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INTRODUCCIN a la LENGUA INGLESA

MDULO de GRAMTICA
INGLESA

Mgtr. Mara Fernanda Casares


Prof. Mara del Rosario Tartaglia
Prof. Roco Albornoz

ILI - GRAMMAR MODULE - CONTENTS


WORD CATEGORIES:

(1)

a) pronouns
- personal subjective and objective
- demonstrative
- indefinite
- reflexive
- interrogative
b) determiners
- possessive
- general / indefinite
- definite
- demonstrative
c) nouns
-

grammatical properties: number

d) adjectives
grammatical properties: invariability, formation of comparative
and superlative forms
- position and order
e) quantifiers
-

(2)

VERB TYPES:

a) Auxiliaries: DO HAVE - BE (in progressive forms and in passive


structures)
b) Modals
c) Link verbs: V+AP; V+NP; V+PP
d) Transitive verbs: V+NP; V+Clause
e) Intransitive verbs
f) Prepositional verbs
g) Phrasal verbs (transitive and intransitive)
(3)

GRAMMATICAL FUNCTIONS:
a) subject, predicate
b) head, complement, modifier

(4)

WORD ORDER IN STATEMENTS AND IN QUESTIONS

(5)

IMPERATIVES

(6)

VERB FORMS IN REPORTED SPEECH

Students will be expected to :


-

Identify and classify word categories.

Classify verbs according to the type of complements they select.

Identify the typical grammatical functions of phrases within a


sentence.

Students will be initiated in syntactic argumentation.

Evaluation :
-

2 (tw0) mid-term exams

Attendance : 75%

A) THE IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENTS OF A SENTENCE:


SUBJECT and PREDICATE
A sentence is an independent structure; it is not part of a larger unit. The
minimal structure of a sentence is made up of two main parts or constituents:

The subject: It denotes the most important participant in the event


described by the verb and it represents what the sentence is about.

The predicate: It generally contains a verb which describes an event.

(1) SUBJECT [My children] PREDICATE [have studied English].


The subject of the sentence precedes the verb and it agrees in number and
person with it. It is obligatory and explicit in finite sentences in English.
Compare:
(2) Peter is sleeping. *Is sleeping.
Pedro est durmiendo. Est durmiendo.

(3) It is raining. *Is raining.


Est lloviendo.
The subject in (3) is realized by an expletive pronoun which has no meaning.
Even though this pronoun is semantically empty, it is an obligatory constituent
in this type of sentences in English, because it must fulfil a syntactic function:
subject.
What follows the subject is what is said about it. The structure that follows the
subject is the predicate. The predicate contains a verb as in (4) - or verbal
group as in (5) and (6). This verb or verbal group may appear alone or be
followed by other phrases.
(4) Mary goes to her office by bus every Monday.
(5) Paul is working.
(6) Paul has studied English for ten years.

B) GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES WORD CLASSES

Words can be grouped according to the characteristics they have in common


into the following classes:

CATEGORY
NOUNS

MAIN CHARACTERISTICS
They inflect for number: singular and plural.

EXAMPLES
cat, dog, house

PRONOUNS

They replace nominal structures.

she, him, nobody

DETERMINERS

They precede and specify nouns.

the, this, my

QUANTIFIERS

They precede and quantify nouns.

ADJECTIVES

ADVERBS

VERBS

PREPOSITIONS

They modify nouns or they can be placed after


link verbs.

They modify verbs or sentences.

many, two, first, each

happy, short,
important

quickly, immediately

Full

They appear on their own in the


predicate.

study, live, smell,


write, know

Auxiliaries

They precede other verbs. They


cant appear on their own. They
are used to form questions and
negative sentences.

be, have, do

Modals

They express modality: ability,


obligation, suggestion, etc. They
precede other verbs.

must, can, should,


will

They relate entities. They typically take a NP


complement.

in, on, under, with

Table 1: Typical characteristics of word classes

1. NOUNS
Nouns may be preceded by determiners (i-ii) and quantifiers (iii-iv). These
words specify the nouns they precede.
i. the cat ii. that boy
iii. some flowers iv. three students
Nouns can also be preceded by adjectives, for example difficult, strong,
abdominal. Adjectives qualify or classify the nouns they precede (v-vi).
v. beautiful girls vi. financial help
Grammatical Properties of Nouns: Number
Most nouns inflect for number, they have the grammatical property of forming
the plural by the addition of the suffix s: cat  cats. These nouns are regular
nouns. However there is a group of nouns which do not take -s to form the
plural. There is a change in the form of the word: mouse-mice, tooth-teeth,
louse-lice child-children. These nouns are called irregular nouns. Some nouns
have the same form for the singular and for the plural: sheep, fish. These nouns
are called invariable nouns.
RULE

SINGULAR

PLURAL

N  -s

table
boy

tables
boys

N ending in ch, sh, s, ss or o  -es

church
brush
bus
class
tomato

churches
brushes
buses
classes
tomatoes

N ending in y (preceded by a consonant)  -ies

party
family

parties
families

N ending in f /fe  -ves

knife
leaf
life

knives
leaves
lives

Internal vowel change

mouse
tooth
woman

mice
teeth
women

A different word

person
child

people
children

Invariable

sheep
fish

sheep
fish

Table 2 Rules to form Plural Nouns

2. DETERMINERS
Determiners precede and specify nouns. Words like the, my, this, a/an, belong
to this group: the book, my dictionary, this article, his pencil.
In some grammars, especially older school grammars, words such as my and
this in phrases like my family and this dictionary are called adjectives because
they are placed in front of nouns. However, it is easy to show that this is wrong.
Adjectives can be placed one after the other, as in: I have an old fat brown
dog, but this is impossible with determiners: *this my book.
Whats more, determiners have no comparative or superlative forms (*this-er /
*this-est, *my-er / *my-est) and cannot be preceded by a degree adverb (*very
the / *very a). The conclusion we are led to is that this and my belong to a
separate word class called determiners.

3. QUANTIFIERS
We use quantifiers to indicate the quantity of something. Words such as some,
any, another, other, all, both, either, each, every, etc. belong to this class. The
traditional cardinal adjectives such as: one, two, three, and ordinals such as
first, second, third, next, last also belong to this class. Like determiners,
quantifiers may also precede nouns.
Quantifiers and the number of the noun they follow
Some quantifiers are followed by nouns in the singular:
another: It is used to talk about an additional person or thing.
Do you want another cup of coffee?
each: It is used to talk about the members of a group as individuals.
Each essay must have its title.
either: It is used to talk about two things, but usually indicates that only one of
the two is involved.
You can use either chair.
every: It is used to express a general statement about the members of a group.
Every boy in the club should bring sport clothes.
much: It is used with uncountable nouns.
Do you drink much coffee?

Some quantifiers are followed by nouns in the plural:


all: It includes every person or thing of a particular kind.
All students must sit for the written assignment.
both: It is used to say something about two people or things.
I need both suitcases.
many: It is used to refer to more than one entity. It is used with countable
nouns.
She has many friends.
other: It is used to refer to something not already named or implied.
You can buy other books.
Some quantifiers are followed by either nouns in the plural or uncountable
nouns:
any: It refers to the quantity of something which may or may not exist.
There arent any tomatoes. Is there any sugar in that cup?
no: It indicates that there is a lack of something.
I have no money. There are no chairs in the classroom.
some: It indicates that there are a number of things or people.
some books, some students or a quantity of something: some rice,
some cheese.

SINGULAR OR PLURAL?
+sing noun

+pl noun

+pl or uncount
noun

another

all

any

each

both

no

either

many

some

every

other

much (+uncount N)

QUANTIFIER

Table 3 Combination of Quantifiers and Nouns

4. PRONOUNS
The bracketed nominal structures in (7) can be replaced by pronouns as shown
in (8):
(7) [The teacher] told [the students] that [her husband] had bought [a new car].
(8) She

told

them

that

he

had bought

it.

Pronouns appear on their own, i.e. they do not precede nouns (Cf. determiners).
They belong to a fixed set made up of a finite number of members.
Types of Pronouns
a. Personal pronouns refer to the first, second and third person in the discourse,
singular or plural. They can occupy two positions: subject and object (after a
verb or after a preposition). According to the place they occupy in the sentence,
personal pronouns are sub classified into:
i. Subjective pronouns occupy the subject position.
I study Linguistics.

I 1st person singular

You are making a great effort.

you  2nd pers sing or pl

He / She / It doesnt like milk.

he/she/it  3rd pers sing

We are preparing a party.

we  1st person plural

They will go to London next month.

they  3rd person plural

ii. Objective pronouns are placed after a verb or after a preposition.


Why is she looking at me?

me 1st person singular

He will give you the book I recommend.

you  2nd pers sing or pl

I have bought a new cup for him / her / it.

him/her/it  3rd per sing

They are waiting for us.

us  1st person plural

You have to put them on that desk.

them  3rd person plural

b. Possessive pronouns indicate possession.


This book is mine / yours / hers / his / ours / theirs.
c. Demonstrative pronouns are used to point out a person or a thing.
Look at that!
Listen to this.
These are my books.
Please, give me those.
d. Reflexive pronouns are used when the subject and the object of the action are
the same.
I hurt myself.
She saw herself in the mirror.
We enjoyed ourselves very much.
e. Interrogative pronouns introduce a question.
Whos knocking at the door?
Where are you going?
When are you coming?
g. Indefinite pronouns are used when the person or thing referred to is not
defined: every, some, any, no, + body, one, thing:
Somebody is knocking at the door.
She likes nobody.
Is there anything in the fridge?
Everything was understood.
I dont know anyone in this city.
Everyone heard the fight.
i. the expletive pronouns It and There: When the pronoun it is used to make
a statement about the weather or time, it has no meaning. This pronoun is the
subject of the sentence as this position cannot be left empty in English.
Its raining.

Its Monday.

Its two oclock.

The pronoun there is used to show that someone or something exists.


Theres someone at the door.

There are three books on this shelf.

5. ADJECTIVES

Adjectives precede and modify nouns: a beautiful girl, short answers, a hopeless
situation, an old car, etc. They are invariable, i.e. they do not inflect for plural.
A tall boy
singular N

Tall boys
plural N

Adjectives are used to describe nouns, they give information about qualities or
classes/types of these nouns, and they answer the question What is it like?
(Cmo es algo?).
Adjectives typically occupy two positions in English: they precede nouns or
they follow link verbs (such as be).
(9) He had rich parents.
attributive adjective (before a N)

(10) Martin Parkmen is rich. (predicative adjective)


link verb + predicative adjective

Adjectives which describe a quality have comparative and superlative forms, e.g.
darker, darkest. The comparative form of an adjective indicates a greater
extent to which the normal form of the adjective applies, while the superlative
form indicates the maximal extent, e.g. bigbiggerbiggest. The forms good
betterbest and bad worse worst are exceptional.
Some adjectives form comparatives and superlatives analytically. This means
that there is no single word-form for the comparative and superlative. Instead,
the words more/less and most/least are used. The general rule is that adjectives
with two or more syllables take analytical comparative and superlative forms:
beautiful, eager, hopeless, interesting, practical, etc.
(11) Some books are more interesting than others.
(12) Those grammar exercises are the most difficult ones.

10

The Order of Adjectives


Adjectives which describe a quality precede those which describe a class:
soft

classical music

QUALITY

TYPE

a new

round table

QUALITY

TYPE

6. VERBS
A verb is a word which refers to an action or a state.
(13) Susan works in a supermarket.  action
(14) The students know the answer.  mental state
Verb forms
A full verb may appear in different forms. The following chart illustrates that:
INFINITIVE
with TO

BARE
INFINITIVE

PAST

(after
modals)

PRESENT
PARTICIPLE
(in progressive
tenses)

PAST
PARTICIPLE
(in perfect
tenses)

study
(reg)

to study

study

studied

studying

studied

see
(irreg)

to see

see

saw

seeing

seen

Table 4: verb forms

Verbs can be classified into: auxiliaries, modals and main.


a. Auxiliaries
There are three auxiliary verbs in English: be, do and have. These are used to
form verb tenses (continuous/progressive and perfect) questions and negative
sentences or to express emphasis. Auxiliary verbs can never appear alone in a
sentence, that is, without a main verb. They always precede another verb.
Auxiliaries carry grammatical information about number, person and tense.

11

For example, in Peter is working, the auxiliary is carries information about


number: singular, person: third and tense: present. Auxiliary verbs can also be
negated and inverted to form questions.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AUXILIARY VERBS


1. They precede another verb.

Paul is working.

2. They carry grammatical information

Paul is working. is singular, third

(number, person and tense).

person, present

3. They can be negated.

Paul is not / isnt working.

4. They can be inverted (precede the

Is Paul working?

subject) to form questions.


Table 5 - Auxiliaries

BE (am, is, are, was or were)


This auxiliary is used to form continuous tenses and passive structures. The
verb they combine with may be in the ing form for continuous tenses or in the
past participle form for passive structures.
(15) I am talking to you.  am: 1st person, singular, present + -ing form
(16) The letter was written.  was: 3rd person, singular, past + -en form
HAVE (has or had)
This auxiliary is used to form perfect tenses. The verb they combine with is
always in the past participle form.
(17) Paul has finished his homework.  3rd person, singular, present
(18) I had already written the composition.  1st person, singular, past
DO (does or did)
This auxiliary is used to form negative sentences, questions and emphatic
statements. The main verb they combine with is always in the base form. The
auxiliary do precedes the negative particle:
(19) I dont study.  1st person, singular, present
(20) He doesnt study.  3rd person, singular, present
(21) We didnt study.  1st person, plural, past
12

It also precedes the subject in questions:


(22) Do you study?  2nd person, singular/plural, present
(23) Does she study?  3rd person, singular, present
(24) Did they study?  3rd person, plural, past

It precedes the main verb in emphatic structures and the main verb is in the
base form:
(25) A: I didnt offer you chocolate because I thought you didnt like it.
B: But I do like chocolate.  1st person, singular, present
(26) A: You didnt come to the party.
B: I did come but nobody answered the door!  1st person, singular, past

The auxiliaries be and have are used to form tenses. They can be combined to
form compound tenses as well. The following chart illustrates continuous and
perfect tenses:

Present continuous

I am studying English now.


He is studying English now.
They are studying English now.

Past continuous

I was studying English at that moment.


They were studying English at that moment.

Present perfect

I have studied English for three years.


He has studied English for three years.

Past perfect

I had studied English for three years.

Present perfect continuous

I have been studying English for three years.

Past perfect continuous

I had been studying for three years.

Table 5 Auxiliaries BE and HAVE alone Auxiliaries BE and HAVE combined

13

Be, have and do are used as auxiliary verbs when they precede another verb and
help to form verb tenses. But they are main verbs when they appear alone. See
the table below:
AUXILIARY

MAIN

BE

He is studying.

He is a student. (link)

DO

Does he study?

He does his homework every day. (transitive)

HAVE

Have you seen him?

He has your folder. (transitive)

Table 6: BE, DO and HAVE as auxiliaries or main verbs

b. Modals
Modal verbs precede main verbs in the base form. They are used to express
modality: ability, permission, requests, advice, suggestions, necessity, choice,
regret and deduction among others. They can be negated and precede the
subject in questions. They are invariable: *cans, *canned, *canning. Modals
cannot combine: *I will can go. This group includes: can, could, shall, should,
must, will, would, may, might and must.
(27) He can play the guitar. (ability)
(28) You mustnt drive without the safety belt on. (prohibition)
(29) Would you open the window, please? (request)
Combination of modals and auxiliaries
When both auxiliaries and modals precede main verbs, the order is fixed: modal
+ auxiliary + main verb

COMBINATIONS

Modal +

Aux +

Modal +

Aux +

EXAMPLES

English can be taught.

Verb
Aux +

Verb

English must have been taught there.

Table 7: Combinations of auxiliaries and modals

14

c. Main Verbs
Main verbs appear on their own or combined with auxiliaries and modals. Link
Verbs join the subject and the predicate. They are also considered main verbs
because they appear alone. The typical link verb is the verb to be (when it is
alone, not preceding another verb): He is a good student. She seems sad. They
appear angry. We were at school last night.
1. Intransitive Verbs
They select only one participant which functions as the subject of the sentence, as
shown in the examples in (30). They do not select complements (objects).
(30) SUBJECT [John] is laughing.
SUBJECT

[The famous writer] died in 1987.

SUBJECT

[The little baby] is crying because he is hungry.

SUBJECT

[The rice] is cooking.

Yesterday SUBJECT [an abandoned car] appeared near our school.


SUBJECT

[My dog] barks all the time.

SUBJECT

[The butter] has frozen.

SUBJECT

[John, my brother] is working in Neuqun for an important firm.

Suddenly, SUBJECT [the door] opened.


2. Transitive Verbs
Most transitive verbs select two participants, as shown in the examples in (31).
The first participant initiates the event which functions as the subject and the
second participant receives the action and functions as the complement. The
complement of transitive verbs is called Direct Object (DO).
(31) Mary is painting DO[her bedroom].
The rain destroyed DO[the crops].
Meg loves DO[her husband].
You can draw DO[a picture of your family].
The snow blocked DO[the roads].
The children know DO[the rules of the game].

15

The complement of transitive verbs is typically realised by a nominal structure (a


Noun Phrase) or by a clause:
(32) +NP  She wanted [some help].
The children enjoyed [the party].
(33) +Clause  She wanted [to buy a book on grammar].
He said [that his father was coming tomorrow].
Ditransitive verbs
Some transitive verbs take two complements: the Direct Object (DO) and the
Indirect Object (IO). While the DO answers the question What, the IO answer the
question Who(m)? When the Indirect Object follows the Direct Object, it is
realised by a Prepositional Phrase.
(34) He gave DO[the car]

IO[to

Peter].

Paul bought DO[a present] IO[for Jack].


When the Indirect Object precedes the Direct Object, the preposition is omitted.
(35) He handed IO[David] DO[a sheet of paper].
He had lent IO[him] DO[the money].
That man promised IO[my husband] DO[a job].
He gave IO[me] DO[his summary].
Transitive Prepositional verbs
Some verbs take an obligatory prepositional phrase as complement.
(36) Look [at the blackboard].
My family believes [in God].
Mary is waiting [for her friends].
Peter is listening [to the radio].
You can rely [on your friends].
3. Intransitive and Transitive Phrasal verbs
A phrasal verb is a verb which consists of two parts: the verb and an adverbial
particle (or intransitive preposition). An intransitive preposition is a
preposition that appears alone, without a complement.

16

By combining a verb and an adverbial particle, the meaning of the verb can be
extended or a new meaning -different from any that the verb has on its ownmay be created. For example, the meaning of eat up is to eat completely. The
adverbial particle up extends the initial meaning of eat. Furthermore, the
meaning of the phrasal verb give up is not the combination of the meaning of
give plus the meaning of up. When give and up are combined to form the
phrasal verb give up the combination gives a new lexical unit: to abandon or
quit. Therefore, you cannot always guess the meaning of a phrasal verb from the
individual meanings of the verb and the adverbial particle or intransitive
preposition that combines with the verb.
Intransitive Phrasal verb: verb + intransitive preposition
(37) The plane has taken [off].
Transitive Phrasal verb: verb + intransitive preposition + NP complement
(38) Paul turned [on] [the computer].
Please, take [off] [your shoes].
In these cases, the ones illustrated in (38), the NP complement and the
preposition are interchangeable. The following structures may be found:
(39) Paul turned [the computer] [on].
Please, take [your shoes] [off].
How to distinguish between prepositional and phrasal verbs?
(40) He is listening to the radio.
(41) He put on his coat.
Both structures (40) and (41) seem to be the same because they both have:
- a subject: He
- a verb: is listening /put
- a preposition following the verb: to / on
- a noun phrase following the preposition: the radio / his coat
But the verbs in those sentences belong to different types: listen to is a
prepositional verb and put on is a phrasal verb. Lets discuss their differences:

17

Prepositional verbs are considered transitive verbs followed by a prepositional


complement. This prepositional phrase is made up of a preposition + a NP
complement as in: He is listening [to the radio]. In this example, the
preposition to takes a noun phrase complement, the radio. The preposition and
its complement make a unit and they are not interchangeable, i.e. we cannot
say: * He is listening the radio to.
On the other hand, phrasal verbs are followed by a prepositional phrase made
up of a preposition alone as in: The plane took [off]. Or by a preposition plus a
noun phrase as in: He put [his coat] [on]. This preposition and the noun phrase
do not form a unit. They are independent they are interchangeable: He put [his
coat] [on].

18

ILI - ENGLISH GRAMMAR MODULE TEXTS FOR PRACTICE

TEXT 1: HEALTHY SELF-IMAGES


ACTIVITY 1: Describe and classify the underlined Nouns.
ACTIVITY 2: Underline the Determiners used in the text. Then, classify them.
ACTIVITY 3: Classify the Pronouns in bold and italics.
ACTIVITY 4: Classify the Adjectives in bold type.
way you think about your own body is called your body image. If you have a
negative body image, it means you dont like your body. If you dont like your body,
you probably dont like yourself. In this way, body image is connected to self-esteem.
Self-esteem is how much you value yourself. There are several ways to improve your
body; however, they dont always result in higher self-esteem.
1The

2Plastic

surgery is one way of changing your body. In the past, people thought only
famous people had plastic surgery. But now, millions of people have plastic surgery
each year. Some people with a negative body image think plastic surgery can solve their
problems. In fact, people who have low self-esteem are often disappointed after
plastic surgery. They expect the surgery to change their body image, but many patients
are still not happy with their appearance. Sometimes, the real reason for a negative
body image is psychological, not physical. So plastic surgery alone cannot help
them. They need to learn to appreciate everything about themselves, not just their
appearance.
3You

can also try to improve your body through how and what you eat. A good diet
consists of eating the proper amounts of good foods. If you follow a good diet for a long
time, you can lose weight and feel better about yourself over time. Unfortunately,
many people are impatient. They have a negative body image, and they want to
change their body immediately. To lose weight, they stop eating for one or two days.
This is called crash dieting. It never works. They lose weight temporarily, but gain it
back immediately. Gaining the weight back makes people feel like they failed, which
actually lowers their self-esteem more. Proper dieting can help people improve their
body image, but crash dieting is usually not successful.
4A

third way to change your body is through exercise. Exercise can change the shape
of your body. It can also make you feel more energetic and relieve your stress. These
are important because changing how you feel can change your body image, too. But
too many people go to a health club and then stop after a few days because exercise is
difficult. Their muscles hurt, and they do not see immediate results, so they give up.
They think they have failed, and this can lower their self-esteem. Exercise, like a
proper diet, can take a long time to have a noticeable effect. People who include
regular exercise in their daily life experience the benefits over a long time. Just a few
days of exercise cannot produce the desired effects.
5People

with a negative body image might benefit from plastic surgery, diet or
exercise. However, these methods are most successful when people use them
correctly.
Adapted from: Eric Prochaska (2005): Reading for the real world pp: 38, 39, 40. Compass Publishing

19

TEXT 2
ACTIVITY 1: Find examples of Nouns: proper and common; regular and irregular;
compound.
ACTIVITY 2: Provide questions for the underlines phrases.
1It

was after midnight. Adam sat on the sofa in his tiny apartment. The room was dark,
except for the light from the television screen. The video he was watching was one he
had pieced together over the years. The Adventures of a Klan Bomber, he called it. It
started with a television news report from 1967 about the bombing of a Jewish church.
The Kramer bombing was next. People were seen running to the remains of Marvins
office, while the police tried to push them back. A cloud of dust and smoke hung over
the ruins. Voices shouted and the camera rocked as it captured the shocking scene.
2The

video cut from the bombing scene to the front of the jail, where Sam Cayhall was
being led to a car. It was 1967, twenty-three years ago. Sam was forty-six years old. At
the time, Adam was a little boy, known as Alan Cayhall; soon after that, he was taken to
a distant state where he was given a new name. Now Adam pressed the pause button
and stared for the millionth time into the face of his grandfather.
3The

video continued with more pictures of Sam outside various jails and courthouses.
One scene showed Marvin Kramer after the second trial. He was in his wheelchair on
the sidewalk outside the courthouse. He suddenly saw two Klansmen dressed in white
and began shouting at them. They made some cruel remark, and Marvin went crazy,
screaming and cursing. He spun the metal wheel of his chair, chasing after them, the
cameras recording it all.

4The

wheelchair turned over, and Marvin fell out on to the grass, crying in an odd highpitched voice.

5When

the video ended, Adam stared at the blank screen. Behind the sofa were three
large boxes which contained the rest of the stories, endless pages of notes on all three
trials; copies of all the documents relating to the case since the last trial; hundreds of
newspapers stories about Sam; notes from the law school. Adam knew more about his
grandfather than anyone alive. But he also knew that the man was a mystery to him.
Taken from: The Chamber, by John Grisham

TEXT 3
ACTIVITY 1: Classify the underlined words.
1Art

told him that the investigation into the death of Carl Heine had led him, quite
naturally, to ask questions of Carls relatives. Hes gone to see Etta Heine, and from her
to Ole Jurgensen. After that, he felt he had to go and search Kabuo Miyamotos boat.

2To

have the right to make such a search, Art Moran had gone to Judge Fielding. He
had gone to see him at the end of the afternoon and had persuaded him that he had
good reasons for seeing Miyamoto this way. Judge Fielding was not happy about him
20

making the search there was still no evidence that Carl Heines death was not an
accident. And he insisted that the sheriff should only search the boat.
3When

Kabuo Miyamoto came to the waterside that evening, he saw thirty or forty
seagulls sitting on his boat. He started to get on, and they seemed to rise as one being, a
great white mass of wings beating above his head. They flew overhead five or six times
in a great circle that took in the entire port and settled on the sea.
4Kabuos

heart worked hard in his chest he had never seen anything like this before
and did not know whether it was a good or bad sign. He went down into the boat and
opened the battery cover. He slid his new battery into place and connected it. Finally he
started the engine.
5Sheriff

Moran and his deputy arrived as Kabuo was preparing to leave the port. The
sheriff told him they had to search the boat. Kabuo had asked why and was told that
they had come because of the death of Carl Heine and that they were looking for a
murder weapon. Kabuo read the document that gave them authority and told them to
go ahead hed not killed Carl Heine and they were wasting their time.
Taken from Snow Falling on Cedars, by David Guterson

TEXT 4
ACTIVITY : GROUP WORK
Group 1: Find examples of Adjectives.
Group 2: Find examples of Pronouns.
Group 3: Find examples of Determiners and Quantifiers.
1Gradually

the family began to settle down in the new home. The Crogheda lands were
enormous, and the nearest small town, Gillanbone, was forty miles away. Paddy and
the boys loved the life. They often spent days away from home, riding their horses and
sleeping under the stars.

2Although

it was still early spring, the weather was hot. Then in the middle of January,
black rainclouds appeared. Paddy and the boys worked long hours, moving the sheep
away from the river onto higher ground. Father Ralph came to help. He rode a horse
that Mary Carson had given him, as he went with Frank and the dogs to move the sheep
from the banks of the river. Frank looked at the priest and envied him his beautiful
horse and his expensive clothes. Of all the boys, Frank was the least happy at Crogheda.
He wanted to leave and go to Sydney.
3On

the evening of the second day, when Frank and Father Ralph had managed to move
all the sheep, the rains fell. Within minutes the ground was a sea of mud, and as they
approached the river, they had to get down from their horses. When they got to the
river the horses were able to cross but the men couldnt; it was too deep and too fast. At
last Paddy came with a rope and pulled them across.
4Mary

sat in her chair and wished that she was a younger woman. When at least the
rain stopped and Father Ralph returned to Gillanbone, he had a cheque for one
thousand pounds in his pocket. The bishop would be pleased with him.
Taken from The Thorn Birds, by Colleen McCullough

21

TEXT 5: ELIZABETH IN DERBYSHIRE


ACTIVITY: Classify the underlined verbs.
1The

next morning, the Darcys carriage stopped outside the inn where Elizabeth and
the Gardiners were staying. Elizabeth saw their carriage from the window of the inn.
She blushed and looked very anxious. The Gardiners were surprised at her
embarrassment.
Miss Darcy and her brother came in. Then Mr. Darcy introduced her sister to Elizabeth
and the Gardiners. Miss Darcy was tall. She had a pretty face and her manners were
very good. Georgiana Darcy was not proud but very shy and polite. Elizabeth was
delighted.
2Darcy

told Elizabeth that Bingley was also hoping to see her. In a few minutes, Bingley
arrived. He spoke to Elizabeth politely and kindly and asked about her family.
Bingley said to Elizabeth, We last met on the 26th of November no more than eight
months ago. As the young people talked to each other, Mr. and Mrs. Gardiner watched
with great interest. They could see that Mr. Darcy admired Elizabeth. And they decided
that he was in love with her. They were not sure that Elizabeth was in love with him.
3Bingley

told Elizabeth that he had many questions to ask about his friends in
Hertfordshire. He wanted to talk to Elizabeth about Jane! Before they left the inn, Mr.
Darcy invited Mr. and Mrs. Gardiner and Elizabeth to dinner at Pemberley.

4That

night, Elizabeth lay awake for two hours. How did she feel about Mr. Darcy? She
did not hate him. She now believed he was a kind and intelligent man. It was clear that
Mr. Darcy wanted to please her. And he wanted her uncle and aunt to think well of him.
He must still love her!
Taken from: Pride and Prejudice, by Jane Austen (2005) Macmillan Readers, intermediate

TEXT 6
ACTIVITY 1: Provide examples of different verb types.
ACTIVITY 2: Find examples of combination of auxiliaries.
1From

the air, all that could be seen were two ordinary-looking wooden houses, set
among the rolling wheat fields. The security wire fences that surrounded the site were
hidden with hedges. But below, deep in the hills, were two tunnels with elevators
leading deep underground, caves connected by underground passages. One had a
printing press, another was full of weapons. There were living spaces. One was a
library. The largest was the central hall where members gathered for speeches, films
and meetings.
2The

newspapers that arrived each day were first read by a man named Roland Forchin.
He lived in his hiding secret place most of the time. If a story in one of the papers
caught his attention, he would mark it and later make a copy of it and leave it on the
computer desk. Mostly he collected stories about right-wing groups similar to his.
22

3This

particular morning was different. He first smelled trouble when he saw a picture
of Sam Cayhall in a San Francisco daily. The news was that the oldest man on death
row in America would now be represented by his grandson. Roland read it three times.
After an hour, hed read the same story in several different papers.
4Roland

had followed the case of Sam Cayhall for many years. It was the type of case
that interested his organization, but he had a more personal interest in the case. He
wanted Sam Cayhall dead. One of Rolands other names, known only to himself, was
Rollie Wedge. He had left the United States in 1967, after the Kramer bombing, and
since then had lived in many different countries.
5He

had been dreaming of Cayhalls death for twenty-three years. He and Sam shared a
secret. When Sam was finally executed, Rolland would no longer have to fear that the
secret would be ever revealed. This kid worried him. Rolland hadnt managed to trace
Sams son and his family. He knew about the daughter in Memphis, but the son had
disappered. And now this nice-looking, well-educated young lawyer had arrived from
nowhere to save his grandfather. Over the years, Sam had refused to say anything. If he
was going to talk, it would be now.
6Roland

would have to go to Memphis.


Taken from The Chamber, by John Grisham.

TEXT 7: TOWARDS THE MANTRA PASS


ACTIVITY 1: Identify subjects and Predicates in paragraphs 1, 6 and 7.
ACTIVITY 2: Reported Speech. Work with paragraphs 2, 3 and 5.
1The

expedition left Khalid quickly and started to go up the mountain paths. The paths
were stony and it was not easy to walk on them. But there was no snow. Sometimes the
expedition met travelers on the road. They were coming from the north. Their tired
horses were carrying heavy goods. They were going to sell their goods in the markets of
Kabul.
2Professor

Lugner talked to the travelers about the Toruk. Have you seen the Toruk or
the Toruks claw marks? the Professor asked them. The travelers talked quietly to each
other before they replied.

3We

have not seen the Toruk, they said at last. But they told the Professor about men
who had been killed by the Toruk.
4Afterwards,

Abdul talked to the travelers and asked them about their journey.

5The

weather has been very bad, Abdul said to Larry. The Manta Pass is full of snow.
It is very dangerous.

6The expedition climbed higher up the mountain paths. Larry was very happy. He was
in the mountains. He had a job which he liked. Every day was different. Larry
sometimes thought about his job in England.
7After

dinner, Larry went to his tent. He got out his notebook and wrote the date at the
top of the page. Then he wrote down what had happened that day.
Adapted from: Claws, by John Landon (2005). Macmillan Readers, elementary.

23

TEXT 8: WHATS IN YOUR BOTTLED WATER?

ACTIVITY 1: Identify transitive verbs.


ACTIVITY 2: Describe the underlined verbs.
ACTIVITY 3: Classify the words in bold type.
1Why

do people drink bottled water? Most people say they drink bottled water
because it is healthy. But is it really? Bottled water is marketed as a pure product, but
that is not always what you find in the bottle.
2In

North America, about 40 percent of all bottled water comes from city water
supplies. Sometimes, the bottled water receives treatment to clean it, but some of
this water is not actually purified because it does not receive treatment! In North
America, they dont have laws requiring companies to clean the bottled water they
sell. A company can fill all the bottles with the same water that we use in our sinks
and showers at home, and sell it to us at a higher price!
3Bottled

water is labeled in three different ways. The first kind, spring water, really
comes from a natural spring. The second class is mineral water. This only indicates
that the water contains some minerals. It does not mean that the water is purified or
that it comes from a natural source. Finally, there is purified water. This kind is
water that has been cleaned in some way. However, consumers cannot know where
the water came from only by this name.
4So,

when you pick up a bottle of refreshing water, do you really know what you are
drinking?
Adapted from: Eric Prochaska 2005. Reading for the real world- Intro.Compass Publishing. Unit 5:
Enviromental issues 2, pp. 84

TEXT 9

ACTIVITY: Provide the corresponding questions for the underlined phrases.

At 6:15 soft classical music wakes me up. For five minutes I stretch and touch my toes.
Then I meditate in a quiet garden beside my large bedroom. After a hot shower I put on
my jeans and a silk shirt. Next, I have fresh orange juice and hot tea with my husband
and son. After this delicious breakfast I jump into my car and go to school. In class I
never feel shy when I speak English. After school I do my homework. In the evening I
am with my lovely family. We go to bed late because we need only four hours of sleep.

24

TEXT 10: BELLE


ACTIVITY 1: Identify Subjects and Predicates.
ACTIVITY 2: Identify Link verbs and classify the complements that follow them.
1Scrooge

and the Ghost were in another room. It was not very large but it was very
comfortable. A beautiful young girl sat by the fire. She looked like Belle and Scrooge
thought it was Belle. Then he saw Belle. She was now an attractive woman, and she was
sitting opposite her daughter. They were laughing happily. The room was very noise.
There were more children than Scrooge could count.
2Just

then, there was a knock at the door and everyone ran towards it. The father came
in. He was carrying lots of Christmas toys and presents. With happiness, the children
dived into his pockets. Their happiness was indescribable. Then one by one the children
left the room, climbed to the top of the house and went to bed. And now Scrooge saw
the master of the house. She was sitting happily with her daughter and her mother by
the fire. She could be my daughter, he thought, and his eyes filled with tears.

3Ghost,

said Scrooge in a sad voice, Take me away from this place. I cant bear it!
He turned to the Ghost. It looked down at him. And he saw pieces of all the faces from
his past in its face. The Ghosts light was very bright. Scrooge grabbed the cap, and
quickly pressed it down on the Ghosts head.

4Scrooge

pressed the cap down with all his strength, but he could not hide the light. He
felt very tired. He gave the cap one last squeeze. Then his hand relaxed. He was in his
bedroom now. He was exhausted so he got into bed and fell asleep.
Adapted from: A Christmas Carol, by Charles Dickens (2008) Helbling Languages

TEXT 11
ACTIVITY 1: Prepositional or Phrasal? Classify the underlined verbs
ACTIVITY 2: Are the verbs in bold type link verbs? Why / Why not?
1Meggie

and Luke were married very quietly in Gillanbone and they left the same
evening on the long train journey to North Queensland.
2They

spent the first night of their marriage sitting on a crowded slow train which went
from north-east to Goondiwindi. When they got there they had to wait for another
train. There was nothing to eat or drink at the station because it was Sunday. They
changed trains again at Brisbane. Once again they had to sit up because Luke had
bought second class seats.
3Meggie

sat beside the window and looked out. Luke seemed to think that she was a
child, but she was too young to argue. She wanted to be a good wife, and she
remembered how her father had loved her mother. In time, Luke would be the same.
The train was crowded as it made its way slowly northwards. Meggies head ached,
and she felt sick. It grew hotter and hotter and her lovely new dress became dirty.
She almost hated Luke, who didnt seem to be tired at all.
4Late

on Thursday afternoon they got off the train. Meggie could hardly walk. Luke
asked at the station for the address of a cheap hotel, picked up their cases and went off
down the street. Their room was small and full of ugly old furniture, but it seemed
like heaven to Meggie. She fell onto the bed.
Taken from The Thorn Birds, by Colleen McCullough.

25

TEXT 12
ACTIVITY: Reported Speech: Work with the underlined sentences.
Tibor: One of those days, huh? Shut the door, please!
Roberta: Yeah, Im just a little angry because no one seems to understand my English.
T: Oh, dont you hate that? Every time I go out people ask me, Where are you from?
R: I hate when that happens. The other day I said Good morning to the doorman and
he said Buon giorno. That really made me angry.
T: I can imagine. But if it makes you feel any better, this morning I had to ask the
woman at the post office to write down the price for the stamps because I couldnt
understand her accent.
R: Ouch. That mustve been really embarrassing.
T: Very. Im going to go to a different post office next time.
R: I dont blame you. Sometimes I wonder if my English will ever sound perfect.
T: Tell me about it.
R: Sometimes I feel like giving up.
T: I know the feeling. At first I felt like I was learning a lot, and now
(Tibor shakes his head)
R: I know what you mean. I want to be treated as a native speaker of English- not as a
woman from Italy.
T: Yeah, I can relate.
Adapted from Martinez, R. (1997) Conversation Lessons- An Intermediate Course. LTP.

TEXT 13
1Mr.

Wormwood kept his hair looking bright and strong, or so he thought, by rubbing
into it every morning large quantities of a lotion called OIL OF VIOLETS HAIR TONIC.
A bottle of this smelly purple mixture always stood on the shelf above the sink in the
bathroom alongside all the toothbrushes, and a very vigorous scalp massage with OIL
OF VIOLETS took place daily after shaving was completed. This hair and scalp massage
was always accompanied by loud masculine grunts and heavy breathing and gasps of
Ahhh, thats better! Thats the staff! Rub it right into the roots! which could be clearly
heard by Matilda in her bedroom across the corridor.
2Now, in the early morning of the privacy of the bathroom, Matilda unscrewed the cap
of her fathers OIL OF VIOLETS and tipped three-quarters of the contents down the
drain. Then she filled the bottle up with her mothers PLATINUM BLONDE HAIR DYE
EXTRA STRONG. She carefully left enough of her fathers original hair tonic in the
bottle so that when she gave it a good shake the whole thing still looked reasonably
purple. She then replaced the bottle on the shelf above the sink, taking care to put her
mothers bottle back in the cupboard.
3At breakfast time Matilda sat quietly at the dinning-room table eating her cornflakes.
Her brother sat opposite her with his back to the door devouring lots of bread
smothered with a mixture of peanut-butter and strawberry jam. The mother was just
out of sight around the corner in the kitchen making Mr. Wormwoods breakfast which
always had to be two fried eggs on fried bread with three pork sausages and three strips
of bacon and some fried tomatoes.
Adapted from: Matilda, by Ronald Dahl (1996) Scholastic

26

What are you expected to do at the end of this subject?


Here you have a sample text with typical activities and the key.
We recommend you do the exercises before looking at the key!!!!
CHANGE FOR A DOLLAR
Make yourself a blessing to someone. Your kind smile or pat on the back just might pull
someone back from the edge.
All he wanted was some juice. As tables full of high school students sat in Cafeteria B2
on that cloudy afternoon, he was thirsty. We sat near yet away from him, fixing our hair
and worrying about the test next period we hadnt studied for. He was far away from
our world, yet forced to be a part of it.
He stood at the drink machine with purpose, fumbling through his fake leather wallet
for some change. He came up with a wrinkled dollar bill, and nervously glanced back at
his table where other students in their special need class were sitting. With the
coordination of a six-year-old, he tried to make the machine accept his money. After a
few unsuccessful attempts, the snickers and comments began. People were laughing.
Some were even throwing things at him. He began to quiver, and his eyes misted with
tears. I saw him turn to sit down, defeated. But for some reason, he decided against it.
He wasnt leaving until he got a drink.
With a determined expression, he continued to aimlessly thrust the dollar bill in the
machine. Then something terrific happened. A popular senior rose from her seat, and
with a look of genuine compassion, went over to the boy. She explained how the
machine had a hard time accepting dollars, then gave him some change and showed
him where to place it. The boy gave her his dollar and chose a flavor of fruit juice. Then
the two walked off in different directions.
Although it was clear that they were from very different worlds, for one moment, theyd
shared a real understanding. As I walked away from my lunch table that day, I looked at
the boy. I remember thinking how he and the dollar were very much alike. They both
werent accepted where the world said they were supposed to be. But just as the dollar
had found a place in a caring girls pocket, I was sure the boy would eventually find his,
too.
Taken from: Canfield J.,Hansen M., Kirberger K.2002. Chicken Soup for the Teenage Soul II. Scholastic
Inc.Part 3: pp. 98, 99

1) Read the text and classify the underlined words:


Nouns

Pronouns

Determiners

Quantifiers

Adjectives

27

Auxiliary Verbs Main Verbs

Adverbs

Prepositions

2) Look at the following Noun Phrases taken from the text. Identify the
determiners and explain their use.
a) a blessing
b) your kind smile
c) that cloudy afternoon

d) the drink machine


e) high school students

3) The same word can belong to different categories depending on the


elements around it. Explain the difference between the words in bold
type. Can you think of some other word that behaves in this way?
a. A popular senior rose from her seat, and with a look of genuine compassion,
went over to the boy
b. I looked at the boy.
c. He wanted some change.
d. Some were even throwing things at him.
e. He tried to make the machine accept his money.
f. but just as the dollar had found a place in a caring girls pocket, I was sure the
boy would eventually find his, too.
g. The boy gave her his dollar.
h. A popular senior rose from her seat.
4) Look at the following sentences, concentrate on the words in italics and
explain the difference between them.
a. I remember thinking how he and the dollar were very much alike.
b. Some were even throwing things at him.
c. She explained how the machine had a hard time accepting dollars.
d. We sat near yet away from him, fixing our hair and worrying about the test next
period we hadnt studied for.

28

5) Read the text again and make questions for the following answers:
a. __________________________? He wanted some juice.
b. __________________________? Yes, they were. People were laughing
and throwing things at him.
c.

_________________________? A popular senior helped him.

d.

_________________________? Yes, he did. He finally managed to get


some juice from the drink machine.

6). Correct these ungrammatical sentences. Explain why they are wrong.
a. *Peter can drove a car.
b. * I gave to my mother a present.
c. *Susan likes swim.
d. * Some people is watching the football match.
e. *Yesterday I saw Mary and told about my birthday.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------KEY
1) Read the text and classify the highlighted words:
Nouns
wallet
coordination
look
compassion
understanding

Pronouns
he
his
him
they
some
it
her
all

Determiners
our
a
his
the
my
that

Quantifiers
some

Adjectives
cloudy
thirsty
caring
alike
wrinkled
unsuccessfu
l
hard

29

Auxiliary
Verbs
had(nt)
had
were
was(nt)

Main Verbs

Adverbs

Prepositions

looked
studied
found
laughing
leaving

nervously
aimlessly

about
from
at
near

2) Look at the following Noun Phrases taken from the text. Identify the
determiners and explain their use.
a) A blessing: a is an indefinite determiner that specifies and precedes the noun
blessing It assigns general reference to it.
b) Your kind smile: your is a possessive determiner that specifies and precedes
the noun smile. It assigns specific reference to it.
c) That cloudy afternoon: that is a demonstrative determiner that specifies and
precedes the noun afternoon. It assigns specific reference to it.
d) The drink machine: the is a definite determiner that specifies and precedes
the noun machine. It assigns specific reference to it.
e) High school students: The zero determiner () specifies the noun students
and it assigns generic reference to it.
3) The same word can belong to different categories depending on the
elements around it. Explain the difference between the words in italics.
Can you think of some other word that behaves in this way?
a. A popular senior rose from her seat, and with a look of genuine compassion,
went over to the boy
b. I looked at the boy.
In sentence a, the word in italics look is a noun because it is preceded by a
determiner which specifies it. Besides, the suffix s can be added to it to form
the plural which means that look inflects for number (a typical property of
nouns).
In sentence b, the word in italics look is a verb which takes two participants:
an NP (I) which functions as the subject of the sentence and a PP (at the boy)
which functions as complement of the verb.
c. He wanted some change.
d. Some were even throwing things at him.
In sentence c, the word in italics some is a quantifier which quantifies and
precedes the noun change.
In sentence d, the word in italics some is a pronoun because it appears alone
and it can be replaced by a full noun phrase: His classmates were even throwing
things at him.
e. He tried to make the machine accept his money.
f. but just as the dollar had found a place in a caring girls pocket, I was sure the
boy would eventually find his, too.
In sentence e, the word in italics his is a possessive determiner which specifies
and precedes the noun money. It assigns specific reference to it.

30

In sentence f, the word in italics his is a possessive pronoun which appears


alone and can be replaced by a full noun phrase: I was sure the boy would
eventually find his place too.
g. The boy gave her his dollar.
h. A popular senior rose from her seat.
In sentence g, the word in italics her is a personal objective pronoun which
functions as complement (indirect object) of the verb give.
In sentence h, the word in italics her is a possessive determiner which specifies
and precedes the noun seat. It assigns specific reference to it.
Some other words that behave in the same way are: answer, colour, film, etc.
I cant give an answer to your question. / I cant answer your question.
NOUN
VERB
I dont have a favourite colour. / My children were colouring their notebooks.
NOUN
VERB
Lets watch a film. / They were filming a new documentary about the immigrants.
NOUN
VERB
4) Look at the following sentences, concentrate on the words in italics and
explain the difference between them.
a. I remember thinking how he and the dollar were very much alike.
b. Some were even throwing things at him.
In sentence a, the word in italics were is a link verb which joins the subject and
the predicate. It is considered a main verb because it appears alone.
In sentence b, the word in italics were is an auxiliary verb used to form the
continuous tense. It precedes the main verb throwing and it carries grammatical
information about person (3rd), number (plural) and tense (past).
c. She explained how the machine had a hard time accepting dollars.
d. We sat near yet away from him, fixing our hair and worrying about the test next
period we hadnt studied for.
In sentence c, the word in italics had is a transitive verb which selects two
participants: the NP the machine which functions as the subject of the sentence
and the NP a hard time which functions as complement of the verb.
In sentence d, the word in italics had(nt) is an auxiliary verb used to form the
perfect tense. It precedes the main verb studied and it carries grammatical
information about tense (past).
5) Read the text again and make questions for the following answers:
a. What did he want? He wanted some juice.
b. Were people laughing and throwing things at him? Yes, they were. People were
laughing and throwing things at him.
c. Who helped him? A popular senior helped him.
d. Did he finally manage to get some juice from the drink machine? Yes, he did. He
finally managed to get some juice from the drink machine.
31

6) Correct these ungrammatical sentences. Explain why they are wrong.


a. *Peter can drove a car.
This sentence is ungrammatical because the verb drove is conjugated and
preceded by a modal (can). Modals are always followed by verbs in the base form.
The correct version would be Peter can drive a car.
b. * I gave to my mother a present.
This sentence is ungrammatical because the verb gave is a ditransitive verb which
selects two complements: the direct object (a present) and the indirect object (to my
mother). When the IO (indirect object) is realised by a prepositional phrase, the DO
(direct object) precedes it. The correct version would be I gave a present to my
mother.
c. *Susan likes swim.
This sentence is ungrammatical because verbs which express likes or dislikes (love,
like, hate, enjoy, etc.) are followed by verbs in the to infinitive or in the ing form.
A possible correct version is Susan likes swimming.
d. * Some people is watching the football match.
This sentence is ungrammatical because there is no agreement between the subject
(people) and the auxiliary verb (is). The subject is realised by an NP whose head is
the plural noun people whereas the auxiliary verb is is used with singular nouns.
The correct version would be Some people are watching the football match
e. *Yesterday I saw Mary and told about my birthday.
This sentence is ungrammatical because the verb told is a ditransitive verb which
selects two complements: the direct object and the indirect object. In this case, the
IO (indirect object) is missing. The correct version would be Yesterday I saw Mary
and told her about my birthday.

32

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