whether to use the stainless steel, or which stainless steel should be used,
then the specialist section is to be consulted.
When CrNi stainless steels are heated in the range 490 C to 870 C chromium
carbides form and are deposited at grain boundaries. The depletion of
chromium from the matrix reduces corrosion resistance and corrosion occurs
at the grain boundaries. This is a particular problem in welded stainless steel
where a narrow area in each weld heat affected zone can suffer chromium
depletion. In a corroding medium a knife line attack occurs known as weld
decay. The problem is overcome by adjusting the composition of the stainless
steel so that there is little carbon available, less than 0.03%, or by introducing
other elements such as niobium or titanium which will combine preferentially
with carbon leaving the chromium intact. Steels with niobium or titanium are
referred to as stabilized stainless steels.
Stainless steels are not used extensively in warships. When they are used it is
mainly the stabilized fully austenitic grade which has good corrosion resistance
and is readily weldable. See TABLE 11.2 and TABLE 11.3 for naval uses.
11.3
Austenitic
18/12:Cr/Ni
(Niobium Stabilized)
Form
Relevant Specification
Superseded
Specification
UTS N/mm 2
Yield or
Proof Stress
N/mm 2
Naval Use
BS 3059:
Part 2
Grade 347S59
510710
245
Superheater Tubesuse in
temperature range
400 C800 C.
Austenitic
Tubes
18/12:Cr/Ni
(Titanium Stabilized
Solution treated at
1100 C
BS 3059:
Part 2
Grade 321S59
490690
195
Superheater Tubesuse in
temperature range
300 C600 C.
BS 970:
Part 2
Grade 302S31
510
210
BS 970 :
Part 1
Grade 316S11
460
170
Centrifuge components;
Flexible Bellows.
Martensitic 13Cr
Forgings
BS 970:
Part 1
Grade 410S21
En56A
690850
495
Martensitic 17/2:
Cr/Ni
Bar, Forgings
BS 970:
Part 1
Grade 431S29
En57
8501000
680
Martensitic
14/5:Cr/Ni
Forgings
FV520B
(See TABLE 10.2)
1030
980
Compressor DiscsGas
Turbines.
Austenitic
17/12:Cr/Ni
Sheet
BS 970:
Part 1
Grade 316S13
463
170
UNS No 32550
760
490
11.4
Tubes
Duplex
255
Ferralium Bar
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
Material
Material
Relevant Specification
Superseded
Specification
BS 1631
UTS N/mm 2
Yield or Proof
Stress N/mm 2
430
215 (Re)
Valve Bodies.
Naval Use
Austenitic 18/8:Cr/Ni
BS 3100:
Grade 316C12
Martensitic 13/1:Cr/Ni
BS 3100:
Grade 410C21
540
370
(Rp 0.2)
Martensitic 13/4:Cr/Ni
BS 310:
Grade 425C11
770
620
(RP 0.2)
UNS No 32550
740
480
11.5
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
11.6
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
12.
b.
c.
(2)
(3)
d.
In the above cases, prior approval for the use of cast iron must be obtained from
MOD(PE). This will in many instances involve full characterization of the
proposed material, eg impact testing to establish temperature transition curves,
fracture toughness tests, and shock testing of the equipment concerned.
e.
In assessing possible applications it should be noted that cast irons fall into two
broad classifications according to their ductility:
(1)
(2)
Ductile irons form the second broad classification and consist of irons
possessing measurable ductility and for which a minimum elongation in
the tensile test is specified varying from 217% according to grade. The
first type in this class embraces spheroidal or nodular graphite irons
(SNG) covered by BS 2789; the second type includes malleable cast iron
covered by BS 6681.
f.
Of the SNG irons, SNG 370/17 and SNG 420/12 are the most ductile, being
required to show 17% and 12% elongations respectively. The next best in order
of shock resistance are the black heart malleable castings grades B 3512 and
B 3210 of BS 6681 having minimum elongation of 12% and 10% respectively.
These four grades of castings can be used with comparative safety in certain
applications not exposed to excessive shock loading or low temperatures.
g.
h.
Yield or Proof
Naval Uses
Stress N/mm 2
84
Finds application in naval workshops for use as slides,
bushes, spacers and rollers.
200
Used for machine frames in workshop equipment.
BS Specification
UTS N/mm 2
1452Grade 300
(typical)
6681Grade W3812
(typical for
Whiteheart)
300
6681Grade B3210
(Typical for
Blackheart)
320
190
400
230
380
12.2
Austenitic Cast
Irons (Ni-Resist
t
type)
)
3468 Type 1B
AUS101B
3468 Type D2
AUS202A
185
420
235
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
Material
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
13.
b.
Many elements alloy with copper: chief among these are nickel, aluminium,
iron, tin, zinc, silicon, beryllium and phosphorus. The principal use in HM Ships
of the alloys so produced is in systems where corrosion resistance is essential.
TABLE 13.1 to TABLE 13.5 show both cast and wrought alloys and their
applications. Ratings are also included of their corrosion resistance, shock
resistance, and ease of fabrication.
c.
(2)
Beryllium Copper.
Beryllium Copper is a high strength alloy primarily used for electrical
components and springs. It is virtually non-magnetic, non-sparking and
it has good resistance to corrosion. It is, however, not a recommended
material as beryllium metal and compounds are potentially highly toxic.
d.
Certain cast and wrought copper based alloys have inherent deficiencies which
render them unsuitable for Naval Service or place limitations on their use.
Three materials which are unsuitable for Naval Service, but which at one time
had wide applications, are:
(1)
13.1
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
(2)
(3)
Naval Brass to BS 2870, 2874, 2875CZ 112 (Wrought) and BS 1400 SCB4
(Cast).
This material suffers from severe dezincification when in sea water. It is
only to be used for minor fittings which are not in contact with sea water
and whose failure would not be hazardous.
13.2
Mechanical Properties*
Material
Specification
NickelAluminium Bronze
NES 747 Part 1
(Naval Alloy) Centrifugal Castings
NickelAluminium Bronze
NES 747 Part 2
(Naval Alloy) Sand Castings and
Ingots
600
0.2% Proof
Stress N/mm 2
230
620
NickelAluminium Bronze
NES 747 Part 3
(Commercial Alloy) Sand Castings
and Ingots
NickelAluminium Bronze
(Naval Alloy) Sand Castings and
IngotsSand Castings with
welding restricted to the
non-wetted surface (Class I and II
Castings only)
UTS N/mm 2
Elongation %
Izod Joules
13.3
15
30
250
15
24
640
250
13
20
620
250
15
24
NickelAluminium Bronze
Guide to the design and
manufacture of Nickel Aluminum
bronze Castings
AluminiumSilicon Bronze
Sand Cast
CopperNickelChromium
Sand Cast
460
170 (0.1%)
20
27
NES 824
480
300
18
Contd
TABLE 13.1 CAST COPPER-BASED ALLOYS FOR NAVAL USE
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
Mechanical Properties*
Material
Specification
250
0.2% Proof
Stress N/mm 2
125
270
300
BS 1400PB1
PB2
PB4
13.4
UTS N/mm 2
Elongation %
Izod Joules
16
26
100
130
13
13
26
26
220
220
190
130
130
100
3
5
3
360
170
BS 1400 SCB4
250
70
18
The properties shown are typical and are not necessarily as shown in the relevant specifications for the acceptance
minimum for cast keel bars.
TABLE 13.1 CAST COPPER-BASED ALLOYS FOR NAVAL USE
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
Contd
Material
Specification
Sea Water*
Corrosion Resistance
G
SSC
Shock*
Resistance
Fabrication*
Fabrication
Service* Use
Service
Remarks
13.5
NickelAluminium
Bronze (Naval Alloy)
Centrifugal Castings
C20
E, F, G
A, F, H, K
NickelAluminium
Bronze (Naval Alloy)
Sand Castings and Ingots
C20
E, F, G
A, F, H, J, K
NickelAluminium
Bronze (Commercial
Alloy) Sand Castings and
Ingots
C20
E, F, G
A, F, H, J, K
C20
E, F, G
A, F, H, J, K
AluminiumSilicon
Bronze Sand Cast
C20
E, F, G
A, F
CopperNickel
Chromium Sand Cast
NES 824
F, G
A, F, H, K
(contd)
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
Material
Specification
SSC
Shock*
Shock
Fabrication
Service
Remarks
C70
E
A, B, F
Gunmetal Continuous
Cast
E70
E
A, B, F, K
LG2
LG4
13.6
BS 1400
PB1
PB2
PB4
C20
D, E, F, G
A, B, E, K
Phosphor Bronze
Continuous Cast
C20
D, E, F, G
A, B, E, K
BS 1400 SCB4
C20
D, E, F, G
E, K
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
(contd)
NES 738
Issue 2
Corrosion Resistance*
A
B
C
* Note:
(G = General, C = Crevice,
SCC = Stress Corrosion Cracking)
Shock Resistance
A
B
C
D
Fabrication
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
Service Use
A
13.7
Specification
UTS
N/mm2
Mechanical Properties*
0.2% Proof Stress
N/mm2
Elongation %
Izod Joules
NickelAluminium Bronze
Forgings, Forging Stock, Rods and
Sections
650
285
16
24
525
245
20
33
365
260
18
100
BS 2870 CZ112
370
22
BS 2874 CZ112M
370
120
19
40
Plate
BS 2875 CZ112
350
18
420
200
25
500
260
20
450
230
40
40
AluminiumSilicon Bronze
Forgings, Forging Stock, Rods and
Sections
Phosphor Bronze
Rods and Sections (For QA Rods)
Naval Brass
AluminiumNickelSilicon Brass
13.8
350
140
30
55
310
110
30
54
400
140
35
280
280
36
30
310
110
35
57
NES 835
720
420
20
41
35
90/10 Cupro-Nickel
Sheet, Strip, Plate
Forgings, Forging Stock, Rods and
Sections
Tubing
High Strength Cupro-Nickel
Forgings and Rod
Copper
Tubes
NES 837
* The properties shown are typical and are not necessarily as shown in the relevant specifications.
TABLE 13.4 WROUGHT COPPER-BASED ALLOY FOR NAVAL USE
NES 738
Issue 2
Material
Material
Specification
Fabrication*
Fabrication
Service* Use
Service
Remarks
NickelAluminium
Bronze
Forgings, Forging Stock,
Rods and Sections
B
C20
E, F, G
A, B, E, H, I,
K, L
B
C20
E, F, G
A, B, E, I, L
A
C20
D, E, F, G
A, B, F, I, K
B
C50
C
50
D, E, F, G
B, F, L
AluminiumSilicon
Bronze
Forgings, Forging Stock,
Rods and Sections
13.9
Phosphor Bronze
Naval Brass
Sheet and Strip
BS 2870 CZ112
BS 2874 CZ112M
Plate
BS 2875 CZ112
Contd
TABLE 13.5 GUIDE TO THE USE OF WROUGHT COPPER-BASED ALLOYS
NES 738
Issue 2
NES 738
Issue 2
Contd
Material
Specification
Sea Water*
Corrosion
Resistance
G
C
SSC
Shock*
Resistance
Fabrication*
Service* Use
AluminiumNickel
Silicon Brass
13.10
A
B**
B
C50
E**
C, D, E, G
A
B
C20
D, E, F, G
A
B
C20
D, E, F, G
A, F, G
NES 835
A
C20
A, F, H, I, K,
L
Forgings, Forging
Stock, Rods and
Sections.
Tubing
70/30 Cupro-Nickel
Plate and sheet
Forgings, Forging
Stock, Rods and
Sections
Tubings
90/10 Cupro-Nickel
Tubing
High Strength
Cupro-Nickel
Forgings and Rod
Remarks
Suitable for applications
where low magnetic
permeability is a
requirement. In tube
form it is suitable for
hydraulic and HP air
systems. Not
recommended for sea
water systems due to low
impingement resistance
(ie 1.6m/sec.).
In tube form it is
suitable for most
systems iincluding
l di sea
water.
Contd
Material
Sea Water*
Corrosion
Resistance
Specification
Shock*
resistance
SSC
Fabrication*
Service* Use
Remarks
A
B
D, E, F, G
F, G
Copper
Tubes
NES 837
13.11
NES 738
Issue 2
NES 738
Issue 2
13.12
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
14.
14.1
Some of the uses of nickel have already been described in the previous sections.
It is also used as a bond coat for spraying and plating, for alloying in a wide range
of steels including low alloy, stainless and heat resisting steels, and for alloying
in copper-based metals. This section deals with nickel-based alloys where nickel
forms more than 50% of the composition.
b.
There are three nickel-based alloys used in surface ships and submarines. They
are designated in BS 3072 to BS 3076 as NA 13, NA 18 and NA 21 (see
TABLE 14.1), and are also known as of Monel 400, Monel K500, and Inconel
625.
c.
Other nickel-based alloys such as Inconel 718 and various grades of Nimonics
are used in marine gas turbines.
NA 13
a.
14.2
NA 18
a.
14.3
NA 21
a.
14.4
Alloy NA 21 is a heat resistant alloy with a good creep characteristic and a good
resistance to oxidation up to 500 C. Because of its excellent corrosion resistance
it is also used as an alternative to NA 13 and 18 at normal and low temperatures.
It contains 58% nickel, 20% chromium, 8% molybdenum plus small quantities
of iron and niobium. It is used as a weld overlay when very good corrosion and
moderate wear resistance are required.
Corrosion Resistance
a.
Although nickel and nickel-based alloys have excellent corrosion resistance care
must be taken when they are coupled to other metals. The nickel-based alloys
are markedly cathodic in sea water which could lead to corrosion of less noble
connected metalssee Section 20. of this NES.
14.1
Material
NA 13
NA 18
NA 21
Form
Spec
UTS N/mm 2
Elongation %
14.2
BS 3072
480510
195275
2535
Strip
BS 3073
480
195
35
Seamless Tube
BS 3074
480
170380
1535
Wire
BS 3075
480770
2025
Bar
BS 3076
480600
170415
2035
BS 3072
900970
620690
15
Strip
BS 3073
9001170
620900
515
Seamless Tube
BS 3074
900
620
15
Wire
BS 3075
7601240
Bar
BS 3076
8301000
500760
1420
BS 3072
690830
275415
30
Strip
BS 3073
Seamless Tube
BS 3074
690830
275415
30
Wire
BS 3075
Bar
BS 3076
690830
275415
2530
* Properties depend on condition of product, eg cold rolled and annealed, cold worked and stress relieved etc.
TABLE 14.1 WROUGHT NICKEL-BASED ALLOYS FOR NAVAL USE
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
Mechanical Properties*
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
15.
b.
The principal alloying element used in the non-heat-treatable alloys for marine
use is magnesium. Some use is also made of manganese. The heat-treatable
alloys contain silicon and copper in addition to magnesium. Instructions on
welding and fabricating both these types of alloy are contained in NES 706.
c.
One of the main advantages of aluminium alloys is that their density is only one
third that of steel. With strengths approximately half that of steel, good weight
to strength ratios are possible. The other attraction is their generally good
corrosion resistance which is achieved by a tough continuous oxide film which
forms immediately on exposure to air. Resistance to sea water corrosion varies
with alloy composition. Contact with copper alloys in marine conditions results
in serious corrosion.
d.
The properties of aluminium alloys are not affected by very low temperatures
but the alloys do suffer a loss of strength at only moderately high temperatures.
This is a serious drawback in structural use since in the event of fire, strength
decreases at above about 250 C. Additionally their coefficient of heat
conductivity is significantly higher than that of steel leading to a more rapid
spread of fire than in a steel structure.
e.
The modulus of elasticity of aluminium alloys is only one third that of steel,
therefore, under stress they deflect more readily than steel. This can cause
problems in a composite steel and aluminium structure. The large deflection
experienced by aluminium alloys may not be acceptable where alignment of
weapon systems is concerned or for structures where buckling under
compression is possible.
15.1
Spec
Superseded Spec
UTS N/mm 2
0.2% Proof
Stress N/mm 2
Elonga- tion %
BS 1470
5083
275405
125270
416
AlMgMn Extruded
Sections
BS 1474
5083
275280
125130
1114
BS 1470
5251
160275
60175
320
AlMg Tubes
BS 1471 5251
N4
160225
60175
518
AlSiMgMn
Forgings
BS 1472 6082
H30
170310
100270
516
Al
BS 1470 1200
SIC
70150
230
BS 1473 5154A
NR5
215245
AlSi Castings
BS 1490 LM6
160190
57
AlSiMg Castings
BS 1490 LM25
130280
15
15.2
* Properties depend on condition of the material eg, annealed, strain hardened, solution heat treated etc. The properties of cast alloys are
further controlled by the casting process eg, sand cast, chill cast etc (see relevant British Standard).
TABLE 15.1 WROUGHT AND CAST ALUMINIUM ALLOYS FOR NAVAL USE
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
Material
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
16.
TITANIUM
a.
The attraction of titanium and its alloys is their high strength to weight ratio
and their excellent corrosion resistance. Some titanium alloys are equal in
strength to some of the alloy steels; commercially pure titanium approximates
in strength to mild steel with a weight approximately 60% of that of steel. The
modulus of elasticity is low compared with steel and titanium is therefore not
as stiff as steel.
b.
c.
The major disadvantage with titanium is that it is a highly reactive metal with
a notable affinity for oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen and carbon. Quite small
amounts of these elements adversely affect the ductility and toughness of
titanium. The net effect is that titanium is very costly to produce and to
fabricate.
d.
Titanium and its alloys can be welded but the precautions necessary are
rigorous. Chemical cleanliness is required and all air must be excluded from the
weld zone. It can be welded in a vacuum chamber or by the inert gas process with
the addition of a trailing gas shield and a gas backing shield to protect the weld
on cooling.
e.
16.1
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
16.2
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
17.
DAMPING ALLOYS
a.
b.
c.
(1)
(2)
Grey cast iron has good damping capacity but because of its poor shock
performance it is unsuitable for shipboard use. Other commercially available
alloys with high damping capacity are unsuitable in contact with sea water
because of lack of resistance to corrosion.
17.1
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
17.2
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
18.
BEARING ALLOYS
a.
This section covers cast and manufactured bearings. It does not include sprayed
wear-resistant coatings referenced in Clause 8.22a.
b.
c.
(2)
(3)
The ability to absorb foreign particles and prevent damage to the moving
part.
(4)
d.
The majority of bearings used in marine engineering are oil lubricated and the
material best able to meet the requirements listed in Clause 18.c. is white metal.
This is an alloy of tin, antimony, copper, and cadmium, or tin, zinc, and copper
according to usage, see TABLE 18.1.
e.
Other plain bearing materials are used in marine machinery such as the
aluminiumtin alloys which now find widespread use as diesel engine bearings.
Copper-based alloy bearing materials are also used for the applications listed in
TABLE 18.1. For highly loaded slow speed underwater bearings, Crown Metal
is used which is an alloy of copper, zinc, and nickel with small additions of tin
and lead.
f.
(2)
(3)
g.
The thickness of the overlay will range from 0.017mm to 0.075mm depending
on bearing load, type and size. Typical overlay compositions contain lead and
tin sometimes with the addition of a small amount of copper, or an overlay of
lead and indium.
h.
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
Bearings
Specification
Forms Available
Applications
Type I
White Metal
Sn89
Sb7
Cu3
Cd1
Type II
White Metal
Sn68.5
Zn30
Cu1.5
NES 839
Type III
White Metal
Sn90
Sb7
Cu3
NES 839
BS 3332/1
Lead Base
White Metal
Pb74
Sb13
Sn12
Cu1
BS 3332/7
General workshop
plant and machinery
bearings operating
at lower loads and
temperatures.
Phosphor-Bronze
Cu88
Sn10
P0.5
BS 1400 PB1
Machined cast
components
Crown Metal
Cu48
Zn35
Ni15
Pd1
Sn1
NES 836
Machined cast
components
NES 839
BS 3332/1
Underwater grease
lubricated bearings
Solid die castings,
lining of half bearings such as stern tubes.
and bushes, lining of
g
direct housing.
Main bearings of
diesel engines,
marine gearbox
bearings, turbine
bearings, large plant
and machinery
bearings.
Contd
TABLE 18.1 PLAIN BEARING ALLOYS FOR NAVAL USE
18.2
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
Contd
Bearings
Specifications
Forms Available
Applications
CopperLead
Cu70
Pb30
Low tin
Aluminium Alloys
Al92
Sn6
Cu1
Ni1
Cast or rolled
machined
components; lining of
steel-backed
components
High Tin
Aluminium Alloys
Al79
Sn20
Cu1
Heavily loaded
crankshaft bearings
for high speed petrol
and diesel engines,
usually without
overlay. Small end,
rockers, crankshaft,
gearbox, and linkage
bushes, thrust
washers.
Aluminium
Silicon Alloy
Al95
Cd1
Si4
The use of the sintering process, see Clauses 5.6a.5.6b., to produce copper-lead
bearings gives a much more reliable product than the cast version. For small
bearings and bushes of standard sizes sintered bronzes are often used. These can
be made self lubricating by the addition of powdered graphite in the mix to be
sintered or by subsequent impregnation with oil or PTFE. Under wet conditions
graphite may promote corrosion of the journal.
j.
k.
Non-metallic bearing materials such as PTFE and nylon are competing with
metals for many applications. PTFE has the lowest coefficient of friction of any
solid material but it needs strengthening with a filler metal. Both PTFE and
nylon can be reinforced with bronze particles and can function as dry bearings.
18.3
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
18.4
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
19.
MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS
19.1
19.2
a.
b.
The main naval application for SME alloys is the use of Cryofit pipe couplings
manufactured from Tinel which is a nickeltitanium alloy (see NES 797,
Part 2). The coupling assembly consists of a coupling driver manufactured as
a smooth bore cylinder in Tinel, and a coupling liner with annular lands made
from a high strength cupro-nickel. The lands form a hydraulic seal and provide
the mechanical grip when compressed by the driver. After cryogenic cooling the
bore of the driver is mechanically expanded and the liner passed into the drivers
internal bore.
c.
The expanded couplings are stored in liquid nitrogen at 196 C. In use they are
removed and installed in the hydraulic line within 60 secs. As the temperature
of the coupling rises it contracts to its memory shape and firmly joins the
hydraulic lines. The force exerted by the coupling is considerable and the joint
is completed at a temperature below 54 C. After inspection couplings are
protected from corrosion by a heat shrink plastic sleeve.
d.
Another shape memory alloy, SME brass, is now used in thermostatic control
units. This is a copperzincaluminium alloy and the energy output from the
device is considerably greater than that from a bimetallic strip.
Lead
Form
Wrought
Castings
Zinc
Costings
Naval Use
Resistant to sulphuric acid and used in lead-acid
battery maintenance spaces.
Used as screening against radiation in particular areas
of nuclear submarines. Finds use in certain parts of
Naval Diving Equipment, eg weighted boots. Coated
with PVC and used as ballast.
Used as protective coatings for steel parts in marine
atmospheres.
19.1
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
19.2
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
20.
CORROSION
20.1
Mechanisms of Corrosion
a.
20.2
The term corrosion is generally applied wherever a metal is attacked and wasted
by its environment. The attack can be caused by direct chemical action or by
galvanic action. The former may be initiated by chlorides, sulphides or, more
commonly, by oxygen. This form of corrosion between a metal and a corroding
agent results in the formation of a non-metallic compound, eg metal oxide. The
speed of the process increases with rise in temperature, for example the scaling
of steel at red heat. The bulk of corrosion at atmospheric temperatures is,
however, caused by bimetallic corrosion.
Bimetallic Corrosion
a.
b.
If two dissimilar metals are placed in sea water but not electrically connected
then galvanic action will not occur. Both metals would be slightly attacked by
direct chemical action. If the metals are electrically connected then the anodic
metal will corrode rapidly and the cathodic metal will be protected.
c.
The rate of corrosion will depend on factors such as, ratio of areas of anode to
cathode, water speed, temperature, alkalinity/acidity (pH of the water) but
mainly on the difference in electrical potential of the two metals. The relative
position of a pair of metals in TABLE 20.1 shows whether a corrosion problem
exists or not and whether an alternative choice of metal could sensibly be made.
Where an alternative is not possible then consideration is to be given to
insulating the metals from one another. The relative surface areas of anode and
cathode have a major effect on the rate of corrosion. Thus a small anodic area
coupled to a large cathodic area will result in rapid corrosion of the former.
d.
Galvanic corrosion can also occur at local positions within a plate or pipe
without a second metal being present. The cause of this local corrosion may be
one of the following:
(1)
20.1
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
20.2
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
20.3
20.4
(2)
the presence of impurities in the metal surface which are part of the
microstructure and are anodic or cathodic to the metallic matrix.
Impurities are often segregated at crystal boundaries and can give rise to
intercrystalline corrosion;
(3)
variation in the mechanical condition of the metal due to the local working
or heating that it has received, eg welding, cold bending. This can give rise
to local differences of potential;
(4)
(5)
(6)
b.
Protective Films
a.
Some metals owe their corrosion resistance to the formation of an oxide film on
their surface. Aluminium has a high affinity for oxygen and produces a dense
and impervious oxide film which protects the metal underneath from further
attack. Similarly, metallic chromium and stainless steels owe their protection
to a film of chromium oxide which forms readily under oxidizing conditions.
b.
The extent to which an oxide film will protect the metal beneath depends on:
(1)
the nature and continuity of the film and how effectively it bonds to the
metal beneath. Porous films offer poor protection. Films that are not
tightly adhering can result in progressive corrosion of the metal
underneath;
(2)
the mobility of metal and non-metal ions within the oxide film. Iron at
high temperatures will continue to oxidize even though coated with an
oxide skin.
20.3
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
20.5
20.6
20.7
b.
Crevice Corrosion
a.
Crevice corrosion occurs when a thin film of electrolyte is trapped between two
closely contacting surfaces. Although the gap may be very small, the electrolyte
is drawn in by capillary action and remains there to become stagnant. Two
forms of corrosion may then occur. Lack of dissolved oxygen in the crevice will
prevent the repair of surface oxide films on which some metals depend for their
corrosion resistance, see Clause 20.4a. The second form of attack occurs because
the non-uniform distribution of oxygen produces a concentration cell giving rise
to galvanic action. By the first method corrosion takes place over the creviced
area and by the second method corrosion occurs near the edge of the crevice.
b.
Crevice attack can, therefore, occur where items are in close contact in an
electrolyte. Examples are bolted flanges and pump spindles in way of packing,
but it can also occur under any crevice-forming object, such as loose scale, loose
paint, or other deposit.
Impingement Corrosion
a.
One of the factors that influence the rate of corrosion is the nature of the flow
of liquid over the corroding metal. Corrosion takes place more readily where
fresh liquid is continually available either by turbulence or simply by rate of
flow. This may result from the application of fresh oxygenated liquid itself or
by the removal of corrosion products or protective films from the metal surface.
Accelerated corrosion due to the continual removal of protective corrosion
product films is called impingement corrosion.
b.
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
c.
20.8
20.9
Cavitation
a.
b.
Removal of the protective oxide film by cavitation can give rise to an accelerated
form of attack by cavitation corrosion by a similar mechanism to impingement
corrosion described in Clause 20.7b.
20.10
Pitting
a.
Many metals which suffer little or no overall corrosion in sea water are often
susceptible to deep pitting. All forms of pitting are caused by the same basic
mechanism which follows when a local void occurs in the protective surface film
and a galvanic cell is set up. The absence of the protective film may be due to
its non-uniform distribution when formed during the process of corrosion, or
more usually the local destruction of the film. Local destruction of the film can
occur from a variety of causes some of which were listed in Clause 20.2d. and
include:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
20.11
20.12
Sea water systems are particularly at risk in harbours and estuaries where the
waters are polluted by sewage and organic industrial wastes. Oxygen is depleted
and hydrogen sulphides formed. Copper alloys can develop sulphide films which
are cathodic to the metal. If this film is damaged or destroyed locally exposing
bare metal rapid corrosion will occur due to the large cathode-to-anode ratio.
Special attention must be paid to newly constructed systems and repaired
systems which have not developed their full protective oxide film. Instructions
on the chemical protection of new sea water systems is given in NES 781.
20.6
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
21.
CATHODIC PROTECTION
a.
21.1
21.2
b.
Materials
a.
21.3
A carefully balanced zinc alloy which corrodes evenly at a steady rate is used for
sacrificial anodes fitted to ships. A magnesium alloy is used on some commercial
vessels because of its higher driving voltage but this can damage some types of
paintwork unless fitted remote from the structure being protected. It is used,
however, to protect naval ships fitting out by being suspended away from the
hull. Aluminium alloy anodes are also used for special applications.
ICCP systems are used on most frigates, larger ships and nuclear submarines
to protect the underwater hull surface. Lead alloy or platinized titanium anodes
fitted on and insulated from the hull surface are wired to a control unit.
Reference electrodes mounted on the hull monitor the hull potential and the
current to the anodes is controlled to maintain the set voltage required.
Sacrificial anodes are also needed within deep recesses, such as sea tubes and
inside ballast tanks and free-flood spaces of submarines.
b.
c.
Ships fitted with ICCP systems are coated with a coal tar epoxy (cte) paint in
accordance with NES 760 or NES 774. The conventional paints with an
oleo-resinous base are unsuitable for the alkaline conditions usually present
when ICCP is in use.
21.1
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
21.2
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
22.
22.1
22.2
22.3
MARINE FOULING
a.
Plant and animal organisms abound in the sea, and in order to complete their
life style, some need to attach themselves to a firm base. Their adherence to the
hulls of ships results in a roughened surface causing increased resistance to
water flow thus decreasing top speed and increasing fuel consumption. The
settling of organisms within sea water systems likewise increases resistance to
flow, can cause blockage and excessive water velocities in their vicinity and
deposits can initiate crevice corrosion of many alloys. Much of the fouling in sea
water systems is in the form of dead material trapped in the system.
b.
Marine fouling may be divided into hard and soft growths. The main hard
growths are mussels, calcareous tube worms and barnacles, the latter being the
dominant species in many parts of the world. The soft growths are algae,
hydroids, kelps and sponges. All of the above may be described as macro-fouling
organisms; there are in addition the micro-organisms which are soft growths
and consist of fungi and bacteria.
Algae prefer some daylight and settle on ships hulls near the waterline where
they are responsible for the so called grass. The hard shelled animal species,
calcareous tube worms and barnacles tend to settle in greater numbers further
down the hull. Mussels are not a major problem on the bottom of active ships
since they are quickly swept away at speed.
b.
Mussels are the worst offenders in sea water systems although barnacles and
hydroids are frequent colonizers. Hydroids often settle in great numbers in the
end boxes of heat exchangers. Barnacles attach themselves in heat exchanger
tubes. Fouling by any of these organisms can reduce the heat transfer efficiency
of heat exchangers and condensers and they can cause complete blockage of
tubes. Much of the fouling is caused by dead organisms trapped in the systems.
b.
Fungi and bacteria are micro-organisms which require organic carbon to feed
on and they will attack many carbon-based materials. Acidic by-products of the
attack can lead to corrosion and pitting of metals. Some of the problems caused
by fouling by bacteria and fungi are:
(1)
(2)
(3)
problems can occur with fungal growth in aviation fuel. The problem can
be contained by keeping the fuel as dry as possible and by increased
cleanliness in storage;
22.1
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
(4)
dieso fuel for gas turbines is required to be of higher purity than that
previously used. Additional water removal equipment is required plus fine
filtration; the growth of micro-organisms has led to considerable
problems in blockage of filters and clogging of coalescers; water coalescing
action is also reduced by the production of surface-active materials; the
net effect is reduction in turbine power and loss of operational efficiency;
(5)
22.2
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
23.
ANTIFOULING METHODS
a.
Antifouling paints are the only practical means at present of reducing fouling
of the outer bottom. The paints contain materials that are poisonous to the
fouling organisms and are generally based on cuprous oxide. The erodable
antifouling paints employ a combination of tributyl tin and zinc or copper
oxides.
b.
Sea water systems may be protected by a number of methods but at present only
the Cathelco system has been introduced in the Royal Navy. Other measures
under investigation are copper dosing and chlorination. The method in each
case is as follows:
(1)
(2)
(3)
23.1
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
23.2
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
24.
b.
c.
d.
Special problems may also arise in other high temperature components such as
diesel engine exhausts and exhaust ducts of gas turbines. Materials such as
Inconel 625 may be necessary for the inboard diesel exhaust systems in
submarines with other lower alloyed special stainless steels for the outboard
systems. Gas turbine exhaust ducts and uptakes may contain some Inconel 625
components but in the main austenitic stainless steel, BS 970, Grade 316S12
has proved adequate.
24.1
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
24.2
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
25.
FRETTING CORROSION
a.
This type of corrosion arises where two metal surfaces in tight contact are
subject to a small relative movement such as might occur with vibration. Actual
points of contact that exist between the mating surfaces are broken off during
the relative movement and debris is accumulated in the spaces between the
points of contact. The exposed chafed metal oxidizes.
b.
When oxidation occurs on stationary surfaces in air the oxide film thickens and
at ordinary temperatures retards the rate of corrosion. In the case of fretting
corrosion the relative movement raises the temperature and the oxide film is
rubbed off exposing fresh metal. Retardation is never realized and the rate of
corrosion can be high. The oxide itself can also act as an abrasive.
c.
25.1
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
25.2
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
26.
LUBRICATING OILS
a.
26.1
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
26.2
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
ANNEX A.
RELATED DOCUMENTS
A.1
9.1a.
BS EN 10 045.1
9.4a.
BS 131
BS 970
9.4a.
9.4a.
9.13c.
TABLE 11.2
TABLE 10.2
TABLE 11.2
BS 1400
BS 1452
BS 1470
BS 1471
BS 1472
BS 1473
TABLE 15.1
BS 1474
TABLE 15.1
A.1
TABLE 15.1
ANNEX A.
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
BS 1490
TABLE 15.1
BS 1503
TABLE 10.3
BS 2789
BS 2870
BS 2874
BS 2875
BS 3059
BS 3072
BS 3073
BS 3074
BS 3075
BS 3076
BS 3100
BS 3332
BS 3468
BS 3602
and nickel
and nickel
TABLE 14.1
and nickel
TABLE 14.1
and nickel
TABLE 14.1
and nickel
TABLE 11.3
TABLE 10.2
TABLE 18.1
TABLE 12.1
ANNEX A.
A.2
TABLE 10.1
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
BS 4844
BS 5447
BS 5762
9.12b.
BS 6681
12.e., 12.f.,
TABLE 12.1
6.1c.
8.22a.
Electro-deposition of tin
8.15a.
8.16a.
8.15a.
8.20a.
8.15a.
8.15a.
ASTM E813
9.12b.
NES 704
21.a.
NES 706
NES 719
NES 729
NES 736
21.a.
9.18a.
9.18a.
9.18a.
Part 5: Ultrasonic
9.18a.
21.a.
21.a.
21.a.
4.3h. 6.1b. 6.1c.
6.2b. 6.3a., 15.b.
20.7b.
9.18a.
TABLE 10.1
Part 2: Forgings
TABLE 10.3
TABLE 10.4
A.3
ANNEX A.
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
NES 745
NES 747
13.c.
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
13.1 and
13.2
13.1 and
13.2
13.1 and
13.2
NES 749
NES 770
NES 779
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
20.12a.
NES 781
NES 791
ANNEX A.
A.4
13.4 and
13.5
13.4 and
13.5
TABLE 10.1
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
TABLE 10.1
TABLE 10.1
Pipework Engineering
19.1b.
CopperNickelChromium Sand
Castings and Ingots
Part 1: Production Requirements
TABLE 13.2
NES 831
TABLE 15.1
NES 833
NES 835
NES 836
TABLE 18.1
NES 834
NES 837
13.c.
NES 838
NES 839
TABLE 18.1
NES 848
TABLE 10.3
TABLE 10.3
NES 849
NES 380
A.5
TABLE 10.4
ANNEX A.
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
NES 380
TABLE 10.3
DGS 6017
TABLE 10.3
DGS 6019
(*NES 381)
TABLE 10.3
DGS 6022
TABLE 10.3
DGS 6142
TABLE 10.2
ANNEX A.
A.6
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
ANNEX B.
DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS
B.1
Anisotropy
Air Hardening
Artificial Ageing
Ceramics
Cermets
Cold Working
Critical Points
Deoxidation (steel)
Ductility
Elastic Strain Energy
B.1
ANNEX B.
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
EMP
Forging Burst
Grain Structure
Hardenability
HAZ
Homogeneous Alloy
Hot Shortness
Intermetallic Compound
Ion
Ionization
Isotropic
Internal Stress
Killed Steel
Malleability
Nimonics
ANNEX B.
Noble Potential
Notch Sensitivity
Passivation
B.2
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
Phase (metallic)
Plasticity
Quench Cracks
Recrystallization
Reference Electrode
Residual Stress
Ruling Section
Segregation
Strain Hardening
Solid Solution
Stress Concentration Factor The ratio of the maximum stress due to a notch to
the mean stress which would exist in the absence
of the notch.
Temper Brittleness
TREE
Vapour Pressure
Work Hardening
B.3
ANNEX B.
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
ANNEX B.
B.4
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
ALPHABETICAL INDEX
A
Abrasion, 3.3
Aluminium alloy, exfoliation of, 20.5
Aluminium and aluminium alloys, 15.1, 15.2, 15.3
Aluminium silicon bronze, 13.4, 13.7, 13.9, 13.12
Anelastic damping, 17.1
Annealing, 7.1
Anodizing, 8.4
Antifouling methods, 23.1
Austenitic stainless steel, 11.1
B
Bacterial fouling, 22.1
Bearing alloys, 18.1, 18.3
Beryllium copper, 13.1
Bonderizing, 8.4
Brittle fracture, 4.1, 4.2
Bulge explosion tests, 9.4, 9.5
INDEX.1
INDEX
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
C
Calorizing, 8.4
Carbide precipitation in stainless steel, 11.3
Carbon steels, 10.1
Carbon-nitriding, 8.2
Carburizing, 8.1
gas, 8.1
liquid, 8.1
pack, 8.1
Carburizing v nitriding, 8.2
Cast irons, 12.1
ductile iron, 12.1
for naval use, 12.1
grey iron, 12.1
SNG, 12.1
Cast metals, 5.1
Castings, advantages and disadvantages, 5.2
Cathodic protection, 21.1
impressed current, 21.1
sacrificial anode, 21.1
Cavitation, 20.5
Centrifugal casting, 5.1
Charpy test, 9.3
Chip forming, in machining, 6.2
Chromium plating, 8.3
Clad metals, 5.4
Cleanness, material, 9.10, 9.11
Coatings
electroplated, 8.3
hot dipped, 8.3
Cold forming, 6.1
Cold working, 5.3
Continuous casting, 5.1
Copper and copper alloys, 13.1, 13.12
Corrosion, 3.5, 3.6, 4.5, 20.1
cavitation, 20.5
crevice, 20.4
estuarine waters, 20.6
fatigue, 3.5
fretting, 25.1
galvanic, 20.1
hot gas, 24.1
hot spot, 20.5
impingement, 20.4
lubricating oils, 26.1
mechanism of, 20.1
pitting, 20.5
protective films, 20.3
selective phase, 20.3, 20.4
surface films, 20.3
Crack arrest tests, 9.5
Creep, 3.4, 9.11
Crevice corrosion of stainless steel, 11.2, 11.3
Cupro-nickel, 13.9, 13.12
INDEX
INDEX.2
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
D
Damping alloys, 17.1
Damping capacity of metals, 3.1
Die casting, 5.1
Drop weight test, 9.4
Duplex stainless steels, 11.2
Dye Penetrant, 9.13
E
Eddy current, 9.12
Elastic constants, 3.1
Elastic limit, 3.1
Elastic modulus, 3.1
Electroless plating, 8.4
Electroplated coatings, 8.3
Elongation in tensile test, 3.1
Environmental conditions, 2.1
Estuarine waters, corrosion, 20.6
Exfoliation of aluminium alloys, 20.5
Extrusion, 5.3
F
Failure, modes of, 4.1
Fatigue, 3.5, 4.3, 4.4
Fatigue limit, 9.11
Ferromagnetism, 3.1
Flame hardening, 7.2
Forging, 5.3
Forming
cold, 6.1
hot, 6.1
Fouling, 22.1
by bacteria and fungi, 22.1
marine, 22.1
of sea water systems, 22.1
outer bottom, 22.1
Fracture mechanics test, 9.7, 9.8, 9.10
G
Gas carburizing, 8.1
Gunmetal, continuous cast, 13.1
Gunmetal, 13.4, 13.7
INDEX.3
INDEX
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
H
Harbour and estuarine waters, corrosion, 20.6
Hardening
flame, 7.2
induction, 7.2
precipitation, 7.2, 7.3
surface, 8.1
Hardness, 3.3, 9.2
Heading, upset forging, 5.3
Heat treatments, 7.1
Hot dipped coatings, 8.3
Hot forming, 6.1
Hot gas corrosion, 24.1
Hot pressing, 5.3
Hysteretic damping, 17.1
I
Impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP), 21.1
Inconel, 14.2
Inconel 625, 14.1
Inconel 718, 14.1
Induction hardening, 7.2
Interrupted quenching, 7.1
Investment casting, 5.1
Ion nitriding, 8.2
Ion plating, 8.4
Isothermal crack arrest test, 9.5
Izod test, 9.3
J
J-integral, 4.5, 9.8
L
Lead, 19.1
Limit of proportionality, 3.1
Liquid carburizing, 8.1
Low alloy steels, 10.2
Low energy ductile tearing, 4.5
INDEX
INDEX.4
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
M
Machining, 6.2
Magnetic particle testing, 9.12
Magnetic permeability, 3.1
Marine fouling, 22.1
Mechanical testing of metals, 9.1
Metal processes, 5.1
Metal spraying, 8.5
Modulus of rigidity, 3.1
Monel 400, 14.1, 14.2
Monel K 500, 14.1, 14.2
N
Naval brass, 13.4, 13.7, 13.9, 13.12
Nickelaluminium bronze, 13.4, 13.7, 13.9, 13.12
Nickel and nickel alloys, 14.1, 14.2, 14.3
Nickel plating, 8.3
Nitriding, 8.2
Nitriding v carburizing, 8.2
Non-destructive examination, 9.12
Normalizing, 7.1
Notch toughness, 3.3, 3.4
Notch toughness tests, 9.3
O
Outer bottom fouling, 22.1
P
Pack carburizing, 8.1
Paramagnetism, 3.1
Parkerizing, 8.4
Phosphating, 8.4
Phosphor bronze, 13.4, 13.7, 13.9, 13.12
Phosphor bronze, continuous cast, 13.1
Pitting corrosion, 20.5
Plastic collapse, 4.1
Poissons ratio, 3.1
Powder metallurgy, 5.3, 5.4
Precipitation hardening, 7.2, 7.3, 15.1
Proof stress, definition, 3.1
Q
Quality assurance, 9.13
Quenching, 7.1
Quenching, interrupted, 7.1
INDEX.5
INDEX
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
R
Radiography, 9.12
Reduction of area in tensile test, 3.1
S
Sacrificial anode system, 21.1
Sand casting, 5.1
Selecting metals for use, 3.6, 3.8
Shape memory effect (SME) alloys, 19.1
Shear properties, 3.1
Shell moulding, 5.1
Sheradizing, 8.4
Sintering, 5.3
Sintering, to produce bearings, 18.3
Solution treatment, 7.2, 7.3
Spinning, 6.1
Stainless steels, 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 11.5
austenitic, 11.1
carbide precipitation, 11.3
corrosion resistance, 11.2, 11.3
duplex (austenitic ferritic), 11.2
ferritic, 11.1
for naval use, 11.5
in stress corrosion cracking, 11.3
martensitic, 11.1
precipitation hardening, 11.2
Steel
carbon, 10.1
for carburizing, 8.1
for Naval use, 10.2
for nitriding, 8.2
stainless, 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 11.5
Stress
corrosion, 3.6, 4.5
relaxation, 3.4
relief, 7.2
rupture, 9.11
Sulphanizing, 8.2
Surface
coatings, 8.2
hardening, 8.1
treatment, 8.1
INDEX
INDEX.6
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
T
Tensile properties, 3.1, 9.1
Tensile test, 9.1, 9.2
Test
bulge explosion, 9.4, 9.5
Charpy, 9.3
corrosion fatigue, 9.11
crack arrest, 9.5
drop weight, 9.4
dynamic tear, 9.6
fatigue, 9.11
fracture mechanics, 9.7, 9.8
isothermal crack arrest, 9.5
of metallic materials, 9.1
stress corrosion cracking, 9.12
welding and brazing, 9.12
wide plate, 9.5
Titanium, 16.1
Toxicity of metals, 3.8
Tufftriding, 8.2
U
Ultrasonics, 9.12
Upset forging, 5.3
W
Welding and brazing tests, 9.12
Weldments, shaping, 6.1
White metal bearings, 18.3
Wide plate test, 9.5
Working processes, 5.3
Wrought metals, 5.2
Z
Zinc, 19.1
Zinc plating, 8.3
INDEX.7
INDEX
NES 738
Issue 2 (Reformatted)
INDEX
INDEX.8