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I.
TECHNICAL PHOTOGRAPHY
A.
Basic equipment for crime scene photography
1.
Camera(s)
2.
Normal lens
3.
Wide angle lens
4.
Close-up lenses or accessories
5.
Filters
6.
Electronic flash(s)
7.
Remote or sync cord for electronic flash(s)
8.
Extra camera and flash batteries
9.
Locking cable release
10. Tripod
11. Film
12. Owner's manuals for camera and flash
13. Notebook and pen
14. Ruler
15. Gray card
16. Index cards and felt pen
17. Flashlight
B.
Lenses
1.
Normal lens
2.
Wide angle lens
3.
Other lenses
C.
Care and maintenance of crime scene photography equipment
1.
Cleaning lens and camera
2.
Camera repair
3.
Protection from extreme heat and cold
4.
Protection from rain
D.Film
1.
Color vs. black and white
2.
Print film vs. slide film
3.
Film speed
4.
Matching film to the light source
II.
2.
3.
4.
e.
Flair
f.
Using gray card
g.
Bracketing exposures
Maximum depth of field
a.
Depth of field is the area in a photograph in
which objects are in sharp focus
b.
How to control depth of field
c.
Zone focusing
(1) Preview depth of field
Free from distortion (must have good perspective)
a.
Use a normal focal length lens when ever
possible
b.
Keep the camera as level as possible
c.
Photograph with the camera at eye level when
ever possible
Sharp focus
a.
Keep the camera steady
b.
Focus carefully and use maximum depth of field
c.
Look at the frame of your scene
3.
C.
IV.
Reflective surfaces
a.
Automatic flash units can shut off too soon due
to reflected light
4.
Rain
Lighting techniques
1.
Electronic flash (NOTE:Disregard the light meter in
the camera when using electronic flash)
a.
Flash mounted on camera
b.
Flash off camera
c.
Bounce flash
(1) Bounce off a white or light colored
surface
(2) Manual flash: add the distance up and down
for the flash-to-subject distance then
figure in the absorbance loss (one to
three f/stops)
(3) Automatic flash with sensor facing the
subject: use a range for two times or more
times the actual flash-to-subject distance
d.
Multiple flash
(1) Distance the flash units to provide the
same f/stop for each flash
2.
Available light (no electronic flash)
3.
Painting with light
a.
The shutter is left open while the light source
is moved around until all of the scene is
properly illuminated
b.
Procedure
(1) Mount the camera on a sturdy tripod
(2) Equip the camera with a lens shade (if
available)
(3) Screw a locking cable release into the
camera shutter release
(4) Set the shutter speed dial to B (bulb)
(5) Determine the f/stop based on the flash to
subject distance (not the camera to
subject distance)
(6) Focus carefully
(7) Depress the cable release and lock it to
hold the shutter open
(8) Fire the electronic flash to light areas
of the scene. The number of flashes and
angle of the flashes will depend on the
size and character of the scene. Do not
point the flash directly at the camera and
keep yourself out of the view of the
camera
(9) Unlock the cable release and allow the
shutter to close
(10) Advance the film
B.
V.
E.
VI.
d.
e.
f.
g.
D.
E.
Interior views
Area from which valuable articles were removed
Damage to locks, safe, doors, toolmarks
Articles or tools left at the scene by the
suspect
h.
Trace evidence
i.
Other physical evidence
Assaults, injuries
1.
Photographing injuries
a.
Face of victim in the photographs
b.
Bruises
c.
Bite marks
(1) Orientation shot
(2) Close-up at 90 degree angle to avoid
distortion
(3) Ruler in same plane as bite mark
(4) Focus carefully
(5) Bracket exposures
2.
Equipment
a.
Always use color film and no filter
b.
Use color charts and rulers
c.
Flash unit with diffused lighting
Traffic Accidents and Hit and Run Cases
1.
Photographs at the accident scene
a.
Where the vehicles came to rest and in what
position
(1) Photographs should show the relationship
of each vehicle with each other
b.
Damage to vehicles
(1) Technical photographs of damage to a
vehicle
(a) Do not take any oblique or corner
photographs to show damage for
reconstruction purposes because they
are not aligned with the axis of
the vehicle. They tend to conceal
the amount and direction of the
damage.
(b) Take six photographs. Two from each
side in line with the axles. Take
one of each end of the vehicle,
straight on. If possible take one
more from overhead
(c) Use electronic flash to fill in
shadows within the damage
c.
Debris or marks on the roadway
d.
View each driver had approaching the key point
of the accident.
e.
View from the point a witness observed the
accident, at witness' eye level
f.
Evidence to identify hit and run vehicles
2.
Night photography
a.
Use multiple flash, paint with light or
available light for extra long skidmarks or to
show two vehicles some distance apart
A.
Steps
1.
Set the shutter speed to the camera's flash
synchronization speed (usually 1/60 second)
2.
Use the camera's light meter to determine the
correct f/stop. Set that f/stop on your lens.
3.
With the flash on manual, find the flash to subject
distance for the above f/stop.
4.
Position the flash unit at that distance and take
the photograph.
a.
b.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
The Admissibility of
Digital Photographs in Court
by Steven B. Staggs
When digital imaging is considered for law enforcement, the concern of the
admissibility of digital photographic evidence in court is often raised. The fact that
digital photographs are more easily altered than film-based photographs is usually
cited. Some even believe digital photographs are not admissible in court.
This article is presented in the hope of clearing up some of the confusion and
misinformation about this issue. We will begin with the rules of evidence regarding
digital evidence.
Photographs as Evidence
The principal requirements to admit a photograph (digital or film-based) into
evidence are relevance and authentication. Unless the photograph is admitted by the
stipulation of both parties, the party attempting to admit the photograph into
evidence must be prepared to offer testimony that the photograph is an accurate
representation of the scene. This usually means someone must testify that the
photograph accurately portrays the scene as viewed by that witness.
Guidelines for Ensuring Your Digital Photographs Are Admissible
Most importantly, preserve the original digital image. This can be done a
variety of ways including saving the image file to a hard drive or recording the
image file to a CD. Some agencies elect to use image security software.
Digital images should be preserved in their original file formats. The saving of
a file in some file formats subject the image to lossy compression. If lossy
compression is used critical image information may be lost and artifacts
introduced as a result of the compression process.
If images are stored on a computer workstation or server, and several
individuals would have access to the image files, make the files read-only for
all but your evidence or photo lab staff. As an example, detectives could view
any image files but they would not have rights to delete or overwrite those
files.
Digital Photography:
An In Depth Analysis of an Emerging Trend within the
Computer Age
Robert B. Fried
What do manufacturers such as Agfa, Canon, Epson, Fuji film, Kodak and Olympus
have in common? They are only a small fraction of the rapidly growing list of
companies involved in the new era spawning within the imaging industry, specifically
in the digital realm. Digital photography is an emerging trend, although the concept
has been around for nearly two decades.
Digital cameras have been on the market for quite some time. In fact, "people in the
computer industry have been talking about digital photography for years, even
before Apple introduced the first digital camera for consumers, the QuickTake 100,
early in 1994" (Alsop, 220). A digital camera is just one aspect of digital
photography. Although you need the camera, in order to capture the image, there
are many different tools and equipment that encompass the overall concept of digital
photography. In fact, in order to develop a complete digital photography solution,
"what was needed was a system of products that would work together to help one
take, store, manage, and display pictures, both on PCs and in familiar snapshot
form" (Alsop, 220). Thanks to advancements in technology this system is available
today. It is essentially comprised of a digital camera, a scanner, a photo-quality
printer, photo-editing software and a digital photo album (Alsop 220-221).
In order to understand many of the new innovations being developed in this field, it
is important to grasp the concept of digital photography and how it differs from
conventional film photography. Conventional photography has been around for many
years. Essentially "in the 1840s, William Henry Fox Talbot, combined light, paper, a
few chemicals and a wooden box to produce a photographic print, laying the
foundation for modern film photography" (King, 01). This process of making a
photograph has been revised over the course of time; however, the concept has
remained the same. Technological advancements and innovations such as the
computer have allowed photography to advance from a chemical process to one that
entails the involvement of merely bytes of information.
Digital photography, as previously stated is not all that different from conventional
film photography. In fact, like traditional film cameras, "digital cameras also use light
to create images, but instead of film, digital cameras capture images using an
imaging array, which is a fancy way of saying 'light sensitive computer chips'" (King,
24). Referred to as Charged Coupled Device (CCD) and Complementary Metal Oxide
Semi-Conductor (CMOS), these computer chips, once the shutter has been released
and the lens is finished projecting the image, separate "the image into thousands of
'pixels' or picture elements, each with an electrical charge." Following this, "circuits
in the camera convert each pixels charge into a number representing digitized
information." "The more pixels, the sharper the image" (Folkers, 77). CCD and CMOS
chips however, have many distinct features, therefore, manufacturers have to decide
which chip is most advantageous to the consumers they plan on marketing their
product to (King, 24).
Charged coupled device (CCD) chips have several advantages over complimentary
metal oxide semi-conductor (CMOS) chips. Essentially, CCD chips "offer more lifelike
color, greater tonal range and the contrast and brightness of traditional quality
photographs" (Lawrence, 60). However, there are several reasons that may lead an
individual to choose a CMOS chip rather than a CCD chip. CMOS chips are generally
more cost effective than CCD chips, therefore, reducing the target price for the
camera itself. Furthermore, CMOS chips are more energy efficient than CCD chips. As
a result, more battery life is gained. Moreover, CMOS chips outperform CCD chips in
respect to taking pictures of lustrous objects containing sparkles or objects that are
very bright. Although both chips have their own distinct features, CCD chips are
found in a majority of the digital cameras on the market. CMOS chips are gradually
increasing their presence on the market. As a result of the growing demand for more
affordable digital cameras in this day and age, CMOS chips are sure to catch up to
CCD chips in quality and performance (King, 46).
If it is still somewhat costly to purchase digital camera, why are they gaining so
much attention? Furthermore, why is that if digital photography has just recently
gained popularity that "US consumers will buy as many as 850,000 digital camera at
$1,000 or less this year, and falling prices should push sales even higher" (Folkers,
77)? Personal computers are partially responsible. With streaming speeds, better
performance, and a greater focus on multimedia, the average computer user is able
to do more and know less. With a simple connection and a click of a mouse,
processes happen quicker than a blink of an eye. People want things quick, and now
with a digital camera, one can take a picture and obtain immediate results. Stewart
Alsop, an information technology columnist for Fortune Magazine is even fascinated
with how digital cameras are changing the way people think about photography. He
states:
"I remember when my father brought home his new Polaroid instant camera."
"It was a thrill when he snapped a picture and pulled out the film." "The kids
would fight over who got to hold the film's covering while it developed." "We'd
time 60 seconds, rip off the cover of the pack, and watch the picture emerge
before our eyes." He continues by saying, "One thing I have absolutely loved
about spending the past 15 years involved the computer industry is how often
I've been able to feel that kind of thrill." "It's happening again with digital
photography, which is about a lot more than the ability to see a snapshot
develop right after you've snapped it" (220).
What Alsop is essentially implying here, is that the way in which digital cameras
operate is slightly more sophisticated than traditional film photography. However, he
suggests what is easier to comprehend is the overwhelming impact this new
technology will have in regards to the photo industry. He believes that eventually
"digital photography will eliminate the need for photo processing, a multibillion-dollar
business, and will change the way people buy cameras since how a camera
integrates with a PC will be more important than which Japanese company has
mastered the industrial art of grinding lenses" (220).
What exactly are the benefits of digital cameras? For starters, a digital camera offers
the user more flexibility in regards to the picture quality of the image. Much of the
photo editing and enhancements are done after the picture has been taken. This
feature is an advantage over a traditional film camera. With a traditional film camera,
the user has to manually and properly adjust all the settings prior to taking the
desired picture. A digital camera offers the ability to correct almost all aspects of a
picture once it has been imported into a computer and the proper imaging software
has been loaded. Furthermore, all that is really needed to adequately use a digital
camera is for the user to know how to 'point and shoot' (King, 13).
Another advantage in using a digital camera as opposed to a traditional film camera
is the instantaneous appearance of the picture just photographed without spending a
dime. "Digital cameras are fantastic for instant gratification," says industry analyst
Kristy Holch, principal of Infotends Research group" (Folkers 77). In fact, you can
even "send an image to friends, family members, and clients almost instantaneously
by attaching it to an email message." According to Julie Adair King, author of Digital
Photography for Dummies, digital photography is enormously helpful to people in
mass media that now have the ability to quickly send electronic mail with
attachments to their editors within seconds of taking a picture. Furthermore,
salespeople now have the ability to present their products to potential buyers
anywhere in the world (King 15).
More and more businesses are seeing the benefits of utilizing digital cameras. Many
businesses are attracted to the benefits of the digital photography age because it has
the great potential of expanding their target markets. Business analysts assert that
"the biggest demand is coming from those users who want computerized photos for
World Wide Web sites, engineering projects, real estate estimates and police work"
(Dillon, 53). Jim Verrall, MIS operations manager at Brandt Engineering Co. in Dallas
and an owner of three digital cameras states that, when you shoot with film it might
sit in your pocket for two days, and then professional processing usually takes
another day. Verrall, continues, "with the pictures saved to a floppy disk we can print
them out and incorporate them into WordPerfect documents in five minutes" (Dillon,
56). Not only is time saved here but also is money that can be redistributed within
the business.
Businesses are also finding that digital photography can benefit them in ways other
than saving time and money. Digital cameras can also aid in helping to create a
virtual database of information for clientele and sales associates. By importing
images into such things as databases and spreadsheets individuals can look at
images of products being offered. Therefore, clientele can have a better
understanding and idea as to what the product they are researching or perusing
looks like. Furthermore, sales associates can have an easier time describing products
to clients and also be able to pull up what a particular item looks like if they are
unsure (King 16).
Much of the fun in digital photography comes from imaging software used in
manipulating the photograph that has been taken. Photo editing software allows an
individual to add a little spice to a presentation or have fun distorting an image and
such. With the use of photo-editing software (i.e., Adobe PhotoDeluxe and
Photoshop) special effects can be added to any image that has been imported into
the computer via email, computer cable (USB, serial or parallel), scanner, diskette or
Smart-Card. The possibilities are enormous. Many photo editing software packages
exist on the market appealing to the most novice of users to those who are
considered most savvy (King 16).
Digital cameras are also gaining popularity within the field of forensic science. "For
forensics technologies collecting evidence at crime scenes, digital camera preview
screens can help prevent errors." Warren Stewart, a forensics investigator at
Alabama Department of Forensics Science, states, "they give us the capability to see
if we have the exact images we need on the spot" (Dillon 56). However, there are
still some drawbacks to the utilization of digital cameras within forensic science
casework. One issue of concern is the quality and the authenticity of images. If an
image is not a true and accurate depiction of a crime scene, it may not be deemed
admissible in a court of law. As the technology gradually becomes more advanced
the notion of digital photography will be further explored. "Until video quality and
cost match, or become superior to film photography, the traditional photograph will
continue to be the standard" (Miller 137).
Although there are wide arrays of benefits to digital photography, there are also
drawbacks. One of the major drawbacks is the amount of time it requires to take
multiple snapshots. The delay is can be in the range of two to fifteen seconds.
Essentially, "that is the time necessary for the light sensor to read the scene and
either adjust the diaphragm opening (f/stop) or change the shutter speed, check the
auto focus (if so equipped), and trigger the flash (if also equipped) (Miller 132). It
also takes several seconds for the camera to perform several other processes once
the image has been taken. In fact, "there is usually a four to nine second delay when
the camera is converting the image into digital form, compressing and saving the
image, and recycling the flash" (Miller 132). As a result of such time delays, sports
events or other activities involving motion may be difficult to photograph. Although,
some digital cameras offer continuous capture mode to try and resolve such matters,
the pictures taken are usually of a low resolution or lack the use of a flash. For
scenarios like these, a traditional camera, rather than a digital camera should always
be used (King, 18).
Another disadvantage to digital cameras are their inability to perform as well as
traditional film cameras. Although, the technology may be fascinating, traditional
cameras developed years prior, generally produce sharper, crisper and clearer
pictures than digital cameras. Essentially, "the CCD chips in most digital cameras
break up an image into 640 pixels horizontally and 480 vertically, or a total of slightly
more than 300,000 pixels." Furthermore, "if the grains of silver halide on 35-mm film
were pixels, one frame of sharp film would contain 100 million." "No wonder digital
pictures with 0.3 percent as many pixels, are comparatively crude" (Folkers, 77).
Another drawback to the concept of digital photography is the resolution of the
images that are taken. Digital cameras are fairly inexpensive. However, if an
impressive image is what one is looking for, it usually won't be found for under $300.
In fact, "Feature-laden digital cameras built on the shells of professional 35mm
models, have at least 1.5 million pixel CCDs; and they cost $3,500 to $10,000
(Folkers, 77). When comparing a traditional camera to a digital camera in the price
range of $300, it will usually be the case that the traditional camera will be far
superior in quality and performance (King, 18).
One of the major problems with digital photography is that as a digital photograph is
enlarged, the quality of the image gets reduced considerably. In fact, "when a digital
image is enlarged beyond 4x6 inches, the prints may become 'pixelated' (broken up
into blocky squares)". "This is a problem with digital cameras with resolutions of
640x480 or less" (Miller, 133). Furthermore, many digital cameras are faced with the
problem of producing images that lack color balance and latitude temperature
control. As a result of this, images taken in different lighting may appear unclear or
distorted (Miller 133). Moreover, "digital cameras can record two states of tone and
color - light or dark - while film can capture a range of continuous tones and colors"
(Miller 133).
Lack of camera accessories is also a major drawback to digital photography. The
majority of digital cameras on the market have fixed or permanent lenses.
Furthermore, many lack the presence of macro, telephoto, or close-up lens
attachments. Moreover, many digital cameras lack filter or even electronic flash
attachments. Such accessories are often only available on higher end digital cameras
that retail for approximately $3000 to $5000 (Miller 135). In regards to traditional
35mm film cameras within this price range, the array of accessories for such cameras
is enormous.
rechargeable battery packs (long term shooting), add-on dedicated flash (for
supplemental lighting), add-on lenses and filters, rapid-fire shooting, various
exposure modes (programmed aperture and shutter priority and manual settings
give control of exposure metering), exposure compensation, multiple resolution
modes (different ways to handle file compression) and USB connection (now, the
faster and easier way to connect camera to the personal computer)(Lawrence, 6064).
With all these new advancements and features, it is just going to be a matter of time
until this emerging trend becomes a standard. However, Julie Adair Kings, author of
Digital Photography for Dummies, provides an excellent word to the wise when she
says:
"Whether or not digital will completely replace film as the foremost
photographic medium remains to be seen." "In all likelihood, the two
mediums will each secure their niche in the image world." "So make a place
for your new digital camera in your camera bag, but don't stick your film
camera in the back of the closet just yet." Digital photography and film each
offer unique advantages and disadvantages, and choosing one option to the
exclusion of the other limits your creative flexibility" (19).
Works Cited
Ensure Admissibility of Digital Images
Richard Kammen
Herbert Blitzer
Digital imaging tools, such as digital cameras, photo CD discs and
image handling software, can be important assets to the police
department as it gathers and presents evidence. But as with any other
tools, you must have standard operating procedures (SOPs) in place to
ensure that evidence you gather and present will be accepted by
courts of law.
Standard operating procedures governing the use of digital imaging
technology need to incorporate five key elements.
1. Images must be recorded in an unalterable, archival form
soon after the records are created.
A digital imaging technology that supports this requirement is writable
CD. Writable CDs are CD-ROM discs that are formatted to allow
images, text and video clips to be written to the discs using CD writers
and read using standard CD-ROM computer drives.
You should also establish procedures for the management of any files
stored temporarily on portable computers. For example, you may want
to specify how frequently those files will be removed from the
portables and archived.
4. All agency personnel who prepare exhibits for court should
be trained in digital image processing and should
understand which images might require a special notation
to show that the changes are not prejudicial.
Certain procedures for enhancing digital imaging files are analogous to
using basic darkroom techniques to enhance film images. They are
applied generally to an entire image. Digital imaging software can, for
example, be used to control the contrast of images or to enlarge them.
Other digital processing procedures are potentially more problematic.
These are applied to certain parts of an image. For example, you can
use software to "morph" an image of a person's face to show how the
person would look if he or she were older or several pounds heavier. In
these cases, it may be necessary for the staff to document how the
changes were made.
There is also a gray area between these two types of image
processing. Selective color removal or fast fourier transformation can
be used to clean up the background or a latent fingerprint. Special
procedures should be established to support expert witnesses as they
testify concerning any of these image processing techniques.
In some cases, you can implement image processing SOPs using
computer-based tools. For example, it is possible to record the
keystrokes used to perform a computer operation in a file called a
"macro." When a macro is replayed, it will re-execute the keystrokes in
their original sequence. This technique could be used to document how
a particular image alteration was accomplished.
5. The agency must establish rigorous procedures for entering
work-in-progress into proper file systems.
Digital technology can help agencies document how and when images
were captured, processed or stored. However, additional procedures
must be used to create a complete audit trail of how the computer files
have been managed. Uniquely identifiable, unalterable media can
make this much easier.
Is there any other non-standard equipment I might need for this particular
job?
WHEN ON CALL - CHECK THAT ALL GEAR IS IN THE KITS AND IT IS WORKING
PROPERLY!!!)
JOB DETAILS
CONSIDER
AT THE SCENE
REMEMBER YOU ARE PART OF A TEAM SO ENSURE YOU INTEGRATE WITH IT
EFFECTIVELY. OTHER TEAM MEMBERS COULD INCLUDE:
Forensic personnel.
Investigators.
Police crowd and/or traffic controllers.
Fire Brigade.
Ambulance.
T.R.G.
S.E.S.
B.A.S.I.
Get a good and accurate concept of the scene and its history (e.g. how did
the scene/crime unfold, what are its boundaries, why is the body a long way
from the weapon, is there more than one seat of fire, etc. etc.).
Make written notes in an official notebook showing:
o Time & date of arrival.
o Location details.
o
o
o
o
Plan how you will record your evidence, using a systematic approach.
Is it safe to enter scene - will that wall collapse, the ceiling fall in, the charred
boat hull give way, is it booby trapped, etc. etc.?
Am I appropriately dressed - hard hat, overalls, safety boots, gloves,
camouflage, etc.?
Which way in (and out) - liaise with O.I.C. Forensic?
IN THE SCENE
Watch for and take care not to disturb:
Shoe impressions.
Tyre tracks.
Blood.
Fibres.
Fingerprints.
Clothing.
Bedding.
Impacted vehicles/aircraft.
Debris.
Any other object with potential evidential value.
Always use the agreed safety route into and out of the scene.
DO NOT be sidetracked into other tasks by investigators without first consulting with
the Forensic team O.I.C..
UNLESS URGENT finish off your systematic evidence gathering run before being
diverted to other tasks. This includes the note taking process.
CAMERA TECHNIQUES
REMEMBER
YOU ARE A PROFESSIONAL - PEOPLE COME TO YOU BECAUSE YOU CAN DO THE JOB
BETTER THAN THEM. ENSURE YOUR TECHNIQUES DEMONSTRATE THIS
SUPERIORITY OTHERWISE IT WON'T BE LONG BEFORE THEY DO THE JOB FOR
THEMSELVES.
LET TECHNIQUE MASTER TECHNOLOGY - DON'T LET TECHNOLOGY BECOME YOUR
MASTER. THE BEST EQUIPMENT IN THE WORLD WILL NEVER REPLACE CREATIVITY
AND REASONING.
scene will be observed from the top of the walls to the floor. Once
again, a composite photograph can be created. Photograph every room
in the residence but overlapping photographs need only be taken at
the crime scene itself.
Interior photographs should depict the conditions of the room, articles
left at the scene, trace evidence such as cigarette butts, tool marks
and impressions of shoe prints. The location of fingerprints should be
photographed and in all instances, some notation should be made in
the photo log or on the photograph explaining what the photograph is
showing.
Signs of activity prior to the occurrence, such as the telephone
receiver off the hook or wires cut, playing cards orderly stacked or
scattered, TV and lights turned on, food in cooking stages, coffee cups,
drinking glasses or liquor bottles, time watch and clock stopped should
be recorded on film. In general, articles apparently in use immediately
prior to the commission of the crime or which appear to have been
disturbed from their customary position should be photographed.
During a rape investigation, the purpose of the photographic record is
to record information on signs of any struggle at the scene where the
attack occurred, or indications of the victim's effort to resist attack;
such as bruises, black and blue marks, torn clothing, etc. Bite marks
should be photographed using oblique lighting, with and without a
measuring device at the crime scene and also the morgue.
In a rape-homicide investigation, infrared ultraviolet photography of
the body may detect latent bite marks since hemorrhaging can occur
in tissue under the skin. The location of foreign hairs and fibers,
biological fluids and stains should be depicted. If alive, permission
from the victim to photograph her body should be obtained and if the
victim was a minor, written permission from the parent or guardian. It
is recommended that the victim's physician be present when such
photographs are made. Blood spatter on walls should be photographed
with the lens parallel to the stain so that directionally (the direction the
blood flowed can be determined.
In sexual exploitation of children cases, every room in a suspect's
residence should be photographed even if no physical evidence (such
as photographs or video tapes) are found during a crime scene search.
Chances are the suspect has concealed this material at another
location. Rarely will these photographs be discarded since they
represent a trophy or remembrance of the conquest. When these
panning the camera rapidly, poor focusing and lighting and improper
use of the zoom feature of the cameras. The cameraman should
describe on tape each room and view of the crime scene and insure
that other investigators and crime scene technician are silent during
the taping.
If done properly, crime scene photography greatly assists the profiler
in developing a psychological and behavioral profile of the offender.
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photography really go down? Since its purpose is to record evidence that will be admissible in
court, it's hardly a haphazard operation.
Crime scene photography, also called forensic photography, has been around almost as long as
the camera itself. Criminologists quickly realized that such technology could freeze time -creating a supposedly incontestable record of a crime scene, a piece of evidence or even a body.
The 19th century French photographer Alphonse Bertillon was the first to approach a crime scene
with the systematic methods of an investigator. He'd capture images at various distances and
take both ground level and overhead shots.
Up Next
Today, forensic photographs are essential for investigating and prosecuting a crime. This is
because most evidence is transitory: Fingerprints must be lifted; bodies must be taken away and
examined; and homes or businesses must be returned to their normal state. Photographs help
preserve not only the most fleeting evi dence -- like the shape of a blood stain that will soon be
mopped up -- but als o the placement of items in a room and the relation of evidence to other
objects. Such images can prove vital to investigators long after the crime scene is gone.
So how do crime scene photographers go about their business? Find out in the next se
If the crime took place inside, overviews include photos of the outside of the building, its
entrances and exits as well as images that place the building in relation to its surroundings.
Photos of spectators at the scene can later help locate witnesses or suspects. Overviews also
include images of all rooms, taken from overhead and from each corner.
The forensic photographer then hones in on key pieces of evidence and captures images of them
in the context. These mid-range photos might picture a piece of evidence, like a knife, but at
enough of a distance to show its relation to furniture, a blood stain or the rest of the room. Midrange images establish the distance of object from surrounding objects.
A camera always helps: A police officer trains with his new camera in 1935.
A good photograph of a crime scene must meet certain technical specifications: correct exposure,
sharp focus and maximum depth of field, the portion of the photograph that appears sharp. The
image must also be free from distortion. Such technical standards produce photos that will
actually aid agents in their investigation of a crime.
But there are additional qualities that make a photo admissible in court. The image pictured
cannot alter the scene or evidence -- say through strategic blocking with a measuring device or
an intentionally shallow depth of field. The image must also be relevant to the case and should be
composed with technical precision in mind, not emotional appeal.
Photographers might vary their kit based on personal preferences or the type of crime scene but
most carry certain basics: a camera, obviously, and maybe even multiple cameras; filters;
electronic flashes; various lenses for wide-angle, mid-range and close-up shots; a tripod; a
measuring device; a gray card, which when combined with a light meter helps produce correctly
exposed photographs; and a way to protect equipment from rain or extreme heat or cold.
Crime scene photographers usually use color images although black and white can be useful
when documenting evidence that relies more on texture than color like latent fingerprints.
Weegee's famous photograph "Their First Murder" shows a crowd with mixed emotions
gathered after a murder in Williamsburg in New York City.
Struck by many of the images' captivating, almost movie-like quality, the artists and officers
launched an effort to preserve the negatives, some of which were beginning to decompose. They
also launched an exhibition of the archive and sent it around the United States. A lieutenant who
helped present the archive explained that the images' morbid artistic quality was a result of lessscrupulous forensics standards in times past. The photographers were sometimes willing to fiddle
with a crime scene in order to produce the best shot. Consequently, the photos, though they still
functioned as evidence, look more like art than modern crime scene shots.
However, art and crime scene photography have long been linked. The New York City freelance
press photographer Weegee made a name for himself by capturing images of crime scenes,
news sites and movie premiers with equal frankness and occasional irony. In 1941, he staged a
solo exhibition at the Photo League in New York entitled "Weegee: Murder is my Business."
Why Weegee?
Austrian-born Arthur Fellig took on the name Weegee after
observers compared his keen sense for arriving early at a crime
scene to a Ouija board. His phonetic spelling of the word produced
the name Weegee [source: Getty]
While the photographer credited this sixth sense to an itchy feeling
in his elbows, he was also likely aided by his proximity to police
headquarters, his paid informants and his special police radio. In
Any pictures that are carved out of wood or rock, or made of mud or clay or anything similar,
are all forbidden if they are images of living creatures that have souls because of their
imitation of the Creation of Allah the Mighty and Majestic. And in the authentic hadith is that
the Messenger of Allah cursed the image-makers, and to be cursed is to be expelled and farremoved from the Mercy of Allah. And in the hadith qudsi also is that Allah the Exalted
said:
And who is more oppressive than the one who went and created as I have Created!
So, let them create an atom, or let them create a mustard seed, or let them create a
fiber.
And also, in the authentic hadith: The people who will be tortured most on the Day of
Resurrection are the image-makers who imitate the Creation of Allah. It will be said to them:
Bring life to what you have made.
And the proofs for this are many, and from the image-making that this warning applies to
according to the strongest opinion is that which takes place when a human being draws an
image of a creature with a soul by hand. This falls under the image-making that is warned
against, and it is a sin from amongst the major sins.
As for the image-making that takes place using instant cameras, this does not appear to fall
under this, because the photographer does not draw out or try to imitate the Creation of Allah.
Because of this, if some people are presented with a photograph that has been taken, you will
not find them saying: How good is this photographer! How excellent is he! But, if they are
presented with a hand-drawn picture that closely resembles what was being drawn, they will
say: How good is this artist! How excellent is he! So, this proves that there is a difference
between drawing the picture by hand and taking it using a camera.
And this is also proven by the fact that if a person writes something by hand and a photocopy
is made of it, the people will not ascribe this writing to the one who made the photocopy of it.
Rather, they will ascribe it to the one who originally wrote it, and people still preserve
copyrights in this manner. They would not say that this person who made the photocopy did a
good job of copying the writing precisely using this innovative technology. In fact, a blind man
can be given this task, or a man can perform this task in the dark.
However, if a man copies the handwriting of the original writer by hand so that the people
think that it was the original writing itself, the people would then say: How innovative he is!
How excellent he is! How did he copy this handwriting so precisely? And with the likes of
these examples, it becomes clear that photographic imagery is not image-making that can be
truly ascribed to the one who took the picture, and it cannot be said that this is imitation of
the Creation of Allah because he did not create anything.
And to in order to say that photographs are allowed, a condition must be met that they do not
lead to what is forbidden, because the permissible things that lead to the forbidden are in turn
forbidden. The means have the ruling of the ends. So, for example, we do not see that it is
allowed for a person to take these pictures in order to preserve memories because of what this
contains of possession of a picture that we fear might fall under the saying of the Prophet:
The Angels do not enter a house in which there is a picture.
Source
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TheAuthenticBase Says:
June 28, 2010 at 11:44 AM
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Assalaamu alaykum,
However one should note that there is a difference of opinion amongst our scholars on this
point.
Some allow photography (Ibn Uthaymeen), some dont (Bin Baaz & Al-Albaani).
Some allow video recording of living beings (Bin Baaz & Ibn Uthaymeen), and some dont (AlAlbaani?).
Some say it is impermissible to record videos, but it is okay for dawah purposes (Al-Albaani is
apparently of this opinion).
Some say it is haraam fullstop.
The noble scholar, shaykh Saalih Al-Fawzaan is of this last opinion.
He was asked: What is the ruling on recording lessons and seminars on video for the purpose
of Islaamic propagation and benefit?
Shaykh Saalih Al Fawzaan responded:
Since the time of the Prophets, the Islaamic propagation has been established without the use
of photography. Consequently, there is no need for photography and propagation takes place
without it. It is not permissible to use that which is prohibited for the purpose of propagation.
[Audio found at http://www.alfawzan.ws ]
As for sisters posting their pictures online, then no doubt this is haraam, so this fatwa (of Ibn
Uthaymeen in the above post) is NOT promoting that And fear Allaah, The One Swift in
reckoning, so that you may attain success.
Reply
o
Amatullah Says:
July 16, 2010 at 7:12 PM
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What is the proof on saying that video recording is allowed for dawah purpose?!!! If a
thing is such a serious sin like making living beings as hadeeth states , The people who
will be tortured most on the Day of Resurrection are the image-makers who imitate the
Creation of Allah. It will be said to them: Bring life to what you have made. , then
how can it be ALLOWED for dawah purpose? If it was then the hadeeth would say
except for spreading Islam or word to that effect. Isnt it common sense?!!! I agree
with shaykh Fawjan that if it is haram then haram on everything fullstop !
Reply
2.
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This is a simple difference in understanding and as muslims we are required to teach our selves
that much religion and sharia that we can understand each thing and clearly follow it. Now I
would disagree with the Mr. Saalih Ali Fawzaan on being that strict and stringent but then his
point of view is also correct on the grounds that a thing is prohibited for the purpose of
propagation.
Reply
Digital photography
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Digital photography is a form of photography that uses an array of light sensitive sensors to capture
the image focused by the lens, as opposed to an exposure on light sensitive film. The captured image
is then stored as a digital file ready for digital processing (colour correction, sizing, cropping, etc.),
viewing or printing.
Until the advent of such technology, photographs were made by exposing light sensitivephotographic
film and used chemical photographic processing to develop and stabilize the image. By
contrast, digital photographs can be displayed, printed, stored, manipulated, transmitted, and archived
using digital and computer techniques, without chemical processing.
Digital photography is one of several forms of digital imaging. Digital images are also created by nonphotographic equipment such as computer tomography scanners and radio telescopes. Digital images
can also be made by scanning conventional photographic images.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Sensors and storage
3 Multifunctionality and connectivity
4 Performance metrics
[edit]History
Main article: History of the camera#Digital Cameras
This section requires expansion.
[edit]Sensors
and storage
Image sensors read the intensity of light, and digital memory devices store the digital image
information as RGB color space or as raw data.
There are two main types of sensors:
Nearly all digital cameras use built-in and/or removable solid state flash memory. Digital tapeless
camcorders that double as a digital still camera use flash memory, discs and internal hard drives.
Certain 20th century digital cameras such as the Sony Mavica range used floppy disks and mini-CDs.
[edit]Multifunctionality
and connectivity
Except for some linear array type of cameras at the highest-end and simple web cams at the lowestend, a digital memory device (usually amemory card; floppy disks and CD-RWs are less common) is
used for storing images, which may be transferred to a computer later.
Digital cameras can take pictures, and may also record sound and video. Some can be used
as webcams, some can use the PictBridgestandard to connect to a printer without using a computer,
and some can display pictures directly on a television set. Similarly, manycamcorders can take still
photographs, and store them on videotape or on flash memorycards with the same functionality
as digital cameras.
[edit]Performance
metrics
The quality of a digital image is a composite of various factors, many of which are similar to those of
film cameras. Pixel count (typically listed in megapixels, millions of pixels) is only one of the major
factors, though it is the most heavily marketed figure of merit. Digital camera manufacturers advertise
this figure because consumers can use it to easily compare camera capabilities. It is not, however, the
major factor in evaluating a digital camera for most applications. The processing system inside the
camera that turns the raw data into a color-balanced and pleasing photograph is usually more critical,
which is why some 4+ megapixel cameras perform better than higher-end cameras.
Resolution in pixels is not the only measure of image quality. A larger sensor with the same number of
pixels generally produces a better image than a smaller one. One of the most important differences is
an improvement in image noise. This is one of the advantages of digital SLR cameras, which have
larger sensors than simpler cameras of the same resolution.
Capture format: pixel count, digital file type (RAW, TIFF, JPEG), film format (135 film, 120
film, 5x4, 10x8).
[edit]Pixel
counts
The number of pixels n for a given maximum resolution (w horizontal pixels by h vertical pixels) is the
product n = w h. This yields e. g. 1.92 megapixels (1,920,000 pixels) for an image of 1600 1200.
The majority of compact as well as some DSLR digital cameras have a 4:3aspect ratio, i.e. w/h = 4/3.
[1]
According to Digital Photography Review, the 4:3 ratio is because "computer monitors are 4:3 ratio,
old CCD's always had a 4:3 ratio, and thus digital cameras inherited this aspect ratio." [1]
The pixel count quoted by manufacturers can be misleading as it may not be the number of full-colour
pixels. For cameras using single-chipimage sensors the number claimed is the total number of singlecolour-sensitive photosensors, whether they have different locations in the plane, as with the Bayer
sensor, or in stacks of three co-located photosensors as in the Foveon X3 sensor. However, the
images have different numbers of RGB pixels: Bayer-sensor cameras produce as many RGB pixels as
photosensors via demosaicing (interpolation), while Foveon sensors produce uninterpolated image
files with one-third as many RGB pixels as photosensors. It is difficult to compare the resolutions
based on the megapixel ratings of these two types of sensors, and therefore sometimes subject of
dispute.[2]
The relative increase in detail resulting from an increase in resolution is better compared by looking at
the number of pixels across (or down) the picture, rather than the total number of pixels in the picture
area. For example, a sensor of 2560 1600 sensor elements is described as "4 megapixels" (2560
1600 = 4,096,000). Increasing to 3200 2048 increases the pixels in the picture to 6,553,600 (6.5
megapixels), a factor of 1.6, but the pixels per cm in the picture (at the same image size) increases by
only 1.25 times. A measure of the comparative increase in linear resolution is the square root of the
increase in area resolution, i.e., megapixels in the entire image.
[edit]Dynamic
range
Practical imaging systems, digital and film, have a limited "dynamic range": the range of luminosity that
can be reproduced accurately.Highlights of the subject that are too bright are rendered as white, with
no detail; shadows that are too dark are rendered as black. The loss of detail is not abrupt with film, or
in dark shadows with digital sensors: some detail is retained as brightness moves out of the dynamic
range. "Highlight burn-out" of digital sensors, however, can be abrupt, and highlight detail may be lost.
And as the sensor elements for different colors saturate in turn, there can be gross hue or saturation
shift in burnt-out highlights.
Some digital cameras can show these blown highlights in the image review, allowing the photographer
to re-shoot the picture with a modified exposure. Others compensate for the total contrast of a scene
by selectively exposing darker pixels longer. A third technique is used by Fujifilm in its FinePix S3
Pro digital SLR. The image sensor contains additional photodiodes of lower sensitivity than the main
ones; these retain detail in parts of the image too bright for the main sensor.
High dynamic range imaging (HDR) addresses this problem by increasing the dynamic range of
images by either
by using exposure bracketing and post-processing the separate images to create a single
image with a higher dynamic range.
[edit]Applications
and considerations
The Presidential Portrait of Barack Obamawas the first official U.S. Presidential Portrait to be taken with a digital
camera.
With the acceptable image quality and the other advantages of digital photography (particularly the
time pressures of daily newspapers) the majority of professional news photographers capture their
images with digital cameras.
Digital photography has also been adopted by many amateur snapshot photographers, who take
advantage of the convenience of sending images by email, placing them on the World Wide Web, or
displaying them in digital picture frames. The majority of cameras are camera phones integrated
into cell phones but their usual small, poor quality lenses and sensors render most of them unsuitable
for making even moderate size prints.
Some commercial photographers, and some amateurs interested in artistic photography, have been
resistant to using digital rather than film cameras because they believe that the image quality available
from a digital camera is still inferior to that available from a film camera, and the quality of images
taken on medium format film was thought to be impossible to match with a digital camera. Some have
expressed a concern that changing computer technology may make digital photographs inaccessible
in the future. A related concern in a specialized application is the use of digital photographs in court
proceedings, with the added difficulty of demonstrating an image's authenticity. Some high-end film
can also still be projected for viewing at a much higher optical resolution than even the best digital
projectors. Some professional photographers resist the use of Digital Cameras because they are poor
performers when it comes to speed for multiple shots. Storing an 8MP image takes a lot of time and
therefore some applications Digital Cameras are not currently appropriate.
Other commercial photographers, and many amateurs, have enthusiastically embraced digital
photography because they believe that its flexibility and lower long-term costs outweigh its initial price
disadvantages. Almost all of the cost of digital photography is capital cost, meaning that the cost is for
the equipment needed to store and copy the images, and once purchased requires virtually no further
expense outlay. Film photography requires continuous expenditure of funds for supplies and
developing, although the equipment itself does not outdate so quickly and has a longer service life.
Some commercial photographers have also begun moving to digital technology because of the
tremendous editing capabilities now offered on computers. The photographer is able to color-balance
and otherwise manipulate the image in ways that traditional darkroom techniques cannot offer, or are
far more laborious in the darkroom. With fully color-balanced systems from the camera to the monitor
to the printer, the photographer can now supply, either as a print or as a computer display, what is
actually seen on the photographer's screen. Film users can use a film scanner, thus mixing the two
technologies. Rapid advances in the technologies have resulted in many specialised abbreviations and
initialisms being freely used in publications and internet discussions.
However, digital cameras require batteries that need to be recharged or replaced frequently, and this
means that a photographer needs access to electrical outlets. Digital cameras also tend to be much
more sensitive to moisture and extreme cold. For this reason, photographers who work in remote
areas may favour film SLR cameras, though many higher-end DSLRs are now equipped with weatherresistant bodies. Medium- and large-format film cameras are also still preferred by publications
insisting on the very highest detail and resolution.
Digital photography was used in astrophotography long before its use by the general public and had
almost completely displaced photographic plates by the early 1980s. CCDs are more sensitive to light
than plates, and have a much more uniform and predictable response. The CCDs used in astronomy
are similar to those used by the general public, but are generally monochrome. Many of those used
in infrared astronomy are cooled with liquid nitrogen so as to reduce the image noise caused by heat.
Many astronomical instruments have arrays of many CCDs, sometimes totaling almost a billion pixels.
Amateur astronomers also commonly use digital cameras, including the use of webcams for speckle
imaging or "video astronomy".
[edit]Sensor
Cameras with digital image sensors that are smaller than the typical 35mm film size has a smaller field
or angle of view when used with a lens of the same focal length. This is because angle of view is a
function of both focal length and the sensor or film size used.
If a sensor smaller than the full-frame 35mmfilm format is used, such as the use ofAPS-C-sized digital
sensors in DSLRs, then the field of view is cropped by the sensor to smaller than the 35mm full-frame
format's field of view. This narrowing of the field of view is often described in terms of afocal length
multiplier or crop factor, a factor by which a longer focal length lens would be needed to get the same
field of view on a full-frame camera.
If the digital sensor has approximately the same resolution (effective pixels per unit area) as the 35mm
film surface (24 x 36 mm), then the result is similar to taking the image from the film camera and
cutting it down (cropping) to the size of the sensor. For an APS-C size sensor, this would be a
reduction to the center 62.5% of the image. The cheaper, non-SLR models of digital cameras typically
use much smaller sensor sizes and the reduction would be greater.
If the digital sensor has a higher or lower density of pixels per unit area than the film equivalent, then
the amount of information captured differs correspondingly. While resolution can be estimated in pixels
per unit area, the comparison is complex since most types of digital sensor record only a single colour
at each pixel location, and different types of film have different effective resolutions. There are various
trade-offs involved, since larger sensors are more expensive to manufacture and require larger lenses,
while sensors with higher numbers of pixels per unit area are likely to suffer higher noise levels.
For these reasons, it is possible to obtain cheap digital cameras with sensor sizes much smaller than
35mm film, but with high pixel counts, that can still produce high-resolution images. Such cameras are
usually supplied with lenses that would be classed as extremely wide angle on a 35mm camera, and
that can also be smaller size and less expensive, since there is a smaller sensor to illuminate. For
example, a camera with a 1/1.8" sensor has a 5.0x field of view crop, and so a hypothetical 5-50mm
zoom lens produces images that look similar (again the differences mentioned above are important) to
those produced by a 35mm film camera with a 25250mm lens, while being much more compact than
such a lens for a 35mm camera since the imaging circle is much smaller.
This can be useful if extra telephoto reach is desired, as a certain lens on an APS sensor produces an
image equivalent to a significantly longer lens on a 35mm film camera shot at the same distance from
the subject, the equivalent length of which depends on the camera's field of view crop. This is
sometimes referred to as the focal length multiplier, but the focal length is a physical attribute of the
lens and not the camera system itself. The disadvantage of this is that wide angle photography is
made somewhat more difficult, as the smaller sensor effectively and undesirably reduces the captured
field of view. Some methods of compensating for this or otherwise producing much wider digital
photographs involve using a fisheye lens and "defishing" the image in post processing to simulate
a rectilinear wide angle lens.
Full-frame digital SLRs, that is, those with sensor size matching a frame of 35mm film, include Canon
1Ds and 5D series, Kodak Pro DCS-14n, Nikon D3 line and Contax N Digital. There are very few
digital cameras with sensors that can approach the resolution of larger-format film cameras, with the
possible exception of the Mamiya ZD (22MP) and the Hasselblad H3D series of DSLRs (22 to 39 MP).
Common values for field of view crop in DSLRs include 1.3x for some Canon (APS-H) sensors, 1.5x
for Sony APS-C sensors used by Nikon,Pentax and Konica Minolta and for Fujifilm sensors, 1.6 (APS-
C) for most Canon sensors, ~1.7x for Sigma's Foveon sensors and 2x forKodak and Panasonic 4/3"
sensors currently used by Olympus and Panasonic. Crop factors for non-SLR consumer compact
and bridgecameras are larger, frequently 4x or more.
Further information: Image sensor format
1/3.6"
4.00
3.00
12.0
1/3.2"
4.54
3.42
15.5
1/3"
4.80
3.60
17.3
1/2.7"
5.37
4.04
21.7
1/2.5"
5.76
4.29
24.7
1/2"
6.40
4.80
30.7
1/1.8"
7.18
5.32
38.2
1/1.7"
7.60
5.70
43.3
2/3"
8.80
6.60
58.1
1"
12.8
9.6
123
4/3"
18.0
13.5
243
APS-C
25.1
16.7
419
35 mm
36
24
864
Back
48
36
1728
[edit]Storage
Main article: Digital camera#Storage
Storage for digital cameras has increased in size and technology with time, from magnetic tape
(Steven Sasson's 1975 prototype) to floppy disks to flash memory.
[edit]Digital
camera backs
Area array
CCD
CMOS
Linear array
CCD (monochrome)
Single-shot
Scanning and multi-shot camera backs are usually used only in studios to take pictures of still objects.
Most earlier digital camera backs used linear array sensors that could take seconds or even minutes
for a complete high-resolution scan. The linear array sensor acts like its counterpart in a flatbed image
scanner by moving vertically to digitize the image.
Many early such cameras could only capture grayscale images. To take a color picture, it required
three separate scans done with a rotating colored filter. These are called multi-shot backs. Some other
camera backs use CCD arrays similar to typical cameras. These are called single-shot backs.
Since it is much easier to manufacture a high-quality linear CCD array with only thousands of pixels
than a CCD matrix with millions, very high resolution linear CCD camera backs were available much
earlier than their CCD matrix counterparts. For example, you could buy an (albeit expensive) camera
back with over 7,000 pixel horizontal resolution in the mid-1990s. However, as of 2004, it is still difficult
to buy a comparable CCD matrix camera of the same resolution. Rotating line cameras, with about
10,000 color pixels in its sensor line, are able, as of 2005, to capture about 120,000 lines during one
full 360 degree rotation, thereby creating a single digital image of 1,200 Megapixels.
Most modern digital camera backs use very large CCD matrices. This eliminates the need for
scanning. For example, Phase One produces a 39 million pixel digital camera back with a 49.1 x
36.8 mm CCD in 2008. This CCD array is a little smaller than a frame of 120 film and much larger than
a 35 mm frame (36 x 24 mm). In comparison, a consumer digital camera usually uses a much smaller
1/2.5 inch or 7.176 x 5.329 mm (~ 1/1.8 inch) CCD sensor. Further, the 1/2.5 or 1/1.8 inch diagonal
measurement is the size of the entire CCD chip- the actual photo-sensitive area is much smaller.
At present, there are relatively few complete digital SLR cameras with sensors large enough to
compete with medium to large format film cameras. Phase One and Mamiya manufacture medium
format digital devices that can capture 16MP up to 39MP.[4] The units tend to be quite large and
expensive. Additionally, because of their high build quality and lack of moving parts tend to be quite
long lasting and are prominent on the used market. [5]
[edit]Comparison
[edit]Advantages
Instant review of pictures, with no wait for the film to be developed: if there's a problem with a
picture, the photographer can immediately correct the problem and take another picture
Minimal ongoing costs for those wishing to capture hundreds of photographs for digital uses,
such as computer storage and e-mailing, but not printing
If one already owns a newer computer, permanent storage on digital media is considerably
cheaper than film
Photos may be copied from one digital medium to another without any degradation
Ability to embed metadata within the image file, such as the time and date of the photograph,
model of the camera, shutter speed, flash use, and other similar items, to aid in the reviewing and
sorting of photographs. Film cameras have limited ability to handle metadata, though many film
cameras can "imprint" a date over a picture by exposing the film to an internal LED array (or other
device) that displays the date.
Ability to capture and store hundreds of photographs on the same media device within the
digital camera; by contrast, a film camera would require regular changing of film (typically after
every 24 or 36 shots)
Many digital cameras now include an AV-out connector (and cable) to allow the reviewing of
photographs to an audience using a television
Ability to change ISO speed settings more conveniently in the middle of shooting, for example
when the weather changes from bright sunlight to cloudy. In film photography, film must be
unloaded and new film with desired ISO speed loaded.
Smaller sensor format, compared to 35mm film frame, allows for smaller lenses, wider zoom
ranges, and greater depth of field.
Ability to use the same device to capture video as well as still images.
Ability to convert the same photo from color to sepia to black & white
[edit]Advantages
Immediate image review and deletion is possible; lighting and composition can be assessed
immediately, which ultimately conserves storage space.
Faster workflow: Management (colour and file), manipulation and printing tools are more
versatile than conventional film processes. However, batch processing of RAW files can be time
consuming, even on a fast computer.
Digital manipulation: A digital image can be modified and manipulated much easier and faster
than with traditional negative and print methods. The digital image to the right was captured in
RAW format, processed and output in 3 different ways from the source RAW file, then merged and
further processed for color saturation and other special effects to produce a more dramatic result
than was originally captured with the RAW image.
Recent manufacturers such as Nikon and Canon have promoted the adoption of digital single-lens
reflex cameras (DSLRs) by photojournalists. Images captured at 2+ megapixels are deemed of
sufficient quality for small images in newspaper or magazine reproduction. Eight to 24 megapixel
images, found in modern digital SLRs, when combined with high-end lenses, can approximate the
detail of film prints from 35 mm film based SLRs, and the latest 16 megapixel models can produce
detailed images that are thought better than 35mm film images and the majority of medium
format cameras.[6]
[edit]Disadvantages
of digital cameras
Whereas film cameras can have manual backups for electronic and electrical features, digital
cameras are entirely dependent on an electrical supply (usually batteries but sometimes power
cord when in 'tethered' mode).
Many digital sensors have less dynamic range than color print film. However, some newer
CCDs such as Fuji's Super CCD, which combines diodes of different sensitivity, have improved
upon this issue.
When highlights burn out, they burn to white without details, while film cameras retain a
reduced level of detail, as discussed above.
High ISO image noise may manifest as multicolored speckles in digital images, rather than the
less-objectionable "grain" of high-ISO film. While this speckling can be removed by noisereduction software, either in-camera or on a computer, this can have a detrimental effect on image
quality as fine detail may be lost in the process.
Aliasing may add patterns to images that do not exist and would not appear in film.
The possibility that in the future certain digital file formats (for example, JPEG) may become
obsolete/replaced.
Dust particles can adhere to the cover glass of the image sensor in digital cameras, resulting
in persisting dust spots in images. Film cameras use a fresh piece of film for each shot, so dust
does not build up on the film. Digital image sensors may be cleaned with a simple cleaning kit or
professionally, and some digital cameras have built-in sensor cleaning mechanisms, mitigating this
problem.
For most consumers in prosperous countries such as the United States and Western Europe, the
advantages of digital cameras outweigh their disadvantages. However, some professional
photographers still prefer film. Much of the post-shooting work done by a photo lab for film is done by
the photographer himself for digital images. Concerns that have been raised by professional
photographers include: editing and post-processing of RAW files can take longer than 35mm film,
downloading a large number of images to a computer can be time-consuming, shooting in remote sites
requires the photographer to carry a number of batteries and add to the load to carry, equipment failure
while all cameras may fail, some film camera problems (e.g., meter or rangefinder problems, failure
of only some shutter speeds) can be worked around. As time passes, it is expected that more
professional photographers will switch to digital.
In some cases where very high-resolution digital images of good quality are needed it may be
advantageous to take large-format film photographs and digitise them. This allows the creation of very
large computer files without speed or capacity disadvantages at picture-taking time. [7]
[edit]Equivalent
features
lower than digital ISO levels (25 and 50 respectively), digital settings can be changed quickly
according to requirements, while film must be physically replaced and protected from all light during
such replacement. Additionally, image noise reduction techniques can be used to remove noise from
digital images and film grain is fixed. From an artistic point of view, film grain and image noise may be
desirable when creating a specific mood for an image. Modern digital cameras have comparable
noise/grain at the same ISO as film cameras. Some digital cameras though, do exhibit a pattern in
the digital noise that is not found on film.
Speed of use
Previously digital cameras had a longer start-up delay compared to film cameras, i.e., the delay from
when they are turned on until they are ready to take the first shot, but this is no longer the case for
modern digital cameras with start-up times under 1/4 second (0.15 seconds for the Nikon D90).
[8]
Similarly, the amount of time needed to write the data for a digital picture to the memory card is now
comparable to the amount of time it takes to wind the film on a film camera, at least with modern digital
cameras and modern fast memory cards.[citation needed]Both digital cameras and film cameras have a small
delay between when the shutter button is pressed and when the picture is taken this is the time
necessary to autofocus the lens and compute and set the exposure. (This shutter delay is practically
zero for SLR and the best DSLR cameras.)
Frame rate
The Nikon D3 can take still photographs at 11 frames per second; the fastest film SLR could shoot 14
frames per second (Canon F1-n with a super high speed motor, but fewer than 100 were constructed
for the 1984 Summer Olympics[citation needed]). The Nikon F5 is limited to 36 continuous frames (the length
of the film) while the Canon EOS-1D Mark III is able to take about 110 high definition JPEG images
before itsbuffer must be cleared and the remaining space on the storage media can be used.
Even Bridge camera such as Fujifilm FinePix HS10 has burst mode 10fps and Panasonic Lumix DMCFZ100 has 11fps.[9][10] Moreover FinePix HS10 can take movies at 1000 fps at 224x64 pixels with no
sound.[11]
Image longevity
Film and prints can fade, but digital images can potentially last unchanged forever. However, the media
on which the digital images are stored can decay or become corrupt, leading to a loss of image
integrity. Film and digital media should be stored under archival conditions for maximum longevity.
Without backup it is easier to lose huge amounts of digital data, for example by accidental deletion of
folders, or by failure of a mass storage device. In comparison, each generation of copies of film
negatives and transparencies is degraded compared to its parent. Film images can easily be
converted to digital (by using a digital film scanner for example) with some possible loss of quality.
Colour reproduction
Colour reproduction (gamut) is dependent on the type and quality of film or sensor used and the
quality of the optical system and film processing. Different films and sensors have different color
sensitivity; the photographer needs to understand his equipment, the light conditions, and the media
used to ensure accurate colour reproduction. Many digital cameras offer RAW format (sensor data),
which makes it possible to choose color space in the development stage regardless of camera
settings; in effect the scene itself is stored as far as the sensor allows, and can to some extent be
"rephotographed" with different color balance, exposure, etc. Although RAW format can be used, the
sensor and the cameras dynamics can only capture in the GAMUT that the system will allow, and
when that image is transferred for reproduction on any device the best possible gamut that the person
viewing the image will see is the gamut of the end device for a monitor it would be the screens gamut,
for a photgraphic print it will be the gamut of the device that printed the image on the paper. Color
Gamut or Color Space is an abstract term for describing an area where points of color fit in a three
dimensional space. You might more easily picture this as different shaped/sized boxes whereby one
box may not fit into another and therefore what does not fit gets clipped off.
[edit]A
A typical digital camera's aspect ratio is 1.33 (4:3), the same as today's NTSC or PAL/SECAM TVs or
earliest movies. However, a 35 mmpicture's aspect ratio is 1.5 (3:2). Several new digital cameras take
photos in either ratio, and nearly all digital SLRs take pictures in a 3:2 ratio as they usually use lenses
designed for 35 mm film (Olympus and Panasonic digital SLRs are notable exceptions). Some photo
labs print photos on 4:3 ratio paper, as well as the existing 3:2. In 2005 Panasonic launched the first
consumer camera with a native aspect ratio of 16:9, matching HDTV. This is similar to a 7:4 aspect
ratio, which was a common size for APS film. Different aspect ratios is one of the reasons consumers
have cropping issues when printing digital photos, or film photos. Moreover, the majority of digital
cameras take an aspect ratio of 4:3, which translates to a size of 4.5" x 6.0". This translates into losing
a half an inch when printing on the "standard" size of 4" x 6", an aspect ratio of 3:2. Similar cropping
occurs when printing on other sizes, i.e., 5"x7", 8"x10", or 11"x14". The easy way to see if the aspect
ratio you want fits is to divide the length and width. If these match, there is no cropping of the original
image. For example, an 8"x12" has the same aspect ratio as a 4"x6" or a 12"x18", because 12 divided
by 8 is 1.5, the same aspect ratio as a 4"x6", which is also 1.5.
[edit]Market
impact
In late 2002, 2 megapixel cameras were available in the United States for less than $100, with some 1
megapixel cameras for under $60. At the same time, many discount stores with photo labs introduced
a "digital front end", allowing consumers to obtain true chemical prints (as opposed to ink-jet prints) in
an hour. These prices were similar to those of prints made from film negatives. However, because
digital images have a different aspect ratio than 35 mm film images, people have started to realize that
4x6 inch prints crop some of the image off the print. Some photofinishers have started offering prints
with the same aspect ratio as the digital cameras record.
In July 2003, digital cameras entered the disposable camera market with the release of the Ritz
Dakota Digital, a 1.2 megapixel (1280 x 960) CMOS-based digital camera costing only $11 (USD).
Following the familiar single-use concept long in use with film cameras, the Dakota Digital was
intended to be used by a consumer one time only. When the pre-programmed 25 picture limit is
reached, the camera is returned to the store, and the consumer receives back prints and a CD-ROM
with their photos. The camera is then refurbished and resold. Since the introduction of the Dakota
Digital, a number of similar single-use digital cameras have appeared. Most of the various single-use
digital cameras are nearly identical to the original Dakota Digital regarding specifications and
functionality, although a few include superior specifications and more advanced functions (such as
higher image resolutions and LCD screens). Most, if not all, of these single-use digital cameras cost
less than $20 (USD), not including processing fees. However, the huge demand for complex digital
cameras at competitive prices has often resulted in manufacturing shortcuts, evidenced by a large
increase in customer complaints over camera malfunctions, high parts prices, and short service life.
Some digital cameras offer only a 90-day warranty.
Prices of 35mm compact cameras have dropped with manufacturers further outsourcing to countries
such as China. Kodak announced in January 2004 that they would no longer sell Kodak-branded film
cameras in the developed world.[12] In January 2006, Nikon followed suit and announced they would
stop production of all but two models of their film cameras. They will continue to produce the low-end
Nikon FM10, and the high-end Nikon F6. In the same month, Konica Minolta announced it was pulling
out of the camera business altogether. The price of 35mm and APS compact cameras have dropped,
probably due to direct competition from digital and the resulting growth of the offer of second-hand film
cameras.[13] Pentax have reduced production of film cameras but not halted it. [14] The technology has
improved so rapidly that one of Kodak's film cameras was discontinued before it was awarded a
"camera of the year" award later in the year.
Since 2002, digital cameras have outsold film cameras. However, the use of 35mm cameras is greater
in developing countries.[15] In Guatemala, for example, extremely high import duties on all digital
products serves to encourage sales and use of film cameras.
The decline in film camera sales has also led to a decline in purchases of film for such cameras. In
November 2004, a German division ofAgfa-Gevaert, AgfaPhoto, split off. Within six months it filed for
bankruptcy . Konica Minolta Photo Imaging, Inc. ended production of Color film and paper worldwide
by March 31, 2007. In addition, by 2005, Kodak employed less than a third of the employees it had
twenty years earlier. It is not known if these job losses in the film industry have been offset in the digital
image industry.
In addition, digital photography has resulted in some positive market impacts as well. The increasing
popularity of products such as digital photo frames and canvas prints is a direct result of the increasing
popularity of digital photography.
An example of digital photography. This photo was taken and made into a digital print in less than 5 minutes.
[edit]Social
impact
This section may contain original research. Pleaseimprove
it by verifying the claims made and addingreferences.
Statements consisting only of original research may be
removed. More details may be available on the talk
page. (January 2009)
offer photofinishing services or sell film no longer do, and those that do have seen a tremendous
decline.
Photographic images have always been prone to fading and loss of image quality due to sun exposure
or improper storage of film negatives, slides, and prints. Since digital images are stored as data on a
computer, the image never loses visual quality, detail, or fidelity as long as the digital media remains
intact. The only way to ruin a digital image is to delete the image file, corrupt or re-write some of the
image file's data, or damage or destroy the electronic storage media (hard drive, disk, CD-ROM, flash
card, etc.) that contains the file. As with all computer files, making backups is the most effective way of
ensuring a digital image can be recovered.
Of growing concern for both archivists and historians is the relative non-permanence or transitory
nature of digital media. Unlike film and print, which are tangible and immediately accessible to a
person, storage of digital images is ever-changing with old media and decoding software becoming
obsoleted or inaccessible by new technologies. Historians are concerned that we are creating a
historical void where information and details about a given decade or era will have been lost within
either failed or inaccessible digital media. It is recommended that both professional and amateur users
develop strategies for migrating stored digital images from old technologies to new.[16] Scrapbookers
who may have used film for creating artistic and personal memoirs may need to modify their approach
to digital photobooks in order to personalise them and retain the special qualities of traditional photo
albums.
It is likely that film will never again be purchased and used on the scale it was for most of the 20th
century. However, it probably will not disappear altogether. At its advent in the early 19th century, many
believed photography would supplant the painting of portraits andlandscapes. In the same way
that acrylic and oil paint are still dominant media in use by artists and hobbyists, it is likely that
photographic film and equipment will remain an option for enthusiasts. It is also important to note that
the differences between film and digital photography are far less significant than the differences
between painting and film photography.
The web has been a popular medium for storing and sharing photos ever since the first photograph
was published on the web by Tim Berners-Lee in 1992 (an image of the CERN house band Les
Horribles Cernettes). Today popular sites such as Flickr, Picasa and PhotoBucket are used by millions
of people to share their pictures.
[edit]Recent
Subject and Background: Position the subject two feet forward of a neutral,
light colored wall that is non-shiny. Avoid white or black walls or polished
paneling.
Camera Height and Aiming: The camera lens is at a height equal to the
subjects nose and is aimed level. Dont look downward at short subjects or
upward for tall subjects.
Suggested Views: Front and side views are made from the same distance. Full
length views are made (where mode of dress is significant) by using a 50mm
lens at a distance of ten feet.
Film Choice: Conventional color negative films are often used so that color
prints can be made. Instant print material, in black and white or color, are ideal
when immediate prints are needed. Color slides are not often used for ID photos,
unless they are being used in a slide-projected "line-up" system.
Using electronic flash: A single flash unit placed two feet above the camera
(aimed down towards the subject) can be used.
Better lighting is produced by positioning the flash unit 45 degrees off to one side
and elevating it. This produces a more dominant lighting effect revealing the
persons features.
A large white card (24" by 30") is placed on the shadow side of the subject to
reflect light into the shadows.
Beware of reflection (glare) problems on the shadow side of the subject to reflect
light into the shadows.
OTF autoflash can provide for proper exposure. Flash units whit sensors on them
will produce proper exposure when the flash is on or near the viewing axis of the
camera.
When used from a distance of 7 feet, a typical exposure with a flash unit that has
a guide number of 160 (full power) with ISO 400 film, isf/11when used at
power output or with one layer of white handkerchief when used at full power.
In Daylight:
Select a location with a non-distracting blank and neutral background. Look for a
light quality that is bright, soft and directional (bright, open shadow areas). Harsh
sunlight is not desirable unless fill-in flash is used.
Built-in metering will provide for proper exposure if the background reflects an
average amount of light.
Bright open shadow areas usually require an exposure of 1/250 @ f/11 with an
ISO 400 film. ISO 100 films call for 1/125 @ f/8.
All finger and palm prints, which do not need further development or cannot be
lifted, should be photographed. Areas in which fingerprints were discovered are
photographed to show the location if this area was not included in other
photographs.
Any other photographs you, as the officer, feel is necessary to complete the
scene.
IDENTIFICATION DIVISION
[A] [B] [C] [D] [E] [F] [G] [H] [I-J] [K-L] [M] [N
] [O] [P-Q] [R] [S] [T] [U] [V] [W-Z]
qualities of a light source. Expressed in degrees Kelvin. The lower the color
temperature, the greater the ratio of yellow/red light. Daylight is considered
to be 5000 5500 degrees Kelvin.
D
DARK SLIDE The black plastic or fiber sheet which is inserted into
a FILM HOLDER through a light tight slot to seal the film chamber against
light.
DEPTH OF FOCUS -- The distance range over which the film could
be shifted at the film plane inside the camera and still have the subject
appear in sharp focus; often misused to mean depth of field.
DODING Holding back the image forming light from a part of the
image projected on an enlarger easel during the part of the basic exposure
time to make that area of the print lighter.
E
EASEL A device to hold photographic paper flat during exposure,
EXTENSION TUBE Hollow tube with male and female lens mount
fittings on either end. Used to extend the lens from the film plane in closeup photography.
F
FACTOR A number by which the duration or effect of some action
or process must, for some reason, be multiplied.
FOCAL LENGTH The distance from the optical center of the lens to
Its focused image, when the lens is focused at infinity.
H
HYPO The common name for sodium thiosulfate, also used by
photographers when speaking of the complete fixing bath.
I-J
ILLUMINATION The distribution of light from one or more sources
over the subject being photographed and over the
surface of the sensitive material.
INCIDENT LIGHT The light reaching the subject from any and all
sources.
K-L
LATENT IMAGE The invisible impression on the sensitized
emulsion produced by exposure to light in the development-out processes.
Development converts the latent image to a visible one.
concentrically around the lens axis, pivoted so that they can either form an
opening for the passage of light or overlap to block it.
M
MACRO LENS Camera lenses (typically interchangeable lenses on
35mm cameras) fitted with an extended focusing mount to permit focusing
from infinity to same size reproductions. Camera lens specially corrected
for optimum definition at same size reproduction.
N
NEGATIVE A photographic image in which the tones of the subject
have been recorded in reverse.
O
OBLIQUE LIGHTING Light striking the subject from the side
relative to the position of the camera; produces shadows and highlights to
create modeling on the subject.
except the orange and red regions of the spectrum. Type of emulsion which
is sensitive to visible blue and green, but not to red.
P
PAN It describes a type of emulsion, "panchromatic" which is
sensitive to all colors of the visible spectrum
R
RECIPROCITY FAILURE When the product of light intensity and
time of exposure remains constant there is a relative loss of sensitivity of
photographic emulsion at very low or high intensities for correspondingly
longer or shorter exposures.
ROLL FILM Film supplied in rolls rather than sheets, but especially
those films protected from light by paper leaders rather than those
supplied in protective cartridges of metal or plastic.
S
SAFELIGHT Illumination, used in various darkroom processed,
which is of color and intensity which will not appreciable affect the
emulsions being handled. Blue sensitive emulsions can be handled in a
yellow safelight and orthochromatic emulsions are generally unaffected by
orange or red safelight. Image density resulting from excessive exposure
to safelight or to an inappropriate safelight color, is known as safelight fog.
SCALE In image formation, the liner ratio of image size to object
size. If this ratio is greater than one the result is magnification. In a
photographic enlargement the image is the projected image and the
negative is the object. When subject and image are the same size the scale
is 1/1 usually indicated by s/s (same size). Because the scale is linear it
must be in squares to give the area. A linear magnification of 4x is equal to
an area magnification of 16x.
SHEET FILM Film supplied in individual pieces; also called cut film.
allows the shutter mainspring to operate the shutter mechanism and make
the exposure.
SOFT Describes an image which is not sharp; that is, one which
is blurred, diffused, or not accurately focused. Photographic emulsions,
specifically printing papers, which tend to produce images of lower-thannormal contrast; for example, the paper grades 0 and 1, and some others of
similar characteristics, are called soft papers.
T
TACKING IRON A small electrically heated, thermostatically
controlled tool used to tack or attach dry-mounting tissue to the back of a
print or to the mount board, so as to hold it in place while the print is being
trimmed and heated in the dry-mount press.
TYPE L FILM Color sheet or roll film balanced for 3200K lamps and
exposure time of 1/10 to 60 seconds. L indicates that the
U
UNDEREXPOSURE A condition in which too little light reaches the
film, producing a thin negative, S standing for short exposure time.
resentation Transcript
CHEMICAL PROCESS:
CHEMICAL PROCESS By WILFREDO R. BERALDE
Slide2:
Basically, all the images recorded on the sensitized materials by the action of light are
INVISIBLE. These latent images are still temporary and can be ruined when accidentally
exposed to lights.
Slide3:
To make the latent image visible and permanent, chemical processing is necessary. This
processing is known as the DEVELOPMENT PROCESS of the films that makes the latent image
visible and permanent. The developed image is the reverse of the original objects
photographed and called NEGATIVE.
Slide4:
There are several factors to be considered in the development process of the sensitized
materials. DENSITY is the degree of darkness of the images developed. It can either be too
dark or too light, depending upon the amount of the metallic silver formed. On the other hand,
CONTRAST is the difference between one tone and another, which is so apparent when the
density of the image is viewed, contrast affect the tonal value of the photograph
Slide5:
During the development process of the sensitized materials, the silver halide where the latent
is recorded will be developed and turned to metallic silver that formed the image on the
negative. The details of the images developed will determine whether the sensitized materials
are accurately processed or not.
a. CHEMICAL BASIS:
a. CHEMICAL BASIS Light-sensitive materials that undergo physical and chemical changes in
reaction to light provide the technological basis of all photography.
Slide7:
A complex photo-technology has been created to use such changes to record images formed
by light in other words, to make photographs. Modern photo-technology includes a wide
variety of materials and methods for improving the sensitivity and other qualities of lightsensitive materials, for making the images permanent, and for reproducing and modifying the
images when they are produced.
b. FILM PROCESSING:
b. FILM PROCESSING Behind nearly every successful photographic print is a properly exposed
and correctly processed negative. The processing of any film, black and white, and color is a
simple sequence which, IF FOLLOWED CORRECTLY will always lead to predictable, and
consequently successful results. And yet, there is still considerable scope for varied and
individual treatments.
Slide9:
The fundamental approaches to processing black and white and color films are very similar.
There are one or two extra stages in the process of colored films, and the timing, temperature
control traditionally needed to be much more precise than for black and white. However,
recent developments in the filed of color processing and printing have simplified matters
considerably and it is now almost as simple to work with color materials as it always has been
with black and white.
c. Black and White Film Processing:
c. Black and White Film Processing There are four basic steps to produce a black and white
negative from exposed film, they are: DEVELOPMENT STOP BATH FIXING WASHING AND
DRYING
Development :
Development The purpose of development is to convert the latent image in the exposed film to
a real image. When the picture is taken, the silver halide crystals exposed to light change, but
the change is invisible. Development converts these changed crystals to black silver,
eventually bringing the dormant image to life. The way in which the image develops depends
on the fine balance between the intensity of development (governed by developer strength
and temperature) and the film.
Slide12:
An amateur police photographer may ask the photo supplier of the best camera, film, and
developer suitable for black and white development. The most common developer is the
Universal developer whose instruction for using is shown in its container, like the mixing of the
working solution and the ideal temperature for both film and printing process.
Stop Bath:
Stop Bath For complete control ovr development time, many photographers use a stop bath
after development to cut short the process abruptly. The stop bath neutralizes the developer
and also helps prevent the contamination of the third bath, the fixer, helping to prolong its
active life.
Fixing :
Fixing Even development, the image is not actually visible. This is because the unexposed
silver halides are still present in the emulsion, which now has an opaque milky appearance.
The fixing baths loosens these unexposed halides and makes them soluble in water so that
they can be washed away to leave the visible silver image.
minutes. Before drying, a wetting agent may be applied so that drying is faster, no heating is
required in drying the negatives and avoid dust at this stage.
Slide25:
DRYING. The film should be allowed to dry naturally and thoroughly in a place free from dust.
Slide26:
MARKING AND FILING. Keeping track of a lot of negatives can be a problem unless some
system is used. Different police departments have policies about where to store films and how
to mark them. Negatives and prints are not stored as one. They are stored separately and are
given an assigned numbers for easier identification.
Slide27:
Single sheets of cut films are numbered with the system adopted by a particular police station.
If films are cut, each group of films taken at the same time on the same case get an
identification number. All the negatives from one group or roll are placed in one filing
envelope. Some police photographers get a proof of sheet by making a contact print on an 8 x
10 enlarging paper of all the films before storing it after making a general statement for
evidential purpose.
Slide28:
Others opt to use the Data Card. A data card is prepared for each photograph taken. All
information should be recorded to allow proper interpretation of the photograph and dispel any
questions of improper techniques or processing procedures. The completed data card should
be filed with negative. Certain information should be furnished on the back of each print to
identify and clarify it. A data outline may be stamped on the reverse side of the print and the
appropriate information entered upon completion.
Slide29:
Whatever scheme applied in filing and marking, care should be exercised in writing on the
reverse side of the prints so that the emulsion of the print that was developed is not damaged.
f. Enlarging and Printing:
f. Enlarging and Printing Black and white prints are essentially photographs made in a
darkroom, and the process has many similarities to taking a photograph in a camera and
processing the film. The negative is projected unto light sensitive printing paper by an
enlarger. The image is then focused, exposure is calculated, and the paper is exposed. The
exposed paper, bearing a latent image, is then developed to turn the exposed silver halides in
the paper emulsion to black, forming a positive image.
Slide31:
Any unexposed silver halides are dissolved in a fixing bath, leaving a permanent
representation of the original subject in tones of gray ranging from black through white.
Because the whole darkroom is normally the camera (though special enclosed enlarger do
exists) the process must be carried out in semi-darkness.
Slide32:
An ENLARGER is used for this purpose. It looks like a projector whose function is to project the
miniature negative image onto a larger sheet of printing paper to produce a reasonable
viewable image. This is done by placing a selected (film) negative to be enlarged in the
negative holder and projects it on a clean white sheet paper until the desired size and contrast
is achieved. Use some measuring instrument to mark the position of the paper used because
this is the very place of the printing paper.
Slide33:
Under a safelight, expose the negative using the enlarger and develop it using the same
working solution as in developing the film. But the time elements for enlarging and printing is
quite shorter than the required time for processing film. As a common practice most of the
investigators and photographers make a series of sample ranging from 90 seconds, 2 minutes,
or even higher than this, then compared the results of the photographs before the final copy of
enlargement is processed.
Slide34:
In this process, the police photographer will use developing trays instead of developing tank.
Things Needed for Darkroom:
Things Needed for Darkroom A table or bench large enough for an enlarger and trays. Plastic
bucket for mixing chemicals Photographic thermometer Developing tanks and reel Plastic
bottles Large plastic funnel Safelight for printing and enlarging
Slide36:
Clock or interval timer Developing trays Contact printer Graduated cylinder Film clips/plastic
clothespin Photographic enlarger Miscellaneous supplies Water for washing
hotographic processing is the chemical means by which photographic film and paper is treated
after photographic exposure to produce a negative or positive image. Photographic processing
transforms the latent image into a visible image, makes this permanent and renders it insensitive
to light.
All processes based upon the gelatin-silver process are similar, regardless of the film or paper's
manufacturer. Exceptional variations include instant films such as Polaroid and thermally
developed films. Kodachrome required Kodak's proprietary K-14 process. Kodachrome film
production ceased in 2009, and K-14 processing is no longer available as of December 30th,
2010. [1] Ilfochrome materials use the dye destruction process.
Contents
[hide]
1 Common processes
[edit]Common
processes
All film and paper is treated in a series of chemical baths, which are closely monitored and
maintained at a specific temperature and treatment time. Developer baths are most sensitive to
deviations from the standard time and temperature of treatment; other baths are less sensitive.
[edit]Black
The fixer makes the image permanent and light-resistant by dissolving any
remaining silver halide salts. Fixer is sometimes called hypo, a misnomer originating from
casually shortened form of the alchemist's name hyposulphite.
Neither hyposulphite, hyposulfite, nor hypo is used to mean thiosulfate in modern chemistry.[2]
Washing in clean water removes any remaining fixer. Residual fixer can corrode the silver
image, leading to discolouration, staining and fading. The washing time can be reduced and
the fixer more completely removed if a hypo clearing agent is used after the fixer.
Film may be rinsed in a dilute solution of a non-ionic wetting agent to assist uniform
drying, which eliminates drying marks caused byhard water. (In very hard water areas, a prerinse in distilled water may be required - otherwise the final rinse wetting agent can cause
residual ionic calcium on the film to drop out of solution, causing spotting on the negative.)
Film is then dried in a dust-free environment, cut and placed into protective sleeves.
Once the film is processed, it is then referred to as a negative. The next step in
photographic processing is to enlarge the negative.
The negative will be placed in an enlarger and mirrored onto a sheet of photo paper.
There are many different techniques that can be used during the enlargement process. Two
examples of enlargement techniques are dodging and burning.
[edit]Black
processing
Chromogenic materials use dye couplers to form colour images. Modern colour negative film is
developed with the C-41 process and colour negative print materials with the RA-4 process.
These processes are very similar, with differences in the first chemical developer.
The C-41 and RA-4 processes consist of the following steps:
1. The colour developer develops the silver negative image, and byproducts activate the
dye couplers to form the colour dyes in each emulsion layer.
2. A rehalogenising bleach converts the developed silver image into silver halides.
3. A fixer removes the silver salts.
4. The film is washed, stabilised, dried and cut.[4]
In the RA-4 process, the bleach and fix are combined. This is optional, and reduces the number
of processing steps.[5]
Transparency films, except Kodachrome, are developed using the E-6 process, which has the
following stages:
1. A black and white developer develops the silver in each image layer.
2. Development is stopped with a rinse or a stop bath.
3. The film is fogged in the reversal step.
4. The fogged silver halides are developed and exhausted developing agents couple with
the dye couplers in each layer.
5. The film is bleached, fixed, stabilised and dried as described above. [4]
In some old processes, the film emulsion was hardened during the process, typically before the
bleach. Such a hardening bath often used aldehydes, such as formaldehyde and glutaraldehyde.
In modern processing, these hardening steps are unnecessary because the film emulsion is
sufficiently hardened to withstand the processing chemicals.
[edit]Further
processing
apparatus
Before processing, the film must be removed from the camera and from its cassette, spool or
holder in a light-proof room or container.
[edit]Small
scale processing
In amateur processing, the film is removed from the camera and wound onto a reel in complete
darkness (usually inside a darkroom with the safelight turned off or a lightproof bag with arm
holes). The reel holds the film in a spiral shape, with space between each successive loop so the
chemicals may flow freely across the film's surfaces. The reel is placed in a specially designed
light-proof tank (called daylight processing tank or a light-trap tank) where it is retained until final
washing is complete.
Sheet films can be processed in trays, in hangers (which are used in deep tanks), or rotary
processing drums. Each sheet can be developed individually for special requirements. Stand
development, long development in dilute developer without agitation, is occasionally used.
[edit]Commercial
processing
In commercial processing, the film is removed automatically or by an operator handling the film in
a light proof bag from which it is fed into the processing machine. The processing machinery is
generally run on a continuous basis with films spliced together in a continuous line. All the
processing steps are carried out within a single processing machine with automatically controlled
time, temperature and solution replenishment rate. The film or prints emerge washed and dry and
ready to be cut by hand. Some modern machines also cut films and prints automatically,
sometimes resulting in negatives cut across the middle of the frame where the space between
frames is very thin or the frame edge is indistinct, as in an image taken in low light.
[edit]Environmental
Many photographic solutions have high chemical and biological oxygen demand (COD and BOD).
These chemical wastes are often treated with ozone, peroxide or aeration to reduce the COD in
commercial laboratories.
Exhausted fixer and to some extent rinse water contain silver thiosulfate complex ions. They are
far less toxic than free silver ion, and they become silver sulfide sludge in the sewer pipes or
treatment plant. However, the maximum silver concentration in discharge is very often tightly
regulated. Silver is also a somewhat precious resource. Therefore, in most large scale processing
establishments, exhausted fixer is collected for silver recovery and disposal.
Many photographic chemicals use non-biodegradable compounds, such
as EDTA, DTPA, NTA and borate. EDTA, DTPA, and NTA are very often used as chelating
agents in all processing solutions, particularly in developers and washing aid solutions. EDTA and
other polyamine polycarboxylic acids are used as iron ligands in color bleach solutions. These are
relatively nontoxic, and in particular EDTA is approved as a food additive. However, due to poor
biodegradability, these chelating agents are found in alarmingly high concentrations in some
water sources from which municipal tap water is taken [citation needed]. Water containing these
chelating agents can leach metal from water treatment equipment as well as pipes. This is
becoming an issue in Europe and some parts of the world [citation needed].
Another non-biodegradable compound in common use is surfactant. A common wetting agent for
even drying of processed film uses Union Carbide/Dow Triton X-100 or octylphenol ethoxylate.
This surfactant is also found to have estrogenic effect and possibly other harms to organisms
including mammals[citation needed].
Development of more biodegradable alternatives to the EDTA and other bleaching agent
constituents were sought by major manufacturers, until the industry became less profitable when
the digital era began.
In most amateur darkrooms, a popular bleach is potassium ferricyanide. This compound
decomposes in the waste water stream to liberatecyanide gas.[citation needed] Other popular bleach
solutions use potassium dichromate (a hexavalent chromium) or permanganate. Both ferricyanide
and dichromate are tightly regulated for sewer disposal from commercial premises in some areas.
Borates, such as borax (sodium tetraborate), boric acid and sodium metaborate, are toxic to
plants, even at a concentration of 100 ppm. Many film developers and fixers contain 1 to 20 g/L of
these compounds at working strength. Most non-hardening fixers from major manufacturers are
now borate-free, but many film developers still use borate as the buffering agent. Also, some, but
not all, alkaline fixer formulae and products contain a large amount of borate. New products
should phase out borates, because for most photographic purposes, except in acid hardening
fixers, borates can be substituted with a suitable biodegradable compound.
Developing agents are commonly hydroxylated benzene compounds or aminated benzene
compounds, and they are harmful to humans and experimental animals. Some are mutagens.
They also have a large chemical oxygen demand (COD). Ascorbic acid and its isomers, and other
similar sugar derived reductone reducing agents are a viable substitute for many developing
agents. Developers using these compounds were actively patented in the US, Europe and Japan,
until 1990s but the number of such patents is very low since late-1990s, when the digital era
began.
[edit]References
1. ^ Wall, 1890, p. 3063
2. ^ Wall, 1890, p. 8889
3. ^ Photographic Almanac, 1956, p. 149155
4. ^ a b Langford, Michael (2000). Basic Photography. Oxford: Focal Press. pp. 210; 215216. ISBN 0
240 51592 7.
5. ^ Photographic Almanac, 1956, p. 429423
Wall, E.J. (1890). Dictionary of Photography. London: Hassel, Watson and Viney Ltd.
The British Journal (1956). Photographic Almanac. London: Henry Greenwood and Co Ltd.
[edit]See
also
Fogging
Darkroom
Cross processing
[edit]External
links
Processing manuals
A split Maryland Court of Appeals affirmed that the trial judge's has discretion to allow
into evidence photographs that allegedly illustrate the inconsistencies between the Plaintiff's
injuries in the car accident and the property damage sustained by the vehicles involved even
in the absence of expert testimony that establishes a correlation between property damage
as illustrated in a photograph and the Plaintiff's injuries. Writing on behalf of the majority,
retired Judge John C. Eldridge wrote that "It is ordinarily within the discretion of the trial court
to weigh the degree of relevance against any unfair prejudice which might arise from the
admission of the photographs.... [accordingly], the trial court's ruling on admissibility will not
be overturned on appeal absent a clear abuse of discretion." In so holding, the court
considered and then rejected the Davis v. Maute holding that required expert testimony must
first establish a causal link between the damages to the vehicles and the injuries to one of
the drivers in order for photographs of the accident to become admissible. The dissenting
opinion written by Judge Irma S. Raker pointed to the scientific literature that shows there is
no positive correlation between property damage and extend of injury, arguing that "[t]here is
no way that, based merely on the extent of property damage, a fact finder could assess the
injury of a party and particularly, whether a party had a preexisting injury that was
exacerbated by the impact. A review of the scientific literature expresses the view that there
can be a strong inverse correlation between injury levels and measurable vehicle crush,
especially in low speed, rear-impact collisions."
Take Home Message for Maryland Personal Injury Attorneys and Victims
Our lawyers have received a good deal of local and national exposure for getting
exceptional verdicts in personal injury cases in Maryland where the Plaintiff significant
personal injury in the absence of extensive (or even any) property damage. In every case
where there is not graphic property damage, Maryland
lawyer defending auto accident cases have vigorously attacked the
credibility of the plaintiff's personal injury claims of soft-tissue injury with
pictures of property damage. Our cases were no exception. In spite of
the our motions in limine to exclude such photographs that argued logic
similar to Davis v. Maute, the defense attorneys were permitted to admit
the photographs.
Typically, the defense attorneys display large blow-up photographs
of the Plaintiff's car and argue that the lack of visible damage means
that the plaintiff could not have been seriously hurt in the accident. (And have their client
testify that the impact was extremely minor) If there is an objective finding, such as
a herniated disc, the defense attorneys argued that the condition was preexisting or that the
plaintiff's doctors were not properly reading the diagnostic findings.
Our attorneys' response to this defense lawyer's tactic is always the same. First, we warn
the jury in opening statements that they can expect to see the photographs blown up and
pointed to time and time again. This prepares the jury for the evidence. More importantly, we
do not run from the photographs. Our lawyers admit that there was minimal property
damage. But instead of pointing endlessly to the literature that demonstrates a lack of a
correlation, literature that bores a jury to tears and, while well-founded is counterintuitive to
many jurors, we point out sometimes extraordinary injuries sometimes happen in ordinary
accidents. While such an occurrence is rare, our lawyers correctly explain it is often the rare
cases that make it to the jury (as any first year law student knows from the remarkable cases
that find their way into their textbooks). From there, assuming the plaintiff is credible and has
quality medical evidence to support his/her case, there is an excellent chance that a
Maryland jury will award fair compensation for Plaintiff's injuries.
Personal injury attorneys in Maryland should also remember that Mason does not stand
for the proposition that pictures are automatically admitted into evidence under Maryland
Rule 5-701. Rather, it is up to the judge's discretion in each individual case to determine
whether the pictures would be of assistance to the trier of fact. Accordingly, you should still
file a motion in limine to exclude photographs to the vehicles when appropriate.
proposition that the procedure for admitting pictures should be any different when they were
taken by a digital camera." (16)
Although no other court has dealt directly with the admissibility of digital photographs, opinions
exist that can offer insight as to where many will stand on the issue. For example, in People v.
Rodriquez, the New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division, stated that the trial "court properly
exercised its discretion in admitting bank surveillance videotapes, and photographs made from
those tapes, withoutexpert testimony about the digitizing process used at the FBI laboratory to
slow the tapes down and make still photos from them, since a bank employee responsible for
making the original tapes at the bank testified that he compared the original and slowed-down
tapes and that what was represented therein was identical except for speed." (17) The People v.
Rodriquez holding indicates that the court seeks to ensure that an individual with first-hand
knowledge of the photographed scene attests to the picture's accuracy. Again, this demonstrates
that for admissibility, photographs must be relevant and authenticated.
The Washington Court of Appeals case of State v. Hayden represents an additional example that
provides insight into how another state may rule on the admissibility of digital photographs. (18)
The case mainly focused on the admissibility of digital imaging used to enhance latent fingerprints
and palm prints. The court held that "[b]ecause there does not appear to be a significant dispute
among qualified experts as to the validity of enhanced digital imaging performed by qualified
experts using appropriate software, we conclude that the process is generally accepted in the
relevant scientific community." (19)
Although State v. Hayden dealt with the admissibility of digital enhancement technology under the
Frye Test--used to determine the admissibility of novel scientific evidence--the court made four
important points that support the admissibility of digital photographs in general: 1) digital
photography is not a novel process; (20) 2) the high cost may have contributed to the delay of
digital image enhancement in forensic science; (21) 3) the court opined that digital photographs
have an advantage over analog film photographs because they "can capture approximately 16
million different colors and can differentiate between 256 shades of gray"; (22) and 4) like film
photographs, digital images work with light sensitivity, except that the "computer uses a chip and
a hard drive in place of the camera's film." (23) Based upon the dicta provided, Washington courts
seemingly would rule on the side of admissibility concerning digital photographs.
Recently, the Court of Appeals in California addressed the use of digital imaging to enhance a
shoe print in a criminal case. (24) In People v. Perez, the court of appeals accepted the trial
court's statement that a particular brand of software "is not a scientific technique" but represents
"just an easier way of developing film, developing a picture. And it does it by means of digital
imaging of pixels. Digital imaging ... is accepted scientifically and has been for decades." (25)
After reading People v. Perez and in light of the previous cases mentioned, courts in California
seemingly would consider digital photographs admissible.
Legislation
Alternatively, a legislator sponsored Wisconsin Assembly Bill 584, which "prohibits the
introduction of a photograph ... of a person, place, document ... or event to prove the content ... if
that photograph ... is created or stored by data in the form of numerical digits." (26) The legislator
apparently "became upset when high school students manipulated a digital photograph by putting
heads on bodies of the opposite sex." (27) If this bill becomes law, digital photographs will not be
admissible in Wisconsin courts.
Legislators in Hawaii also have concern about the admissibility of digital photographs. However,
rather than taking the extreme position of seeking a ban in courts, the legislature directed the
Hawaii Supreme Court to establish written procedures governing police use of digital photography
in traffic accident reconstructions. The directions to the Hawaii Supreme Court are contained in
Hawaii House Bill 1309, which states, "[a]lthough current rules do not preclude the admission of
digital photographs as evidentiary material, such admissibility is contingent upon the basic data
and collection technique meeting a threshold requirement of reliability that has not yet been
established by the Hawaii Supreme Court's Standing Committee on the Rules of Evidence." (28)
Legal Commentary
Many individuals in the legal community remain largely unreceptive to allowing the admission of
digital photographs under the current rules of evidence. One author stated that "[a]lthough
photographs may be manipulated, the potential for making subtle but significant alterations to
digital images gives cause for concern that digital images may be unfit for use as evidence in a
court of law" (29) and proposed amending the current evidentiary system specifically to deal with
digital imaging.
In another article voicing concern over the admissibility of digital photographs under current
evidentiary systems, the authors stated, "As noted, current principles of authentication have
developed partly in response to certain assumptions about the inherent limitations of traditional
media technologies. The degree to which these assumptions are appropriate in the context of
today's highly sophisticated multimedia tools is an open question posing challenges for
advocates, judges, experts, and legislative bodies alike." (30) And, another author noted that
"[w]hile advances in technology are generally viewed as positive within society as a whole, the
potential for incredible abuse associated with electronic photography is, or should be, troubling to
the legal profession in particular." (31)
A final author nicely summed up such concerns among those in the legal community by saying,
"As the conventional photograph goes the way of the horse-drawn carriage and the
vinyl phonograph record, courts and legislatures will have to establish procedures to assure the
accuracy and integrity of visual evidence admitted into legal proceedings. If existing doctrines
cannot rise to the task, new doctrines will have to develop." (32)
[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
As evidenced by these statements, not everyone in the legal community agrees with any court
decision admitting digital photographs under the current Rules of Evidence. At its October 18,
2002, meeting in Seattle, Washington, the Advisory Committee on the Federal Rules of
Evidence considered the concerns of commentators who argue that digital photographs should
not be admitted under current evidentiary rules. The committee held a preliminary discussion on
whether to amend Rule 901, the authentication requirement, or if a new rule proved necessary to
deal with digital photographs. Ultimately, the committee members were skeptical of the necessity
of a new rule and felt that Rule 901 "was flexible enough to allow the judge to exercise discretion
to assure that digital photographs are authentic and have not been altered." (33) However, the
committee did direct its reporter to "prepare a background memorandum on the use of digital
photographs as evidence" so that it could consider changes to the rules in the fu-ture due to its
"interest in assur-ing that the rules are updated when necessary to accommodate technological
changes." (34)
As for the requirements of the Best Evidence Rule, a logical reading indicates that digital
photographs are admissible under that rule. Generally, it requires the original to prove the content
of a writing, recording, or photograph. (35) Under the Best Evidence Rule, "[i]f data are stored in a
computer or similar device, any printout or other output readable by sight, shown to reflect the
data accurately, is an 'original.'" (36) Therefore, a digital image downloaded to a computer and
subsequently printed would seem to qualify. (37)
RECOMMENDATIONS
At a minimum, agencies should establish standard operating procedures that focus on two goals
that will ensure the admissibility of their digital photographs in court: 1) preserve the original and
2) follow a reliable process demonstrating the integrity of the image. Ideally, departments will
concentrate on "chain of custody, image security, image enhancement, and release and
availability of digital images." (38)
When attempting to preserve the original, unmanipulated image, agencies should store it on a
compact disc that can be written to only once and then is only readable (i.e., a CDR, rather than
aCD-RW). This ensures that no one can remove or alter the data without copying the original.
After capturing an image, agencies should immediately transfer it to a CD-R and label the disc
with the date, time, and place the picture was taken; the individual who captured the image; and
other important information associated with the photo.
Additionally, agencies should preserve the digital image in its original file format, (39) rather than
compressing it for storage. This allows the camera to capture and store the most information
possible. When departments must enhance a picture, they should create a new image file, saving
it separately and not writing over the original.
When establishing reliable procedures that demonstrate the integrity of images from creation to
admission into evidence, agencies must limit access to the files. As one commentator stated,
"[i]mage handling procedures should be standardized and access to digital images should be
strictly controlled." (40) The process used "should be able to demonstrate: who took the picture
and when, where and how the image was stored, who had access to the image from the time it
was taken through the time it is introduced in court, and any details on whether or not the image
has been altered and how." (41)
In this regard, reliable procedures will help prevent challenges to admissibility by defense
counsel. Also, they will allow agencies to track who had access to the photographs and what, if
anything, was done with them. Of course, any reliable procedures must begin with preserving the
original.
Also worthy of note, some law enforcement agencies use commercial photo labs for developing
and processing film. Following such a procedure opens up possible challenges when
departments seek to admit these pictures in court. (42) In this regard, digital images prove
superior to film-based photographs because no one outside the department handles them.
CONCLUSION
Digital photographs serve as powerful, efficient tools for law enforcement. The ability to take a
picture and instantly view and distribute it helps officials in their efforts to serve and protect their
communities. Agencies should not become hindered by those in the legal system reluctant to stay
in step with advances in technology. As one commentator stated, "Fear about manipulation of
digital images is exaggerated, perhaps because of the perceived novelty of the technology. We
often fear what is or seems new. Certainly, this fear has made many forget a secret of analogue
photography [traditional film-based photographs], namely that conventional photographs may be
manipulated to alter reality and at worst to fabricate false evidence." (43)
The trend in case law points to the admissibility of digital photographs as evidence, although
many in the legal community rightfully suggest that digital photographs are subject to abuses. To
alleviate those fears, law enforcement agencies should attempt to establish standard operating
procedures that, at least, include the preservation of and accountability for the original image from
creation to admission into evidence. Like so much in law enforcement, the admissibility of digital
photographs will depend on the veracity and integrity of the authenticating official.
Ultimately, to help prevent the abuse of digital photographs, judges and attorneys on both sides of
the courtroom must become aware of the potential abuses and familiar with the associated
technology. As a result, the underlying fears will dissipate, and, in those rare cases where a
dishonest person may falsely alter an image, the judicial system will recognize and effectively
(19) 90 Wash. App. 100, 109, 950 P.2d 1024, 1028 (Wash. Ct. App. 1998).
(20) 90 Wash. App. 100, 106, 950 P.2d 1024, 1027 (Wash. Ct. App. 1998).
(21) Id.
(22) 90 Wash. App. 100, 108, 950 P.2d 1024, 1028 (Wash. Ct. App. 1998), but see Michael
Cherry, Informal Opinion, 27-JUL Champion 42 (July 2003) ("The Iowa International Association
for Identification (IAI) Web site highlights State v. Hayden, 950 P.2d 1024 (Wash. App. 1998),
where the Washington Court of Appeals noted experts' claims that digital photographs are
superior to regular film photographs because digital photographs can pick up and differentiate
between many more colors and shades of gray than film photographs. Unfortunately this is not
true, forensic quality film offers at least as many colors and more shades of gray than digital
images.").
(23) 90 Wash. App. 100, 108, 950 P.2d 1024, 1028 (Wash. Ct. App. 1998).
(24) 2003 WL 22683442 (Cal. Ct. App. 2003) (not an officially published opinion).
(25) Id. at 4.
(26) 2003 WI A.B. 584; and supra note 9.
(27) Supra note 9.
(28) Hawaii House Bill 1309; and supra note 9.
(29) Supra note 12 (Witkowski) at 267, 273.
(30) William Sloan Coats and Gabriel Ramsey, Fair, Accurate, and True? Authenticating Evidence
in the Age of Digital Manipulation, 11 No. 1 Prac. Litigator 31, 32 (2000).
(31) Christine A. Guilshan, A Picture Is Worth a Thousand Lies: Electronic Imaging and the Future
of the Admissibility of Photographs into Evidence, 18 Rutgers Computer & Tech L.J. 365, 373-374
(1992).
(32) Roderick T. McCarvel, "You Won't Believe Your Eyes: Digital Photography as Legal
Evidence"; retrieved from http://www.seanet.com/~rod/digiphot.html.
(33) Advisory Committee on Evidence Rules, Minutes of the Meeting of October 18, 2002, 11;
retrieved from http://www.uscourts.gov/rules/Minutes/1002EVMin.pdf.
(34) Id.
(35) See, e.g., Federal Rules of Evidence Rule 1002.
(36) See, e.g., Federal Rules of Evidence Rule 1001(3).
(37) Supra note 12 (Camp) ("Arguably, a photograph taken by a digital camera of a particular
event ... is an 'original' photograph as defined by Federal Rules of Evidence 1001(3) ..."); but see
Roderick T. McCarvel, "You Won't Believe Your Eyes: Digital Photography as Legal Evidence,"
retrieved from http://www.seanet.com/~rod/digiphot.html ("Worse yet is any incarnation of the best
evidence rule, which follows the Federal Rules of Evidence in defining a printout as an 'original'
for purposes of the rule.").
(38) Steven B.Staggs, "The Admissibility of Digital Photographs in Court"; retrieved from
http://www.crime-scene-investigator.net/admissibilityofdigital.html.
(39) Id.
(40) Supra note 11.
Photographs in Evidence.
J.C.M.
showing rear views of the plaintiff's person, nude from below the
shoulder to mid-thigh." The reason for the rebuke was, of course, that if
the condition of the plaintiff's private parts was material to any of the
issues involved in the trial, it should have been made the subject of
expert testimony, after a private examination made out of court by
experts.
9. It has been held several times that a photograph of the scene of a tragedy,
taken after the occurrence thereof, made and offered in good faith, is not
rendered inadmissible by the fact that it contains human figures to
indicate the respective positions of the principals, provided its accuracy
is proved. (Straw v. State, 83 Ga. 92; State v. O'Reilly, 126 Mo. 597. See,
also, State v. Kelley, 46 S. Car. 55.) Indeed, it was held in People v.
Jackson, 111 N.Y. 362, that such a photograph was admissible, though
"the arrangement was not exact " but was mere "matter of description
and served to indicate in a general way the impression left on the mind
of the witness." It has been held, on the other hand, that the photographic
reproduction of a tableau, planned to heighten the dramatic effect of the
testimony of a witness in a murder trial, is inadmissible. In deciding that
the admission of photographs of this nature was reversible error, as being
injurious to the defendant, the court said, in Fore v. State, 75 Miss. 727:
"The photographs, and all the evidence touching them, should have been
excluded. They were not simply reproductions of the scene of homicide.
They were photographic representations of tableaux vivants carefully
arranged by the chief witness of the State, whereby his version of the
tragical occurrence should be brought vividly before the mind's eye of
the jury, and be impressed upon the jury as the view of the actual
occurrence, and not as the mere statement of the facts of that occurrence
as detailed by the witness. Their effect, if not their purpose, was, by
photographic processes, to strengthen and bring out in striking and
captivating fashion the version of the difficulty as given the jury in this
witness's evidence." And in an action for personal injuries, where the
defendant offered in evidence certain photographs of the scene of the
accident, the appellate court, in holding that they were properly excluded
by the trial court, said: " To be admissible, photographs should simply
show conditions existing at the time in question. But photographs taken
to show more than this, with men in various assumed postures, and
things in various assumed situations, in order to illustrate the claims and
contentions of the parties, should not be admitted. An examination of the
excluded photographs shows that they fall within the latter class. They
would serve merely to illustrate certain theories of the defendant as to
how the accident happened." (Babb v. Oxford Paper Co., 99 Me. 298.)
10.Not the least interesting of the cases are those which relate to the use of
photographs to prove the physical appearance and condition of human
beings. In a prosecution against the secretary of a benevolent institution
for injuring by neglect the health of a child who was an inmate of the
institution, it was held admissible to introduce photographs of the child
taken before he went to the institution and two weeks after he left it.
(Cowley v. People, 83 N. Y. 464.) On the trial of an indictment for
murder, where the plea was self-defense, a photograph of the deceased
was admitted for the purpose of showing his physical characteristics. In
holding that the evidence was admissible, the appellate court said:
"Where self-defense is the plea, the physical characteristics of the slain
are, obviously, a proper matter of proof. Whether he was a man of a large
and powerful physique or an athlete, or puny and feeble or inferior in
size and strength, it was a material fact to strengthen or rebut, according
to the nature of the evidence, the claim of the defendant that he believed
he was in great danger of bodily harm when he was assailed." (People v.
Webster, 139 N. Y. 73.) And in Com. v. Keller, 191 Pa. St. 122, it was
held that a full-length photograph of the deceased was admissible for the
purpose of rebutting testimony that the prisoner was a smaller man than
the deceased, the witness who identified the photograph and testified to
its accuracy being represented in it standing by the side of the deceased.
In an action on an insurance policy, where it appeared that the insured
died suddenly about ten days after making her application for insurance,
it was held competent to introduce, for the purpose of showing her
healthy appearance, a photograph of her which was verified as
accurately representing her appearance at the time of the application.
(Schaible v. Washington L. Ins. Co., 9 Phila. (Pa.) 136.) In Brown v.
Metropolitan L. Ins. Co., 65 Mich. 307, it was held, on the other hand,
that a photograph of the insured was not admissible for the purpose of
showing her "healthy appearance." It may be that the decision upholding
the admissibility of the photograph was correct, as the effect of the
evidence was merely to show the healthy appearance of a person at a
definite time. It would seem, however, that the use permitted in Taylor,
etc., R. Co. v. Weaver, 88 Tex. 642, was unjustifiable. In that case, which
was an action for negligently causing the death of a child seven years
old, a photograph showing his physical development at the age of five
was admitted, as tending to show the probabilities of future growth and
further development It is still harder to understand the reasons which
actuated the court in Pritchard v. Austin, 69 N. H. 367, where, in an
action to set aside a will because of undue influence exercised on the
testator by his wife, photographs of both were admitted, as tending to