1.

Introduction
1.2 PV overview & history
PV cells are made of light-sensitive semiconductor materials that use photons to
dislodge electrons to drive an electric current. There are two broad categories of
technology used for PV cells, namely Crystalline silicon, as shown which accounts for the majority of PV cell
production;
Thin film, which is newer and growing in popularity.
The family tree gives an overview of these technologies available today. The
type of silicon that comprises a specific cell, based on the cell manufacturing
process. Each cell type has pros and cons. Mono-crystalline PV cells are the
most expensive and energy intensive to produce but usually yield the highest
efficiencies. The modules made from Polycrystalline silicon crystals are
approximately 14% efficient and are extremely good value for money.
Amorphous solar modules are not too susceptible to shading and are suited to
low light levels.

Crystalline Silicon Technologies: Crystalline cells are made from ultra-pure

silicon
raw material such as those used in semiconductor chips. They use silicon wafers
that
are typically 150-200 microns (one Fifth of a millimeter) thick.
Thin Film Technologies: Thin film is made by depositing layers of semiconductor
material barely 0.3 to 2 micrometers thick onto glass or stainless steel substrates.
As
the semiconductor layers are so thin, the costs of raw material are much lower than
the capital equipment and processing costs.
Conversion Efficiency: Apart from aesthetic differences, the most obvious
difference amongst PV cell technologies is in its conversion efficiency

Apart from aesthetic differences, the most obvious difference amongst PV cell
technologies is in its conversion efficiency.
Evolving solar panels in India :
The development of solar cells for terrestrial applications was initiated at CEL
following Governments decision, in 1975, to mount concerted efforts in its high
technology area. CEL has carried out Extensive in-house R&D work spanning a
decade for developing the complete technology for the manufacture of silicon solar
cells and modules and designing, engineering and operating a pilot plant for
production of such cells and modules based on the process technology and
production engineering so developed. The activity also so included the
development of a whole range of SPV systems and undertaking large volume
commercial production, supply, field installation and commissioning of such
systems. Starting with processing of 38mm diameter hyper pure silicon wafers
using vacuum metallization in 1978, CEL went through an evolutionary
development process in terms of both different sizes of cells and the whole range
of process technology from making them. It now manufactures, using technology
completely developed inhouse, 100mm diameter n+-p junction solar cells starting
CZ solar grid silicon wafer and employing low cost techniques of texturization,
screen-printed silver metallization, antireflection coating and the state of art
lamination technology

Fig.1.1 SPV module for unmanned offshore applications

The ONGC module is a pioneering intrinsically safe double glass module
developed specifically for operation in explosion prone environments, such as on
the offshore, oil production platforms of ONGC. These are the 1st modules in the
world to be certified with Gr.I, Gr.IIA and Gr.IIB by Central Mining Research
Station (CMRS), Dhanbad and accepter by international insurers, Lloyds of U.K.

Fig.1.2 SPV module with screen printed liquid cast

Encapsulation technique- The screen printing process for the metallization of
silicon solar cells uses the thick film technique giving scope for more automation

in manufacturing thereby increasing efficiency and reducing the processing cost to

about 60% as compared to the conventional vacuum evaporation technique.

Fig.1.3 SPV modules of different types of solar cells

During 80s CEL has undergone rigorous technological innovation for increasing
efficiency and reducing the cost of production of solar cells. The size and structure
of solar cells varied, 4 diameter solar cell was introduced, Lamination technology
bringing with it automation in manufacturing process.

Fig. 1.4 SPV modules during 90s with increased efficiency

NS POWER demonstrates the importance of entering an area of advanced

technology at early stage in the evolution of technology and building indigenous
capacity to convert science into technology and further for industrial and domestic
use. CEL, working for more than four decades has built up an internationally
recognised capability in SPV area of integrating Science, Technology, and Industry.

Fig. 1.5 mono crystalline SPV module

with its commitment to harness the solar energy, has opened up new vistas in the
field of solar photovoltaic. Backed by an integrated production facility to
manufacture Mono-Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells and Modules with the state-ofthe-art screen-printing technology, the company has supplied more than 1.5 Lakhs
SPV Systems in India and abroad, covering both rural and industrial applications.
1.4 Why SOLAR?
India is a tropical country, where sunshine is available for longer hours per day and
in great intensity. Solar energy, therefore, has great potential as future energy
source. It also has the advantage of permitting the decentralized distribution of
energy, thereby empowering people at the grassroots level. India is endowed with
vast solar energy potential. About 5,000 trillion kWh per year energy is incident
over Indias land area with most parts receiving 4-7 kWh per sq. m per day.
Theoretically, a small fraction of the total incident solar energy (if captured
effectively) can meet the entire countrys power requirements.

Fig.1.6 Solar insolation over India

Source: http://www.esri.com/mapmuseum
It is also clear that given the large proportion of poor and energy unserved
population in the country, every effort needs to be made to exploit the relatively
abundant sources of energy available to the country and it is in this situation the
solar imperative is both urgent and feasible to enable the country to meet long-term
energy needs and also from an energy security perspective, solar is the most secure
of all sources, since it is abundantly available.
Hence both technology routes for conversion of solar radiation into heat and
electricity, namely, solar thermal and solar photovoltaic, can effectively be
harnessed providing huge scalability for solar in India. Solar also provides the
ability to generate power on a distributed basis and enables rapid capacity addition
with short lead times.
1.5 Energy Requirements
Almost 400 million Indiansabout a third of the subcontinents populationdont
have access to electricity. This power deficit, which includes about 100,000
unelectrified villages, places Indias annual per-capita electricity consumption at
just 639 kilowatt hoursamong the worlds lowest rates.
Since the 1980s, and still currently, India has encountered a negative balance in
overall energy consumption and production. This has resulted in the need to
purchase energy from outside the country to supply and fulfil the needs of the
entire country. The Government is more sensitive to renewable energy potential
and has started to put reforms and projects, incentives and legislation in place to
convince investors and companies to make the shift.

Fig. 1.7 Indias energy balance

Administration)

(Source: U.S. Energy Information

India has had a negative energy balance for decades which has forced the purchase
of energy from outside the country.
The breakdown of energy sources for power production of India in 2005. India is a
large consumer of coal, which makes up more than 57% of its total consumption.

Fig: 1.8 Energy consumption in power sector (2005)

(Source: www.presidentofindia.nic.in)
India relies heavily on coal energy to produce electricity. A strong second is hydro
power, followed by natural gas. The consumption of all renewable energies
represents fully one third of the total consumption. India now ranks third amongst
the coal producing countries in the world. Being the most abundant fossil fuel in
India till date, it continues to be one of the most important sources for meeting the
domestic energy needs. It accounts for 55% of the countrys total energy supplies.

Through sustained increase in investment, production of coal increased from about

70 MT (million tones) (MoC 2005) in early 1970s to 382 MT in 2004/05. Most of
the coal production in India comes from open pit mines contributing to over 81%
of the total production while underground mining accounts for rest of the national
output
(MoC 2005). Despite this increase in production, the existing demand exceeds the
supply. India currently faces coal shortage of 23.96 MT. Stressing the need to find
new energy sources, a top PSU official said India is likely to run out of its 60-70
billion tonnes of coal reserves by 2040-41 if the demand continues to grow at the
present pace.
The demand for coal will reach two billion tonnes mark by 2016-17. We need to
grow at the rate of 17-18 per cent from the present 6-7 per cent to meet this
growing demand, Coal India Ltd (CIL) Chairman Partha S Bhattacharyya said at
the ICC Coal Summit.
With coal reserves expected to run out in the next 45 years in the country, there is a
greater need to switch to renewable sources of energy. Poor quality of power
supply and frequent power cuts and shortages impose a heavy burden on Indias
fast-growing trade and industry.
The access gap is complicated by another problem more than three-quarters of
Indias electricity is produced by burning coal and natural gas. With Indias
rapidly-growing population currently 1.1 billionalong with its strong
economic growth in recent years, its carbon emissions were more than 1.6 billion
tons in 2007, among the worlds highest. The only light of hope is the fact that with
harnessing of solar energy, the country can generate nearly 50,000 MW of solar
power by 2050, the capacity of which could be further enhanced to over 75,000
MW.
India has been facing electricity shortages in spite of appreciable growth in
electricity generation. The demand for electrical energy has been growing at the
faster rate and shall increase at higher growth rate to match with the projected
growth of Indian economy.
The map shown below shows the individual per capita demand of the individual
states of the country.

Fig: 1.9 Per capita Residential Electricity demand (kWh/per person)

(Source: CEA, 2009a)
The demand is maximum in the states like Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra,
Gujarat and Rajasthan, the states which account for a major share in the
unparalleled solar potential of India.

Fig 1.10 Indias electricity use breakdown in commercial and residential buildings.
(Source: Bassi, n.d.)
In a typical commercial building in India, it is estimated that about 60% of the total
electricity is used for lighting, 32% for space conditioning as well as 8% for
heating ventilation and airconditioning.

1.6 Demystifying the Myths

1. Myth: Solar is too expensive for widespread usage and will therefore never
compete with conventional means of power generation.
Facts:
The cost of solar technologies has declined every year since they were first
introduced onto the market in the 50s
The reduction in cost has been driven by improved research and technology, and
most of all by steady increases in sales volume.
The average growth rate of PV manufacturing in India is 35 percent in the past 3
years
Every ton of conventional, non-renewable energy used adds to an overall shortage
and therefore makes this kind of energy more expensive to locate and to use
Solar on the other hand is a renewable resource and an immense amount of solar
energy strikes the Earth's surface every day
2. Myth: Solar is not feasible for my energy needs.
Facts:
India receives solar energy equivalent to more than 5,000 Trillion kWh per year,
which is far more than its total annual energy consumption
The average solar insolation in India is 4-7 kWh/square meter.
The peak power of a solar panel is estimated for 1000W/m2.

1.

(It produces 2.3 kW power enough to operate 10 household lamps of 23W

(example) for 10 hours.)
The fixed and one time installation cost for 1kW SPV system is a mere amount of
Rs2, 70,000* ((INR)(current rate under MNRE for standalone system), where as it
will have a lifetime of 30 years with lowest of maintenance cost and one time free
battery replacement by CEL**.
For grid interactive hybrid SPV system the cost of installation is even a smaller
amount of Rs 180* per Watt.
(* The rate mentioned is not inclusive of subsidy or any relaxation. Subsidy may
vary from state to state as well as in hilly and plain areas)
(** Provided CEL is the SPV system installer)
3. Myth: Solar systems is not a sustainable solution.
Facts:
Considering various perspectives individually:
Self reliance
The per capita average annual domestic electricity consumption in India in 2009
was 96 kWh in rural areas and 288 kWh in urban areas for those with access to
electricity.

 The production capacity of solar systems can easily meet the above demands
keeping in mind the rich solar potential of India.
The average life of a solar system is 25years and hence a cost effective, long run
and permanent setup unaffected by the ever changing conventional source market.
2. Community upliftment
At a fixed capital investment it can generate substantial revenues when setup as a
hybrid grid connected system.
In field regions, off-grid setups can meet the demands of agro pumping, water
heating systems etc.
3. National contribution
It is a clean energy.
It will cut down on the existing 20% of power losses in transmission and
distribution by the provision of standalone systems in the rural and isolated areas.
It will reduce the pressure on the environment.
All of the above together will build a sustainable solution

Fig 1.12 sustainable energy solution

4. Myth: Solar power is not practical in urban areas
Facts:
Solar energy systems are installed at the point of use eliminating the need to trench
underground and dig up asphalt
No extra land space is needed making urban installation practical

Fig 1.13 Various layouts for panel grafting on urban households.

Solar power systems give off no noise or pollution, making them the ideal
renewable energy source in urban areas

I.

5. Myth: Solar is not competitive with the conventional energy market.

Facts:
First generation cells consist of large-area, high quality and single junction devices.

Fig 1.14 Evolution of competitive solar technology.

II.

III.

The most successful second generation materials have been cadmium telluride
(CdTe), copper indium gallium Selenide, amorphous silicon and micro-morphous
silicon. These materials are applied in a thin film to a supporting substrate such as
glass or ceramics reducing material mass and therefore costs. These technologies
do hold promise of higher conversion efficiencies, particularly CIGS-CIS, DSC
and CdTe offers significantly cheaper production costs.
Third generation technologies aim to enhance poor electrical performance of
second generation (thin-film technologies) while maintaining very low production
costs.
There are a few approaches to achieving these high efficiencies:
Multi-junction photovoltaic cell (multiple energy threshold devices).
Modifying incident spectrum (concentration).
Use of excess thermal generation (caused by UV light) to enhance voltages or
carrier collection.
Use of infrared spectrum to produce electricity at night. Plummeting prices of
polysilicon, a raw material used in solar modules, could make power from solar
photovoltaic plants as cheap as Rs 5 a unit or less by 2015 against Rs 12 a unit as
estimated today.
6. Myth: Solar energy and solar designs work well only in warm, sunny climates
Facts:

 Solar technologies can work efficiently and cost-effectively anywhere in India,

even in cloudy communities
Energy-storage systems make solar technologies in less sunny regions practical
Some photovoltaic systems store electricity in batteries so that energy can be
retrieved later -- even after up to 30 consecutive days without sunlight
7. Myth: Solar electricity cannot serve any significant fraction of Indian electricity
needs.
Facts:
With about 300 clear, sunny days in a year, India's theoretical solar power
reception, on only its land area, is about 5 Petawatt-hours per year (PWh/yr) (i.e. 5
trillion kWh/yr or about 600 TW). The daily average solar energy incident over
India varies from 4 to 7 kWh/m2 with about 15002000 sunshine hours per year
(depending upon location), which is far more than current total energy
consumption
Assuming the efficiency of PV modules were as low as 10%, this would still be a
thousand times greater than the domestic electricity demand projected for 2015
8. Myth: To collect enough solar energy a business needs to install large arrays of
collectors requiring vast land area.
Facts:
There is sufficient roof space on most businesses to produce the total electricity
needed using existing photovoltaic technology.
1.7 Characteristics of Solar Energy
1.7.1 Solar Energy- An Outline
A new era for solar power is approaching. Long derided as uneconomic, it is
gaining ground as technologies improve and the cost of traditional energy sources
rises. Within three to seven years, unsubsidized solar power could cost no more to
end customers in many markets, than electricity generated by fossil fuels or by
renewable alternatives to solar.
i. Indian SPV energy scenario Presently, India have over 17.5 GW (June 2010) of
installed renewable energy (Wind =11.8 GW, Small Hydro =2.8 GW, PV
installed=15 MW, Rest is mostly Biomass) capacity. Out of this installed PV, the
grid tied and off grid tied share are 12.3 MW (less than 0.1% of grid tied renewable
energy) and 2.9 MW (0.7% of off grid renewable capacity of India). Although, sun

provides 10,000 times more energy, we daily consume and India being a tropical
country receives adequate solar irradiance (Daily radiation ~ 4-7 KWh/m2, solar
energy received= 5,000 trillion KWh/year, Sunny days/year = 250-300) which is a
major driver for the SPV market in the country. Presently, SPV based applications
usage in India is not in accordance with that in the global market (Globally, gridconnected PV applications account for 75% while in India it account only ~ 3% of
the overall PV applications) as much of the country does not have an electrical
grid. Table below shows the different mode of use of SPV systems in India.

India is gradually shifting focus towards its solar energy program as the use and
implication of SPV is very low in the country. The Government is striving hard to
push the SPV industry by introducing grid based incentives and concessions in
various duties in the recent budget (2010-11) to make the country as a global
leader. Driven by an increasing demand for electricity, wide gap between demand
and supply and pressure to reduce greenhouse gas emission, India has targeted 22
GW (20 GW grid and 2GW off grid tied) of Solar Power by 2022 in its Jawaharlal
Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM). Out of this, around 50 % will be
produced through solar photovoltaic (SPV). Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy (MNRE) is aiming to achieve 500 MWp grid-connected SPV capacities by
2017. It is estimated that the Indian solar energy sector will grow at 25% per year
in next few years.

ii. Latest steps of Indian Market on the global front are India inaugurated Azure
Power's 2-megawatt photovoltaic plant in the state of Punjab, the first privately
owned, utility-scale power plant on the Asian subcontinent.

Fig 1.15 Azure Power's 2-megawatt photovoltaic plant in the state of Punjab
Built under a 30-year power purchase agreement with the Punjab State Electricity
Board, the plant will help power 4,000 rural homes for 20,000 people. Farooq
Abdullah, minister of new and renewable energy, said the plant showcases India's
pledge to generate 20,000 megawatts from solar power by 2022 under the country's
national solar mission. An Rs 67-crore, 5 megawatt solar photovoltaic power plant
has been installed at village Rawara, Taluka Phalodi, in Rajasthan. The project,
owned by Indian Oil Corporation, was commissioned by Rajasthan Electronics &
Instruments Ltd under the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission, as stated by
Ministry of Heavy Industries.

Fig 1.16 A 5-megawatt solar photovoltaic power plant has been installed at village
Rawara, Taluka Phalodi, in Rajasthan
This power plant is designed to feed power to 33/132 kV grid sub-station at village
Bap, which is situated 18 km from plant site Rawara. It is expected to generate
energy of 67 lakh KWh a year. 1.7.2 Cost Effectiveness The decrease in
manufacturing costs and retail prices of PV modules and systems (including
electronics and safety devices, cabling, mounting structures, and installation) have
come as the industry has gained from economies of scale and experience. This has
been brought about by extensive innovation, research, development and ongoing
political support for the development of the PV market. Reductions in prices for
materials (such as mounting structures), cables, land use and installation account
for much of the decrease in BOS costs. Another contributor to the decrease of BOS
and installation-related costs is the increase in efficiency at module level. More
efficient modules imply lower costs for balance of system equipment, installation
related costs and land use. Electricity price evolution Costs for the electricity
generated in existing gas and coal-fired power plants are constantly rising. This is a
real driver for the full competitiveness of PV. Energy prices are increasing in many
regions of the world due to the nature of the current energy mix. The use of finite
resources for power generation (such as oil, gas, coal and uranium), in addition to
growing economic and environmental costs will lead to increased price for energy
generated from fossil and nuclear fuels.
1.7.3 External costs of conventional electricity generation
The external costs to society incurred from burning fossil fuels or nuclear power
generation are not currently included in most electricity prices. These costs are
both local and, in the case of climate change, global. As there is uncertainty about
the magnitude of these costs, they are difficult to quantify and include in the

electricity prices. The market price of CO2 certificates remains quite low (around
14/tonne CO2 end of 2010) but is expected to rise in the coming decades.

BENEFITS OF SOLAR ENERGY OVER DISTRIBUTED GRID ENERGY

As a distributed energy resource available nearby load centres, solar energy could
reduce transmission and distribution (T&D) costs and also line losses. According
to World Resources Institute (WRI), Indias electricity grid has the highest
transmission and distribution losses in the world a whopping 27%. Numbers
published by various Indian government agencies put that number at 30%, 40%,
and greater than 40%. Solar technologies like PV carry very short gestation periods
of development and, in this respect, can reduce the risk valuation of their
investment. They could enhance the reliability of electricity service when T&D
congestion occurs at specific locations and during specific times. By optimizing
the location of generating systems and their operation, distributed generation
resources such as solar can ease constraints on local transmission and distribution
systems. They can also protect consumers from power outages. For example,
voltage surges of a mere millisecond can cause brownouts, causing potentially
large losses to consumers whose operations require high quality power supply.
Moreover, the peak generation time of PV systems often closely matches peak
loads for a typical day so that investment in power generation, transmission, and
distribution may be delayed or eliminated.

2. Solar Energy Solutions and systems

2.1 Applications of solar energy as a renewable source
There are two main applications:
2.1.1 Solar thermal energy
Solar thermal energy (STE) is a technology for harnessing solar energy for thermal
energy. Solar collectors capture the energy of the sun and convert it into heat. The
basic idea of a solar collector is that the solar energy passes through a layer of
glazed glass where it is absorbed by the underlying material resulting in heat. The
glazing of the glass prevents heat from escaping, thereby effectively capturing the
heat.

Fig. 2.1 An example of a solar water heating system (antifreeze is used so that the
liquid does not freeze if outside temp. drops below freezing)
Solar thermal collectors are as low, medium, or high-temperature collectors.
Low-temperature collectors are flat plates generally used to heat swimming pools.

 Medium-temperature collectors are also usually flat plates but are used for heating
water or air for residential and commercial use. The applications include solar
drying and distillation.
High-temperature collectors concentrate sunlight using mirrors or lenses and are
generally used for electric power production. STE is different from photovoltaic,
which converts solar energy directly into electricity.
2.1.2 Solar Photovoltaic energy
Photovoltaic (PV) is a method of generating electrical power by converting solar
radiation into direct current electricity using semiconductors that exhibit the
photovoltaic effect. This is explained in more detail in the following sections.

Fig 2.2 Electricity in a typical solar cell

Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels composed of a number of
solar cells containing a photovoltaic material. Due to the growing demand for
renewable energy sources, the manufacturing of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays
has advanced considerably in recent years. Solar photovoltaic is growing rapidly,
albeit from a small base, to a total global capacity of 40 GW (40,000 MW) at the
end of 2010.

Fig 2.3 Process of production of electricity in a solar power plant

Source: Energy Information Administration: Schott Corporation.

Fig 2.4: 10-MW solar power plant in Barstow, California.

More than 100 countries use solar PV. Installations may be ground-mounted (and
sometimes integrated with farming and grazing) or built into the roof or walls of a
building (building-integrated photovoltaic).
2.2 Insulation spread
We receive energy from the sun in the form of solar radiation. Solar panels make
use of this radiation to generate electricity. The amount of solar radiation that
strikes a single location over a given period of time (usually one day) is called
insulation.
2.3 Capturing and harnessing solar energy

Fig 2.6: Flow of energy in a solar PV system

Fig 2.7(a) p-n junction silicon semiconductor

The photovoltaic effect is the means by which solar panels or photovoltaic modules
generate electricity from light. A solar cell is made from a semiconductor material
such as silicon. Impurities are added to this to create two layers,
i. n-type material, which has too many electrons.
ii. p-type material, which has too few electrons.
The junction between the two is known as a p-n junction. This process is known as
doping.

Fig 2.7(b) A solar cell connected to an ammeter showing a deflection when

exposed to light.
Do it yourself: Get p-n junction silicon semiconductor, connect one end of wire to
the p-type and n-type. Now connect an ammeter to the other end and complete the

circuit and place it in sunlight Light consists of packets of energy called photons.
When these photons hit the cell, they are either reflected, absorbed or pass straight
through, depending on their wavelength. The energy from those which are
absorbed is given to the electrons in the material which causes some of them to
cross the p-n junction. If an electrical circuit is made between the two sides of the
cell a current will flow. This current is proportional to the number of photons
hitting the cell and therefore the light intensity.
2.3.2 Solar cell
A solar cell is any device that directly converts the energy in light into electrical
energy through the process of photovoltaic.

Fig 2.8: photovoltaic solar cell to photovoltaic solar array

The performance of a solar or photovoltaic (PV) cell is measured in terms of its
efficiency at converting sunlight into electricity. There are a variety of solar cell
materials available, which vary in conversion efficiency.

Flowchart 2.1: the processes involved in the production of a solar cell

Solar cell plants like the one in CEL take the wafer through a high technology
semiconductor processing sequence to create working solar cells. In c-Si, wafers
typically undergo a process sequence of etching, diffusion, and screen printing
steps before they are tested and graded for incorporation into modules. The final
part of the overall manufacturing process is the solar system assembly and
installation. First, an array structure is chosen for the mechanical integration of the
solar module. This array structure will depend on the final location of the system,
which could involve retrofitting onto a roof, integrating into building materials for
roofs or vertical walls, or pole-mounting, ground-mounting, or attaching to an
industrial structure.

2.3.3 Balance of systems

Fig 2.9 A PV system showing the balance of components

In addition to purchasing photovoltaic panels you will need to invest in some
additional equipment (called "balance-of-system") to condition and safely transmit
the electricity to the load that will use it The major balance-of-system equipments
for systems are:
1. Batteries
Batteries accumulate excess energy created by your PV system and store it to be
used at night or when there is no other energy input. Batteries can discharge
rapidly and yield more current that the charging source can produce by itself, so
pumps or motors can be run intermittently. There are two types of batteries;
i. Lead Acid Batteries
ii. Nickel Cadmium Batteries
i. Lead Acid Batteries
Lead Acid Batteries are made of five basic components:
A resilient plastic container.
Positive and negative internal plates made of lead.
Plate separators made of porous synthetic material.

 Electrolyte, a dilute solution of sulphuric acid and water, better known as battery
acid.
Lead terminals, the connection point between the battery and whatever it powers.

Fig 2.10 A Lead Acid Battery

1. Discharging process

Fig 2.11(a) Discharging process of a lead acid battery

2. Charging process

2.11(b) Charging process of a lead acid battery

ii. Nickel Cadmium Batteries

Fig 2.12 Nickel Cadmium Battery

Source: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.
The Nickel-cadmium battery uses nickel oxide in its positive electrode (cathode), a
cadmium compound in its negative electrode (anode), and potassium hydroxide
solution as its electrolyte. The Nickel Cadmium Battery is rechargeable, so it can
cycle repeatedly. As the battery is discharged, the following reaction takes place:
Cd + 2H2O + 2NiOOH > 2Ni(OH)2 + Cd(OH)2

2. Charge controller
A solar charge controller is needed in virtually all solar power systems that utilize
batteries. The job of the solar charge controller is to regulate the power going from
the solar panels to the batteries. Overcharging batteries will at the least
significantly reduce battery life and at worst damage the batteries to the point that
they are unusable.

Fig 2.13 Charge Controller

3. Inverter
The function of an inverter is to transform the low voltage DC of a lead acid
battery into higher voltage AC which may be used to power standard mains
appliances. An inverter is necessary where appropriate low voltage appliances are
unavailable or expensive or in larger systems where it is necessary to distribute the
power over a wide area

Fig 2.14 Solar inverters

The amount of equipment needed depends on what you want the use of the system
is. In the simplest systems, the current power generated by is connected directly to
the load. However, if the energy is required to be store batteries and charge
controller are required. Depending on the needs, balance-of-system equipment
could account for half of the total system costs. The system supplier will be able to
tell exactly what equipment are needed.

2.4 Types of PV systems

2.4.1 Stand Alone systems
These systems are generally employed where there is no availability of grid power.
The system operates autonomously and supplies power to the electrical loads
independent of the electric utility. The energy created by the Solar Panel array is
stored in batteries. Whenever electricity is a needed, the energy is drawn from
batteries.

Figure 2.15(a): A circuit diagram of solar installation with DC and AC loads

Fig 2.15(b) Flow chart of a stand-alone system

The major balance-of-system equipments for stand-alone systems are:
Batteries

Charge controller
Power conditioning equipment
Safety equipment
Meters and instrumentation

2.4.2 Grid Connected systems

A grid-connected system powers the home or small business with renewable
energy during those periods when the sun is shining. Any excess electricity
produced is fed back into the grid. When renewable resources are unavailable,
electricity from the grid supplies your needs, thus eliminating the expense of
electricity storage devices like batteries.

2.5 Operation

Flowchart 2.3 operation with AC & DC load

The solar modules convert solar energy directly into dc power which can be used
directly by dc loads and also by ac loads with the use of an inverter. A battery
charges and discharges according to the requirement of the household or
establishment.

3. System Components
A basic photovoltaic system consists of five main components:
i. solar panel
ii. Batteries
iii. Regulator
iv. Load
v. converter
The panels are responsible for collecting the energy of the sun and generating
electricity.
The battery stores the electrical energy for later use. The regulator ensures that
panel and battery are working together in an optimal fashion. The load refers to
any device that requires electrical power, and is the sum of the consumption of all
electrical equipment connected to the system. It is important to remember that solar
panels and batteries use direct current (DC).If the range of operational voltage of
your equipment does not fit the voltage supplied by your battery, it will also be
necessary to include some type of converter. If the equipment that you want to
power uses a different DC voltage than the one supplied by the battery, you will
need to use a DC/DC con-verter. If some of your
equipment requires AC power, you will need to use a DC/AC converter, also
known as an inverter. Every electrical system should also incorporate various
safety devices in the event that something goes wrong. These devices include
proper wiring, cir-cuit breakers, surge protectors, fuses, ground rods, lighting
arrestors, etc.
III.1
components

Photovoltaic

system

When all of the components are in balance and are properly maintained, the system
will support itself for years.

Fig 3.1: A basic solar PV system

Fig 3.2 : A working model of the basic solar PV system at NS POWER.

3.2 The solar panel

An individual solar panel is made of many solar cells. The cells are electrically
connected to provide a particular value of current and voltage. The individual cells
are properly encapsulated to provide isolation and protection from humidity and
corrosion.

Fig 3.3 : The connection of cells to form a solar panel.

There are different types of modules available on the market, depending on the
power demands of your application. The most common modules are composed of
32 or 36 solar cells of crystalline silicon. These cells are all of equal size, wired in
series, and encapsulated between glass and plastic material, using a polymer resin
(EVA) as a thermal insulator. The surface area of the module is typically between
0.1 and 0.5 m2. Solar panels usually have two electrical contacts, one positive and
one negative. Some panels also include extra contacts to allow the installation of
bypass diodes across individual cells. Bypass diodes protect the panel against a
phenomenon known as hot-spots. A hot-spot occurs when some of the cells are
in shadow while the rest of the panel is in full sun. Rather than producing energy,
shaded cells behave as a load that dissipates energy. In this situa-tion, shaded cells
can see a significant increase in temperature (about 85 to 100C.) Bypass diodes
will prevent hot-spots on shaded cells, but reduce the maximum voltage of the
panel. They should only be used when shading is unavoidable. It is a much better
solution to expose the entire panel to full sun whenever possible.

Fig 3.4 : Different IV Curves.

The current (A) changes with the irradiance, and the voltage (V) changes with the
temperature. The electrical performance of a solar module it represented by the IV
characteristic curve, which represents the current that is provided based on the
voltage generated for a certain solar radiation. The curve represents all the possible
values of voltage-current. The curves depend on two main factors: the temperature
and the solar radiation received by the cells. For a given solar cell area, the current
generated is directly proportional to solar irradiance (G), while the voltage reduces
slightly with an increase of temperature. A good regulator will try to maximize the
amount of energy that a panel provides by tracking the point that provides
maximum power (V x I). The maximum power corresponds to the knee of the I-V
curve.

3.2.1 Types of modules

Fig 3.5 : The different components of a solar panel.

Various module classifications are used commercially. The general term 'module'
(or panel) is defined more precisely by highlighting the module's specific qualities.
Modules can be classified according to:
Cell type:
- Mono-crystalline modules;
- Polycrystalline modules;
- Thin-film modules (amorphous, CdTe and CIS modules).
Encapsulation material:
- Teflon modules;
- PVB modules;
- resin modules (the EVA classification module is not generally used).
Encapsulation technology:
- Lamination (with EVA, PVB or Teflon; see the following section on
'Laminates').
Substrate:
- Film modules;
- Glass-film modules (or glass-Tedlar modules);
- Metal-film modules;
- Acrylic plastic modules;
- Glass-glass modules.
Frame structure:
- Framed modules;
- Frameless modules.
Construction-specific additional functions:
- Toughened safety glass (TSG) modules;
- Laminated safety glass (LSG) modules;

- Insulating glass modules;

- Insulating glass modules for overhead glazing;
- Stepped insulating glass modules;
- Laminated glass modules.

3.2.2 Solar Panel Parameters

Fig 3.6 : The solar panel parameters and their role in efficiency calculation.
Note:- The panel parameters values change for other conditions of irradiance and
temperature. Manufacturers will sometimes include graphs or tables with values
for conditions different from the standard. You should check the performance
values at the panel temperatures that are likely to match your particular installation.
Panel parameters for system sizing To calculate the number of panels required to
cover a given load, you just need to know the current and voltage at the point of
maximum power: IPmax and VPmax. You should assume a loss of efficiency of
5% in your calculations to compensate for the inadequacy of the panel to work at
the maximum power point at all the times.

Interconnection of panels
A solar panel array is a collection of solar panels that are electrically interconnected and installed on some type of support structure. Using a solar panel
array allows you to generate greater voltage and current than is possible with a
single solar panel. The panels are interconnected in such a way that the voltage
generated is close to (but greater than) the level of voltage of the batteries, and that
the current generated is sufficient to feed the equipment and to charge the batteries.
Connecting solar panels in series increases the generated voltage. Connecting
panels in parallel increases the current. The number of panels used should be
increased until the amount of power generated slightly exceeds the demands of
your load. It is very important that all of the panels in your array are as identical as
possible. In an array, you should use panels of the same brand and characteristics
because any difference in their operating conditions will have a big impact on the
health and performance of your system.

Fig3.7: Interconnection of panels in parallel. The voltage remains constant while

the
current duplicates.

3.3 The battery

The battery hosts a certain reversible chemical reaction that stores electrical
energy that can later be retrieved when needed. Electrical energy is transformed
into chemical energy when the battery is being charged, and the reverse happens
when the battery is discharged. A battery is formed by a set of elements or cells
arranged in series. For example, Lead acid batteries consist of two submerged lead

electrodes in an electrolytic solution of water and sulfuric acid. A potential

difference of about 2 volts takes place between the electrodes, depending on the
instantaneous value of the charge state of the battery. The most common batteries
in photovoltaic solar applications have a nominal voltage of 12 or 24 volts. A 12 V
battery therefore contains 6 cells in series.
The battery serves two important purposes in a photovoltaic system:
To provide electrical energy to the system when energy is not supplied by the array
of solar panels, and
To store excess energy generated by the panels whenever that energy exceeds the
load.
The battery experiences a cyclical process of charging and discharging, depending
on the presence or absence of sunlight. During the hours that there is sun, the array
of panels produces electrical energy. The energy that is not consumed immediately
it is used to charge the battery. During the hours of absence of sun, any demand of
electrical energy is supplied by the battery, thereby discharging it. These cycles of
charge and discharge occur whenever the energy produced by the panels does not
match the energy required to support the load. When there is sufficient sun and the
load is light, the batteries will charge. Obviously, the batteries will discharge at
night whenever any amount of power is required. The batteries will also discharge
when the irradiance is insufficient to cover the requirements of the load (due to the
natural variation of climatological conditions, clouds, dust, etc.)
3.3.1 Battery Bank (A CEL Standard)

3.3.2 Types of batteries

Many different battery technologies exist, and are intended for use in a
variety of different applications. The most suitable type for photovoltaic
applications is the stationary battery, designed to have a fixed location and
for scenarios where the power consumption is more or less irregular.
"Stationary" batteries can accommodate deep discharge cycles, but they are
not designed to produce high currents in brief periods of time.
Stationary batteries can use an electrolyte that is alkaline (such as NickelCadmium) or acidic (such as Lead-Acid). Stationary batteries based on
Nickel-Cadmium are recommended for their high reliability and resistance
whenever possible. Unfortunately, they tend to be much more expensive and
difficult to obtain than sealed Lead-Acid batteries. Mounting
Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA) Rechargeable Lead Acid Tubular
Positive Plate accelerates, which can cause the same type of oxidation that
takes places during overcharging. This will obviously reduce the life
expectancy of battery. This problem can be compensated partially in car
batteries by using a low density of dissolution (a specific gravity of 1.25
when the battery is totally charged).
As the temperature is reduced, the useful life of the battery increases. But if
the temperature is too low, you run the risk of freezing the electrolyte. The

freezing temperature depends on the density of the solution, which is also

related to the state of charge of the battery. The lower the density, the greater
the risk of freezing. In areas of low temperatures, you should avoid deeply
discharging the batteries (that is, DoDmax is effectively reduced.)
The temperature also changes the relation between voltage and charge. It is
preferable to use a regulator which adjusts the low voltage disconnect and
reconnect parameters according to temperature. The temperature sensor of
the regulator should be fixed to the battery using tape or some other simple
method.
In hot areas it is important to keep the batteries as cool as possible. The
batteries must be stored in a shaded area and never get direct sunlight. It's
also desirable to place the batteries on a small support to allow air to flow
under them, thus increase the cooling.

3.4 The power charge regulator

The power charge regulator is also known as charge controller, voltage regulator,
charge-discharge controller or charge-discharge and load controller. The regulator
sits between the array of panels, the batteries, and your equipment or loads.
Significance - Remember that the voltage of a battery, although always close to 2
V per cell, varies according to its state of charge. By monitoring the voltage of the
battery, the regulator prevents overcharging or over discharging. Regulators used in
solar applications should be connected in series: they disconnect the array of
panels from the battery to avoid overcharging, and they disconnect the battery from
the load to avoid over discharging. The connection and disconnection is done by
means of switches which can be of two types: electromechanical (relays) or solid
state (bipolar transistor, MOSFET).
Regulators should never be connected in parallel.
In order to protect the battery from gasification, the switch opens the charging
circuit when the voltage in the battery reaches its high voltage disconnect (HVD)
or cut-off set point. The low voltage disconnect (LVD) prevents the battery from
over discharging by disconnecting or shedding the load. To prevent continuous
connections and disconnections the regulator will not connect back the loads until
the battery reaches a low reconnect voltage (LRV). The most modern regulators are
also able to automatically disconnect the panels during the night to avoid
discharging of the battery. They can also periodically overcharge the battery to
improve their life, and they may use a mechanism known as pulse width
modulation (PWM) to prevent excessive gassing.
As the peak power operating point of the array of panels will vary with
temperature and solar illumination, new regulators are capable of constantly

tracking the maximum point of power of the solar array. This feature is
known as maximum power point tracking (MPPT).
Circuit implementation

Fig 3.11: Circuit diagram of a charge controller.

Regulator Parameters
When selecting a regulator for your system, you should at least know the
operating voltage and the maximum current that the regulator can handle.
The operating Voltage will be 12, 24, or 48 V. The maximum current must be
20% bigger than the current provided by the array of panels connected to the
regulator.
Other features and data of interest include:
Specific values for LVD, LRV and HVD.
Support for temperature compensation. The voltage that indicates the state of
charge of the battery vary with temperature. For that reason some regulators
are able to measure the battery temperature and correct the different cut-off
and reconnection values.

Instrumentation and gauges

The most common instruments measure the voltage of the panels and batteries, the
state of charge (SoC) or Depth of Discharge (DoD). Some regulators include
special alarms to indicate that the panels or loads have been disconnected; LVD or
HVD has been reached, etc.

3.5 Converters
The regulator provides DC power at a specific voltage. Converters and inverters
are used to adjust the voltage to match the requirements of your load.
3.5.1 DC/DC Converters
DC/DC converters transform a continuous voltage to another continuous
voltage of a different value. There are two conversion methods which can be
used to adapt the voltage from the batteries: linear conversion and switching
conversion.
Linear conversion lowers the voltage from the batteries by converting excess
energy to heat. This method is very simple but is obviously inefficient.
Switching conversion generally uses a magnetic component to temporarily
store the energy and transform it to another voltage. The resulting voltage
can be greater, less than, or the inverse (negative) of the input voltage.
The efficiency of a linear regulator decreases as the difference between the
input voltage and the output voltage increases. For example, if we want to
convert from 12 V to 6 V, the linear regulator will have an efficiency of only
50%. A standard switching regulator has an efficiency of at least 80%.
3.5.2 DC/AC Converter or Inverter
Basic Principle: An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as
batteries, solar panels, or fuel cells to AC electricity. The electricity can be at any
required voltage; in particular it can operate AC equipment designed for mains
operation.
THE GENERAL CASE
Inverters are used when your equipment requires AC power. Inverters chop and
invert the DC current to generate a square wave that is later filtered to approximate
a sine wave and eliminate undesired harmonics. Very few inverters actually supply
a pure sine wave as output. Most models available on the market produce what is
known as "modified sine wave", as their voltage output is not a pure sinusoid.
When it comes to efficiency, modified sine wave inverters perform better than pure
sinusoidal inverters. A transformer allows AC power to be converted to any desired

voltage, but at the same frequency. Inverters, plus rectifiers for DC, can be
designed to convert from any voltage, AC or DC, to any other voltage, also AC or
DC, at any desired frequency. The output power can never exceed the input power,
but efficiencies can be high, with a small proportion of the power dissipated as
waste heat.

Circuit description

Fig 3.12: A realization of the inverter with a transformer with a movable switch
and a current source.
Auto-switching device implemented with two transistors and split winding auto
transformer in place of the mechanical switch.
OUTPUT

Fig 3.13 : The output achieved from the inverter with the subsequent harmonics.
Square waveform with fundamental sine wave component, 3rd harmonic and 5 th
harmonic. In one simple inverter circuit, DC power is connected to a transformer
through the centre tap of the primary winding.. A switch is rapidly switched back
and forth to allow current to flow back to the DC source following two alternate
paths through one end of the primary winding and then the other. The alternation of
the direction of current in the primary winding of the transformer produces
alternating current (AC) in the secondary circuit. The electromechanical version of
the switching device includes two stationary contacts and a spring supported
moving contact. The spring holds the movable contact against one of the stationary
contacts and an electromagnet pulls the movable contact to the opposite stationary
contact. The current in the electromagnet is interrupted by the action of the switch
so that the switch continually switches rapidly back and forth.
Circuit Implementation

Fig 3.14: A Single phase transistor bridge inverter

Fig 3.15 : 500 kW, 3 phase inverter

Mechanism of Inverter- An Engineers Explanation
The principal mechanism of dc-to-ac conversion consists of chopping or
segmenting the dc current into specific portions, referred to as square waves, which
are filtered and shaped into sinusoidal ac waveforms. Any power waveform, when
analyzed from a mathematical point of view, essentially consists of the
superimposition of many sinusoidal waveforms, referred to as harmonics. The first
harmonic represents a pure sinusoidal waveform, which has a unit base

wavelength, amplitude, and frequency of repetition over a unit of time called a

cycle. Additional waveforms with higher cycles, when superimposed on the base
waveform, add or subtract from the amplitude of the base sinusoidal waveform.
The resulting combined base waveform and higher harmonics produce a distorted
wave shape that resembles a distorted sinusoidal wave. The higher the harmonic
content, the squarer the wave shape becomes. Chopped dc output, derived from the
solar power, is considered to be a numerous superimposition of odd and even
numbers of harmonics. To obtain a relatively clean sinusoidal output, most
inverters employ electronic circuitry to filter a large number of harmonics. Filter
circuits consist of specially designed inductive and capacitor circuits that trap or
block certain unwanted harmonics, the energy of which is dissipated as heat. Some
types of inverters, mainly of earlier design technology, make use of inductor coils
to produce sinusoidal wave shapes.
In general, dc-to-ac inverters are intricate electronic power conversion equipment
designed to convert direct current to a single- or three-phase current that replicates
the regular electrical services provided by utilities. Special electronics within
inverters, in addition to converting direct current to alternating current, are
designed to regulate the output voltage, frequency, and current under specified load
conditions.
Inverters also incorporate special electronics that allow them to automatically
synchronize with other inverters when connected in parallel.
Note-Be aware that not all the equipment will accept a modified sine wave as
voltage input. Most commonly, some laser printers will not work with a modified
sine wave inverter. Motors will work, but they may consume more power than if
they are fed with a pure sine wave. In addition, DC power supplies tend to warm
up more, and audio amplifiers can emit a buzzing sound.
3.5.3 Additional Features of the Inverters
Aside from the type of waveform, some important features of inverters include:
Reliability in the presence of surges. Inverters have two power ratings: one
for continuous power, and a higher rating for peak power. They are capable
of providing the peak power for a very short amount of time, as when
starting a motor. The inverter should also be able to safely interrupt itself
(with a circuit breaker or fuse) in the event of a short circuit, or if the
requested power is too high.
Conversion efficiency. Inverters are most efficient when providing 50% to
90% of their continuous power rating. You should select an inverter that

most closely matches your load requirements. The manufacturer usually

provides the performance of the inverter at 70% of its nominal power.
Battery charging. Many inverters also incorporate the inverse function: the
possibility of charging batteries in the presence of an alternative source of
current (grid, generator, etc). This type of inverter is known as a
charger/inverter.
Automatic fall-over. Some inverters can switch automatically between
different sources of power (grid, generator, solar) depending on what is
available.
When using telecommunication equipment, it is best to avoid the use of DC/AC
converters and feed them directly from a DC source. Most communications
equipment can accept a wide range of input voltage. A special type of inverter,
referred to as the grid-connected type, incorporates synchronization circuitry that
allows the production of sinusoidal waveforms in unison with the electrical service
grid. When the inverter is connected to the electrical service grid, it can effectively
act as an ac power generation source. Grid-type inverters used in grid-connected
solar power systems are strictly regulated by utility agencies that provide net
metering.
Some inverters incorporate an internal ac transfer switch that is capable of
accepting an output from an ac-type standby generator. In such designs, the
inverters include special electronics that transfer power from the generator to the
load.
3.6 Equipment or load
It should be obvious that as power requirements increase, the expense of the
photovoltaic system also increases. It is therefore critical to match the size of the
system as closely as possible to the expected load. When designing the system you
must first make a realistic estimate of the maximum consumption. Once the
installation is in place, the established maximum consumption must be respected in
order to avoid frequent power failures.
Home Appliances
The use of photovoltaic solar energy is not recommended for heat-exchange
applications (electrical heating, refrigerators, toasters, etc.) Whenever possible,
energy should be used sparingly using low power appliances.
Here are some points to keep in mind when choosing appropriate equipment for
use with a solar system:
The photovoltaic solar energy is suitable for illumination. In this case, the
use of halogen light bulbs or fluorescent lamps is mandatory. Although these

lamps are more expensive, they have much better energy efficiency than
incandescent light bulbs. LED lamps are also a good choice as they are very
efficient and are fed with DC.
It is possible to use photovoltaic power for appliances that require low and
constant consumption (as in a typical case, the TV). Smaller televisions use
less power than larger televisions. Also consider that a black-and-white TV
consumes about half the power of a colour TV.
Photovoltaic solar energy is not recommended for any application that
transforms energy into heat (thermal energy). Use solar heating or butane as
alternative.
Conventional automatic washing machines will work, but you should avoid
the use of any washing programs that include centrifuged water heating.
If you must use a refrigerator, it should consume as little power as possible.
There are specialized refrigerators that work in DC, although their
consumption can be quite high (around 1000 Wh/day).

3.7 Power Conditioning Unit

Fig 3.16: The components of a power conditioning unit.

The Single phase Power Conditioning Unit (PCU) provides single-phase AC power
to the specified loads. The Power Conditioning unit mainly comprises of MPPT,
PWM Solar Charge Controller and a single phase inverters (02 Nos.).
The MPPT Charger is microprocessor based system designed to provide the
necessary DC/DC conversion to maximize the power from the SPV array to

charge the battery bank. The charge controller is equipped with necessary
software that allows precise charging of the battery bank. Many protection
features are also included to ensure that no abnormal or out of range charge
conditions are encountered by the battery bank. The system incorporates a
front to panel display with LEDs and a switch to indicate the "operational
status" and "fault status" of the system, reset system faults and implement
various operating modes.
The high efficiency inverter converts the DC power available from the
Array/Battery back into single phase AC, by incorporating IGBT devices for
power conversion.
During day time when the solar power is available, the charge controller
charges the battery by transferring as much as solar current to battery as
required. During this time the battery voltage is monitored continuously.
When in the night time, the solar energy is not available the system enables
the battery to deliver the current through inverter to meet the demand for
powering the street lights.
The microprocessor controlled inverter incorporates Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM) technology and incorporates all the desired safety features.
Important features/protections in the PCU:

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)

Array ground fault detection.
LCD keypad operator interface menu driven.
Automatic fault conditions reset for all parameters like voltage, frequency
and/or black out.
MOV type surge arrestors on AC & DC terminals for over voltage protection
from lightening induced surges.
PCU operation from -5 to 55 C,
All parameters shall be accessible through an industry standard
communication link.
Over load capacity (for 30 sec.) shall be 150% of continuous rating.
Since the PCU is to be used in solar photovoltaic energy system, it shall
have high operational efficiency > 92%. The idling current at no load shall
not exceed two percent of the full load current.
In PCU, there shall be a direct current isolation provided at the output by
means of a suitable isolating transformer.

Common Technical Specifications:

Type: Self commuted, current regulated, high frequency IGBT base
Output Voltage Waveform: 1cp, 240VAC (5%)
Output Frequency: Pure Sine wave: 50 Hz 3 Hz
Continuous Rating: As per table
Nominal DC Input: 48/120 VDC
Total harmonic Distortion : <3%
Operating temp, range: 5 to 50 C
Housing Cabinet: IP 20
Inverter Efficiency: >92%

3.8 Junction Boxes

The junction boxes shall be dust, vermin, and waterproof and made of FRP / ABS /
Thermo Plastic (iP65) must be of Hansel or any equivalent reputed make. The
terminals shall be connected to copper bus bar arrangement of proper sizes. The
junction boxes shall have suitable cable entry points fitted with cable glands of
appropriate sizes for both incoming and outgoing cables. Suitable markings shall
be provided on the bus bar for easy identification and cable ferrules shall be fitted
at the cable termination points for identification.
The junction boxes shall have suitable arrangement for the following:
Combine groups of modules into independent charging sub-arrays that shall
be wired to the controller.
Provide arrangement for disconnection for each of the groups.
Provide a test point for each sub-group for quick fault location.
To provide group array isolation.
The rating of the JB's shall be suitable with adequate safety factor to inter
connect the Solar PV array.
Metal oxide variestors shall be provided inside the Array Junction Boxes.

3.9 Wiring
An important component of the installation is the wiring, as proper wiring
will ensure efficient energy transfer.

 Issues specific to solar power relate to the fact that all installations are of the
outdoor type, and as a result all system components, including the PV panel,
support structures, wiring, raceways, junction boxes, collector boxes, and
inverters must be selected and designed to withstand harsh atmospheric
conditions and must operate under extreme temperatures, humidity, and
wind turbulence and gust conditions.
Specifically, the electrical wiring must withstand, in addition to the
preceding environmental adversities, degradation under constant exposure to
ultraviolet radiation and heat. Factors to be taken into consideration when
designing solar power wiring include the PV modules short-circuit current
(Isc) value, which represents the maximum module output when output leads
are shorted.
For the electrical installation of a photovoltaic system, a distinction is made
between module or string cables, the DC main cable and the AC connection
cable.
The electrical connecting cables between the individual modules of a solar
generator and to the generator junction box are termed 'module cables' or
'string cables'. These cables are generally used outdoors. In order to ensure
earth fault and short-circuit proof cable laying, the positive and the negative
poles may not be laid together in the same cable. Single-wire cables with
double insulation have proven to be a practicable solution and offer high
reliability.

Fig 3.17: The cable requirements

AC connection cable
The AC connection cable links the inverter to the electricity grid via the protection
equipment. In the case of three-phase inverters, the connection to the low voltage
grid is made using a five-pole cable. For single-phase inverters, a three-pole cable
is employed.