Cisco Systems,Inc.

Cisco is a multinational corporation established in San Francisco, California in 1984.

It is
concentrated in designing and selling of communication technology and network
services. Nowadays
Cisco has employed more the 65,000 people.The history of the Cisco systems starts
in 1984 when Len
Bosack and Sandy Lerner founded this corporation.They created the first known
router which is an
electronic device used to connect computers or another electronic devices.

The 1800 series router is a computer, just like any other computer including a PC.
The very first router,
used for the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET), was the
Interface Message
Processor (IMP). The IMP was a Honeywell 316 minicomputer; this computer brought
the ARPANET to
life on August 30, 1969.Routers have many of the same hardware and software
components that are
found in other computers including: CPU, RAM,ROM ,Operating system.

• Central Processing Unit (CPU). The CPU executes operating system

instructions, such as system
initialization, routing functions, and switching functions.

• RAM stores the instructions and data needs to be executed by the CPU. RAM
is used to store
these components:

Operating System: The Cisco IOS (Internetwork Operating System) is copied into
RAM during
Boot-up.

Running Configuration File: This is the configuration file that stores the configuration
commands
that the router IOS is currently using. With few exceptions, all commands configured
on the
router are stored in the running configuration file, known as running-config.

IP Routing Table: This file stores information about directly connected and remote
networks. It
is used to determine the best path to forward the packet.
ARP Cache: This cache contains the IPv4 address to MAC address mappings, similar
to the ARP
cache on a PC. The ARP cache is used on routers that have LAN interfaces such as
Ethernet
interfaces.
Packet Buffer: Packets are temporarily stored in a buffer when received on an
interface or
before they exit an interface.RAM is volatile memory and loses its content when the
router is
powered down or restarted. Never the less , he router also contains permanent
storage areas, such
as ROM, flash and NVRAM.

ROM is a form of permanent storage. Cisco devices use ROM to store:

-The bootstrap instructions

-Basic diagnostic software
-Scaled-down version of IOS

ROM uses firmware, which is software that is embedded inside the integrated
circuit. Firmware
includes the software that does not normally need to be modified or upgraded,
such as the
bootup instructions. ROM does not lose its contents when the router loses power or
is restarted.
An operating system is a software that performs basic tasks such as controlling and
allocating memory ,prioritizing system requests, controlling input and output
devices,
facilities networking , and managing file system.
Also Cisco Systems produce a variety of network switches. A network switch is a
small hardware device
that joins multiple computers together within one local area network (LAN). The
differences between the switches
is the number of ports or port density. Port density is the number of ports available
on a single switch.
Fixed configuration switches typically support 48 ports on a single device, with
options for
four additional ports for small form-factor pluggable (SFP) devices. High port
densities allow for better use of space and power when both are in limited supply. If
you have two
switches that each contain 24 ports, you would be able to support up to 46 devices,
because you lose at
least one port per switch to connect each switch to the rest of the network. In
addition, two power
outlets are required. On the other hand, if you have a single 48-port switch, 47
devices can be
supported, with only one port used to connect the switch to the rest of the network,
and only one
power outlet needed to accommodate the single switch. Modular switches can
support very high port
densities through the addition of multiple switch port line cards. For example,
the Catalyst 6500 switch can support in excess of 1,000 switch ports on a single
device.
Communication across a network is carried on a medium. The medium provides the
channel over which
the message travels from source to destination Modern networks primarily use
three types of media to
interconnect devices and to provide the pathway over which data can be
transmitted. These media are:

• Metallic wires within cables

• Glass or plastic fibers

• Wireless

A wire is a single, usually cylindrical, string of metal. Wires are used to

carry electricity and telecommunications signals. The most commonly used media
for data
communications is cabling that uses copper wires to signal data and control bits
between network
devices. Cabling used for data communications usually consists of a series of
individual copper wires that
form circuits dedicated to specific signaling purposes. Other types of copper
cabling, known as coaxial
cable, have a single conductor that runs through the center of the cable that is
encased by, but insulated
from, the other shield. The copper media type chosen is specified by the Physical
layer standard
required to link the Data Link layers of two or more network devices.These cables
can be used to
connect nodes on a LAN to intermediate devices, such as routers and switches.
Cables are also used to
connect WAN devices to a data services provider such as a telephone company.
Each type of connection
and the accompanying devices have cabling requirements stipulated by Physical
layer
standards.Networking media generally make use of modular jacks and plugs, which
provide easy
connection and disconnection. Also, a single type of physical connector may be
used for multiple types
of connections. For example, the RJ-45 connector is used widely in LANs with one
type of media and in
some WANs with another media type.

The two other types of copper cable are :

Coaxial cable consists of a copper conductor surrounded by a layer of flexible

insulation, as shown in the
figure.Over this insulating material is a woven copper braid, or metallic foil, that
acts as the second wire
in the circuit and as a shield for the inner conductor. This second layer, or shield,
also reduces the amount of outside electromagnetic interference. Covering the
shield is the cable jacket.All the elements
of the coaxial cable encircle the center conductor. Because they all share the same
axis, this
construction is called coaxial, or coax for short.

• Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable

Another type of cabling used in networking is shielded twisted-pair (STP). As shown

in the figure, STP
uses four pairs of wires that are wrapped in an overall metallic braid or foil.STP
cable shields the entire
bundle of wires within the cable as well as the individual wire pairs. STP provides
better noise protection
than UTP cabling, however at a significantly higher price. For many years, STP was
the cabling structure
specified for use in Token Ring network installations. With the use of Token Ring
declining, the demand
for shielded twisted-pair cabling has also waned. The new 10 GB standard for
Ethernet has a provision
for the use of STP cabling. This may provide a renewed interest in shielded twisted-
pair cabling.

An optical fiber is a glass or plastic fiber that carries light along its length. Fiber
optics is the overlap of
applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of
optical fibers. Optical
fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communications, which permits transmission
over longer distances
and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than other forms of communications. Fibers
are used instead of
metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss, and they are also
immune to
electromagnetic interference

• Fiber Compared to Copper Cabling

Given that the fibers used in fiber-optic media are not electrical conductors, the
media is immune to
electromagnetic interference and will not conduct unwanted electrical currents due
to grounding issues.
Because optical fibers are thin and have relatively low signal loss, they can be
operated at much greater
lengths than copper media, without the need for signal regeneration. Some optical
fiber Physical layer
specifications allow lengths that can reach multiple kilometers.

Optical fiber media implementation issues include:

More expensive (usually) than copper media over the same distance (but for a
higher capacity)
Different skills and equipment required to terminate and splice the cable
infrastructure
More careful handling than copper media
At present, in most enterprise environments, optical fiber is primarily used as
backbone cabling for high-
traffic point-to-point connections between data distribution facilities and for the
interconnection of
buildings in multi-building campuses. Because optical fiber does not conduct
electricity and has low
signal loss, it is well suited for these uses.

Wireless media carry electromagnetic signals at radio and microwave frequencies

that represent the
binary digits of data communications. As a networking medium, wireless is not
restricted to conductors
or pathways, as are copper and fiber media.Wireless data communication
technologies work well in
open environments. However, certain construction materials used in buildings and
structures, and the
local terrain, will limit the effective coverage. In addition, wireless is susceptible to
interference and can
be disrupted by such common devices as household cordless phones, some types of
fluorescent lights,
microwave ovens, and other wireless communications.Further, because wireless
communication
coverage requires no access to a physical strand of media, devices and users who
are not authorized for
access to the network can gain access to the transmission. Therefore, network
security is a major
component of wireless network administration.

The IEEE and telecommunications industry standards for wireless data

communications cover both the
Data Link and Physical layers. Four common data communications standards that
apply to wireless
media are:
- Standard IEEE 802.11 - Commonly referred to as Wi-Fi, is a Wireless LAN
(WLAN) technology that
uses a contention or non-deterministic system with a Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Avoidance
(CSMA/CA) media access process.
- Standard IEEE 802.15 - Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) standard,
commonly known as
"Bluetooth", uses a device pairing process to communicate over distances from 1 to
100 meters.
- Standard IEEE 802.16 - Commonly known as Worldwide Interoperability for
Microwave Access
(WiMAX), uses a point-to-multipoint topology to provide wireless broadband access.
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) - Includes Physical layer
specifications that enable the
implementation of the Layer 2 General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) protocol to
provide data transfer
over mobile cellular telephony networks.Other wireless technologies such as
satellite communications
provide data network connectivity for locations without another means of
connection. Protocols including GPRS enable data to be transferred between earth
stations and satellite links.In each of the
above examples, Physical layer specifications are applied to areas that include: data
to radio signal
encoding, frequency and power of transmission, signal reception and decoding
requirements, and
antenna design and construction.

A WAN is a data communications network that operates beyond the geographic

scope of a LAN. WANs
are different from LANs in several ways. While a LAN connects computers,
peripherals, and other
devices in a single building or other small geographic area, a WAN allows the
transmission of data across
greater geographic distances. In addition, an enterprise must subscribe to a WAN
service provider to use
WAN carrier network services. LANs are typically owned by the company or
organization that uses them.WANs use facilities provided by a service provider, or
carrier, such as a telephone or cable
company, to connect the locations of an organization to each other, to locations of
other organizations,
to external services, and to remote users. WANs generally carry a variety of traffic
types, such as voice,
data, and video.
Overall cisco is a very successful company that is the worldwide leader in
networking that transforms
how people connect, communicate and collaborate. With its product and services it
helped and is still
helping in the development of the computer technology.

Bibliography: CCNA 1 and 2: Companion Guide

Author : Cisco systems Inc.
Made By Stefan Macura