This article was downloaded by: [62.162.178.

147]
On: 08 July 2013, At: 11:27
Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House,
37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Materials and Manufacturing Processes

Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/lmmp20

Transient Heat Transfer Model of Machine Gun Barrels

a

Ryan D. Hill & Jon M. Conner

National Technical Systems, Ordnance Sciences Division, Dana Point, California, USA
Accepted author version posted online: 24 Apr 2012.Published online: 12 Jul 2012.

To cite this article: Ryan D. Hill & Jon M. Conner (2012) Transient Heat Transfer Model of Machine Gun Barrels, Materials and
Manufacturing Processes, 27:8, 840-845, DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2011.648694
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10426914.2011.648694

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the Content) contained
in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no
representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the
Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and
are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and
should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for
any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever
or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of
the Content.
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic
reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any
form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://
www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

Materials and Manufacturing Processes, 27: 840845, 2012

Copyright # National Technical Systems
ISSN: 1042-6914 print=1532-2475 online
DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2011.648694

Transient Heat Transfer Model of Machine Gun Barrels

Ryan D. Hill and Jon M. Conner
National Technical Systems, Ordnance Sciences Division, Dana Point, California, USA
The desire to signicantly reduce the weight of machine gun barrels while simultaneously increasing their operational life has led to the
need to develop a transient heat transfer model that accurately addresses the thermal management problem while simultaneously supporting
the execution of rapid trade studies of barrel geometry and material. To address this need, National Technical Systems Ordnance Sciences
Division has created a detailed nite-difference based numerical model using the Mathematica software, developed and marketed by
Wolfram Research, as the solution platform. This model solves the one-dimensional temperature prole through the thickness of the barrel
at a specied axial location.

Downloaded by [62.162.178.147] at 11:27 08 July 2013

Keywords Ballistics; Defense; Gun barrel; Heat transfer; Machine gun; Material trade study; Mathematica; Military; Modeling;
Numerical; PRODAS; Simulation.

INTRODUCTION
Repetitive ring of small and medium caliber cartridges in machine guns provides a unique and challenging transient heat transfer problem for evaluating the
response of the gun barrel material. This problem comprises three very different time scales: the rst is the
extremely transient temperature-time history of the cartridge propellant reaction products owing past the
interior wall of the barrel with each bullet red, which
is only a few milliseconds in duration; the second is
the period of time between cartridge rings of approximately 100 milliseconds during burst ring of the gun
system; the third is the period of time between burst
rings that lasts several seconds.
To address this challenging problem we have developed
a one-dimensional transient heat transfer numerical
model that predicts the temperature-time prole through
the thickness of a machine gun barrel at a xed axial position on the barrel. The model incorporates the following
features: convection with variable heat transfer coefcients at both the interior and exterior walls, radiative
cooling at the exterior wall, and arbitrary burst ring schedules in terms of rate of re, number of rounds per burst,
and time between bursts for a specied cartridge.
In addition to the highly transient nature of the heat
load applied to machine gun barrels during burst rings,
traditional steel alloy barrel materials, such as 4130 steel,
exhibit thermal properties that are highly temperature
dependent. These effects have been incorporated in the
numerical model described here by allowing both the
thermal conductivity and the specic heat of the barrel
material to vary with temperature.

The numerical model presented herein has been implemented in the Mathematica software program and may
be used to perform rapid trade studies of candidate barrel materials and thickness proles for a given cartridge
and machine gun ring schedule. Inputs to the model are
the thermal conductivity and specic heat of the barrel
material as functions of temperature, the inner and outer
barrel diameter at a specied axial location, the ring
schedule, and the temperature, density, and velocity of
the bore gas throughout the ring cycle. Although
implemented in Mathematica, the methodology is portable to other commercially available software.
In order to illustrate the utility of the model and to provide a specic example of the methodology used to furnish
the input variables along with a comparison with open
source experimental data, we have selected scheduled burst
rings of the M80 cartridge from an M60 machine gun.
BACKGROUND
Traditionally small caliber (12.7 mm or less) machine
gun barrels have been fabricated from either monolithic
4000 series alloy steels or a combination of steel and
another metal alloy, such as Stellite, used as an inner
wall lining material due to its retention of mechanical
properties at high temperature and resistance to chemical erosion as discussed in the U.S. Army Material Command Pamphlet on Gun Tubes [1]. Advances in
manufacturing technology have opened up the possibility of manufacturing precision machine gun barrels
for small arms from a very broad range of pure metals,
alloys, and composites, one of the key topics of the
recent symposium on Gun Tubes hosted by the U.S.
Army Research Laboratory [2]. The challenge for gun
designers is to select the right combination of barrel
material properties to insure optimum performance of
the design with respect to resisting the effects of gun tube
erosion and retaining the mechanical stiffness of the
barrel assembly when subjected to the thermal loading

Received July 8, 2011; Accepted August 9, 2011

Address correspondence to Ryan D. Hill, National Technical
Systems, Ordnance Sciences Division, 28 Monarch Bay Plaza,
Suite F, Dana Point, CA 92629, USA; E-mail: ryan.hill@nts.com

840

841

Downloaded by [62.162.178.147] at 11:27 08 July 2013

TRANSIENT HEAT TRANSFER MODEL

associated with high rate of re burst schedules typical

of small caliber machine gun weapon systems.
The mechanisms associated with erosion of the inner
surface of gun barrels due to repeated rings has been
reviewed in detail by Johnston [3] and Ebihara and
Rorabaugh [4]. Both have described the erosion process
as consisting of three major factors: thermal, chemical,
and mechanical. Of these, thermal factors are known
to contribute to both the chemical and mechanical
aspects of gun tube erosion.
Heating of a machine gun barrel assembly due to
burst ring will also lead to a reduction in the accuracy
of the gun system if the bulk temperature of the barrel
material reaches a level that results in a loss of mechanical stiffness, or elastic modulus, of the material thereby
reducing its normal mode frequency of vibration to a
level which approaches the rate of re. This phenomenon is also discussed in [1].
Predicting the transient temperature prole through the
thickness of a gun barrel at a given axial position when
subjected to burst ring requires the solution of the complete time dependent conservation equations which
describe the individual cartridge ring heat input to the barrel and the response of the barrel material as described in
Heiney [5] and Gerber and Bundy [6]. One-dimensional,
transient heat transfer models which neglect spatial gradients of temperature in the axial direction of the gun barrel
are suitable tools to apply to this problem since the temperature gradient in the radial direction is at least an order
of magnitude greater than the temperature gradient in the
axial direction of the barrel. Although solution of the complete two- and three-dimensional time dependent conservation equations is possible using current state-of-the-art
nite element engineering computer programs, it is the
authors experience that this effort requires a number of
calendar days or weeks to complete for a single barrel
geometry=material combination using current stateof-the-art multiprocessor computers and is, therefore, not
suitable for the performance of rapid trade studies. This
was the primary motivation behind the current work.
MODEL ASSUMPTIONS
The basis for the heat transfer model used here is
described by Gerber and Bundy [6], in which the following assumptions apply:
1. The temperature gradient in both the axial and the
azimuthal directions are negligible when compared
to the gradient in the radial direction.
2. All interior ballistics properties (gas pressure, temperature, velocity, etc.) are assumed to be independent of barrel temperature and are identical for
each round.
3. Heating due to friction is neglected.
4. Thermal expansion of the barrel is neglected, and the
density of the barrel material, qs, is held constant
(7,845 kg=m3 for 4130 steel).
5. The thermal conductivity, k, and the specic heat, c,
of the barrel material are treated as functions of the
barrel temperature, T, as shown in Fig. 1 [7]. Note

FIGURE 1.Variation of thermal properties of 4130 steel with temperature.

that the large specic heat anomaly in 4130 steel is

due to the alpha-gamma phase transition that occurs
in carbon steels at about 1,000 K.
6. The heat transfer coefcient between the bore gas
and the inner wall, hint, and the temperature of the
bore gas, Tgas, each represent their respective mean
cross-sectional values. Similarly, the heat transfer
coefcient between the ambient air and the outer
wall, hext, and the ambient air temperature, T1, each
represent their respective mean values. These exterior
values are assumed to have negligible gradients in
any direction.
7. Heat transfer to other parts of the gun (stock, butt,
scope, etc.) is neglected.

PROBLEM STATEMENT
For symmetry, we will use the cylindrical coordinates:
r, h, and z. The gun barrel is centered along the z-axis,
with the projectile base at z 0 at time t 0. We dene
r Ri and r Ro to be the inner and outer walls of the
barrel, respectively. In three dimensions, the barrel temperature distribution T (r, h, z, t) is represented by the
general heat diffusion equation:
qs c

@T
r
krT :
dt

Since we are holding z and h constant, their respective

terms will vanish when we expand the divergence and
the gradient into cylindrical coordinates. The temperature prole is simplied to T (r, t), and heat diffusion
equation inside the barrel becomes the one-dimensional
diffusion equation:
 
1 @T @ 2 T 1 @T 1 dk @T 2
2

;
a @t
@r
r @r k dT @r

where a k=qs c is the thermal diffusivity of the metal.

The third term on the right-hand side of this equation

842

R. D. HILL AND J. M. CONNER

arises from the fact that we are considering k as a function of temperature, and therefore dk=dT is nonzero.
On the interior surface of the barrel, we consider convective heat transfer between the gas and the barrel
(ignoring radiation on the inside wall) in accordance
with Newtons law of cooling:


@Q
hint A T  Tgas ;
@t

where Q is the heat transfer from the barrel to the gas

and A is the surface area of the barrel wall. For continuity [6] at the boundary, we equate the rate of heat
transfer from the surface to the gas with the rate of heat
transfer from the barrel volume to the surface:

Downloaded by [62.162.178.147] at 11:27 08 July 2013

1 @Q
@T
k
;
A @t
@r

r Ri ;

and by substitution, the boundary condition for the barrel temperature at the inside wall becomes
k

@T
hint T  Tgas ;
@r

r Ri ; t > 0:

We treat the exterior boundary condition in a similar

manner, except here we allow for cooling by both convection and radiation:
k

@T
4
hext T1  T er T1
 T4 ;
@r

r Ro ; t > 0;
6

where r is the StefanBoltzmann constant, and e is the

emissivity of the barrel surface, a dimensionless number
between 0 and 1, with e 1 representing a perfect blackbody radiator. Note also that at the inside wall r is
increasing toward the barrel, while at the outside wall
r is increasing away from the barrel; this accounts for
the reversal of the temperature terms in Eqs. (5) and (6).
The initial condition at time t 0 denes the temperature throughout the barrel to be equal to the ambient
temperature:
T r T1 ;

t 0;

Ri  r  Ro :

INPUT DATA
To solve the heat transfer equations at the inner and
outer walls of the barrel in Mathematica, we must rst
obtain respective functional representations for the heat
transfer coefcient at each surface and for the temperatures of the bore gas and of the ambient air.
Interior Wall Boundary Condition
For the interior wall, the conditions are treated as an
input in our calculations, so the gas temperature and
heat transfer coefcient in the bore are treated solely
as functions of time. The input data for the boundary

condition at the interior wall was computed from an

interior ballistics model of the M80 cartridge using
PRODAS, a software tool developed and marketed by
Arrow Tech Associates, Inc. Using PRODAS to calculate the interior ballistics of a single round via the
BaerFrankle method [8], we are able to obtain a tabular
output of several variables, namely, projectile displacement and velocity, average gas temperature, gas pressure
at the projectile base and the breech, and the percentage
of propellant burned, all as functions of time.
According to Robbins and Raab [9], an approximation for the heat transfer coefcient in the bore is
hint h0 kN qcp v;

where h0 is the free convective heat transfer coefcient

for the air inside the bore (here held constant at
10 W=m2K), v is the mean cross-sectional ow velocity
of bore gas at the xed axial position, q is the mean density of the bore gas, and cp is the specic heat of the bore
gas. The Nordheim friction factor, kN, is a dimensionless
constant which is approximated by
kN 13:2 4 log200Ri 2 :

The specic heat of the bore gas is not denitively

known as a function of temperature, pressure, and the
relative amount of each reaction product at each time
and each axial position. Therefore, we held cp constant
with respect to time and axial position at a value within
the range of the specic heat values for all of the
expected reaction products [10, 11]. The value was
adjusted to provide a roughly equal error at the interior
and exterior surfaces when compared to the available
experimental data. The value used for the example calculations presented herein was 1,050 J=kg
K.
The interior ballistics model of the M80 cartridge
yields the projectile displacement and velocity as functions of time. In order to estimate v, the gas at the projectile base is assumed to have a velocity equal to that of
the projectile, and the gas at the breech is assumed to
have zero velocity. Then a linear interpolation is applied
to the gas velocity for all axial points between the breech
and the projectile base [12]. Similarly, since the interior
ballistics model of the M80 cartridge provides the percentage of propellant burnt as a function of time, and
the initial mass of the propellant is known, we calculate
q by simply dividing the mass of propellant burnt by the
volume from the breech to the projectile base. While the
projectile is still in the barrel, the interior ballistics model
supplies the average temperature of the gas in the bore
(we treat the gas in the bore as not having any temperature gradient at any given time).
However, the interior ballistics calculation ends once
the bullet reaches the muzzle. After this point, we used
a model of the reaction product gas venting out of a
rocket motor nozzle (computed using the PRODAS
rocket motor simulator) to calculate the pressure inside
the bore as it decays back to the ambient pressure. To
do this, we rst dened a cylindrical rocket motor with

843

TRANSIENT HEAT TRANSFER MODEL

Downloaded by [62.162.178.147] at 11:27 08 July 2013

FIGURE 2.Temperature of the bore gas and heat transfer coefcient for a
single round at the inside wall, 6 inches from the breech.

the same length and diameter as the gun barrel, and we

treated the muzzle like a nozzle. We then manipulated
the properties of the rocket propellant until the burnout
pressure at the nozzle matched the muzzle pressure of
the gun barrel obtained from the interior ballistics calculation. In this way, when the data from the two analyses
are combined, the pressure inside the barrel is continuous at the time of muzzle exit.
After the projectile leaves the muzzle, we t an exponential decay to this pressure curve and assume Tgas and
q decay at the same rate as the pressure. We hold v constant with respect to time after the muzzle exit.
The axial position under consideration, zc, is always
greater than zero for this model, and we have dened
the displacement of the projectile base, z(t), such that
z(0) 0. We assume here that the barrel at zc will not
have any heat input until tc, which we dene to be the
time at which z(t) zc. In order to account for this, we
have set Tgas T1 and hint h0 for all t  tc.
For the example provided, we have chosen zc to be 6
inches from the breech, and tc is about 1.7 milliseconds.
(Note that the propellant ignition is delayed by 1 ms to
ensure steady-state conditions at t 0. The projectile
actually arrives at zc 0.7 ms after ignition.) At this location,
Ri is 3.88 mm and Ro is 15.2 mm, and Fig. 2 shows a plot
of Tgas and hint as functions of time for a single round.
Exterior Wall Boundary Condition
The conditions at the outer wall are very mild in
comparison to the inner wall, so here we hold the air temperature constant at 298 K (about 77 F). The heat transfer coefcient at the outer wall is calculated from the
denition of the average Nusselt number, NuD , around
the circumference of the barrel, which is proportional
to the Rayleigh number [11], RaD, for the buoyancy
driven ow. The heat transfer coefcient is then
hext

kair
kair C n
NuD
RaD ;
2Ro
D

10

where kair is the thermal conductivity of the ambient air,

D is the local outer diameter of the barrel, and C and n

FIGURE 3.Heat transfer coefcient for a long, horizontal cylinder in

atmosphere at 298 K, with a diameter of 30.4 mm.

are constants which depend on RaD, taken to be

C 0.48 and n 0.25 for the case of a long, horizontal
cylinder [11]. Figure 3 shows an example plot of the heat
transfer coefcient as a function of temperature at the
outside wall of the barrel, 6 inches from the breech.
CALCULATION
The nal calculation involves seeking a solution to the
set of differential equations stated in Section 4. To do
this, we make use of Mathematicas built-in numerical
differential equation solver, NDSolve (NDSolve began
supporting partial differential equations with the release
of Mathematica 5.0 in 2003; we are using Mathematica
7.0.1 for the calculations herein). This solver allows
many user-options such as the desired precision, step
size, solution methods, etc.
For the time steps, we set a maximum step size of 10
milliseconds (to increase calculation speed between
rounds), but we did not set a limit on the number of
steps, allowing Mathematica to choose a sufciently
small time step to meet our desired precision during
the transient section of the ring cycle. We used 250
equally spaced points in the radial direction.
In an attempt to optimize the efciency of the calculation, we have broken the ring cycle into a two-stage
process, where we use a slightly different technique in
each stage. The rst stage runs for the rst 10 milliseconds of the cycle, well beyond the time of the muzzle
exit, and the second stage runs for the remaining 90
milliseconds. In the rst stage, the equations tend to
be stiff due to the rapid changes in the conditions of
the bore gas. We consequently force Mathematica to
use an explicit RungeKutta method here, which causes
the calculation to be more stable than allowing Mathematica to choose a method. For the second stage, however, the boundary condition at the inside wall is very
calm, and Mathematicas automatic method selection
is sufcient.
In order to simulate burst ring schedules, we have
also added a third stage using nested for-loops. We rst
specify the number of rounds in each burst, and allow

844

R. D. HILL AND J. M. CONNER

Downloaded by [62.162.178.147] at 11:27 08 July 2013

the rst two stages to repeat until that burst is complete.

Then the third stage, which is set up exactly as the
second stage, allows for long-term cooling until the next
burst begins. Thus we can arbitrarily set the number of
rounds per burst, the time between bursts, and the total
number of bursts in the simulation.
EXAMPLES AND RESULTS
The M60 machine gun features a barrel length of 22
inches and a ring rate of 600 rounds per minute, or a
ring period of 100 milliseconds. In a transient temperature measurement experiment, Moeller and Bossert [13]
used type K (chromel-alumel) thermocouples, which
are stated to have a response time on the order of a
microsecond, to measure the temperatures of the interior
and exterior surfaces of an unlined M60 machine gun
barrel. We will compare the results of our model with
their experimental data for both the interior and exterior
surfaces of the barrel at an axial position of 6 inches
from the breech.
The temperature-time history for the inside wall of the
barrel for continuous ring is shown in Figs. 4 and 5.
Figure 4 includes the transient behavior of each individual round for the rst 20 rounds, while Fig. 5 is shown
with the transient peaks ltered out in order to improve
the clarity when showing long term trends. The data
appearing in both gures, along with the curve in
Fig. 5, represent the initial temperatures at the inside
wall immediately preceding each round. After 200
rounds the model predicts temperature of 682 K
(769 F) at the inside wall, while the measured value
for this time is 647 K (705 F), which is a difference of
10.0% when compared with the ambient temperature.
Figure 6 shows the temperature of the outside wall of
the barrel for a 125 round burst, which lasts for 12.5 seconds. This plot shows that, due to the heat diffusion
inside the barrel, the temperature at the outside wall
continues to rise for a few seconds after the burst has
ended. After 1.2 seconds of cooling, the model predicts

an external surface temperature of 488 K (419 F), while

the measured value is 512 K (462 F). This is a difference
of 11.2% when compared with the ambient temperature.
The model can also show the instantaneous radial
temperature prole through the thickness of the barrel,
as shown in Fig. 7. These two plots show the prole
0.5 seconds and 1.2 seconds after ring a 125 round
burst.
Finally, Fig. 8 shows both the interior and exterior
wall temperatures for a series of 10 round bursts in 6
second intervals, for a total of 100 rounds in one minute.
Since the transient temperature spikes like those in Fig. 4
are too narrow to be individually resolved on this
timescale, each 10 round burst appears as a thick band
in this plot.
As shown in the examples, this model is in good agreement with experimental data. The largest sources of
error are likely that this is a one-dimensional model
and that we neglect heat transfer to the gun assembly.
In a real gun barrel, heat will ow axially down the
length of the barrel and into other parts of the gun,

FIGURE 4.Transient temperature-time history of the inside wall for 20

rounds.

FIGURE 6.Temperature-time history of the outside wall for a 125 round

burst. Experimental data compared 1.2 seconds after the end of the burst.

FIGURE 5.Temperature trend of the inside wall immediately preceding

each round for 200 rounds.

845

TRANSIENT HEAT TRANSFER MODEL

material to determine if the material would be an effective

replacement. Additionally, depending on the strength of
the material, there may be a desire to decrease the barrel
thickness, which can be done quickly in this model by
changing the outer radius at the axial position of interest.
Due to the highly efcient nature of the numerical nite
difference solver schemes embedded in the Mathematica
software and the approach used to divide the transient
heat transfer problem into three stages, the model
described here can perform machine gun barrel material
and geometry trade studies efciently.
REFERENCES

Downloaded by [62.162.178.147] at 11:27 08 July 2013

FIGURE 7.Radial temperature prole through the thickness of the barrel

shortly after a 125 round burst.

FIGURE 8.Transient temperature-time history of both the inside and outside walls for a burst schedule of 10 rounds each 6 seconds for 100 rounds
total.

and free convection will cause azimuthal temperature

gradients on both the interior and exterior surfaces of
the barrel. The advantage of the one-dimensional model,
however, is that it greatly increases the speed of calculation in order to facilitate rapid trade studies of barrel
material and thickness.
CONCLUSION
The method outlined here can be used to conduct rapid
trade studies of barrel geometry or material. For our M60
example, if an alternative barrel material is desired, the
only new input data required for this model would be
the temperature-dependent thermal properties for that
material. Then the barrel temperature trends for various
ring schedules can be quickly calculated for the new

1. AMC Pamphlet, AMCP 706252. Research and Development

of Material, Engineering Design Handbook, Guns Series, Gun
Tubes; U.S. Army Material Command, 1964, AD830297.
2. Proceedings of the Gun Tube M3 Symposium: Modeling, Materials, and Manufacturing Technology; U.S. Army Research
Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground: Aberdeen, Maryland, July 79, 2010.
3. Johnston, I.A. DSTO-TR-1757, Understanding and Predicting
Gun barrel Erosion, Weapon Systems Division; Defense
Science and Technology Organization: Commonwealth of
Australia, 2005.
4. Ebihara, W.T.; Rorabaugh, D.T. Mechanisms of gun-tube
erosion and wear. In Gun Propulsion Technology, Vol. 109
of Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics. Stiefel, L. Ed.;
AIAA: Washington, D.C., 1988; Chapter 11, 357376.
5. Heiney, O.K. Ballistics applied to rapid-re guns. In Interior
Ballistics of Guns, Vol. 66 of Progress in Astronautics and
Aeronautics; Krier, H. Ed.; AIAA: Washington, D.C., 1979;
87112.
6. Gerber, N.; Bundy, M. BRL-MR-3984, Effect of Variable
Thermal Properties on Gun Tube Heating; U.S. Army Ballistic
Research Laboratory: Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, 1992,
ADA253066.
7. Hoyt, S. (Ed.) ASME Handbook, Metals Properties; McGraw
Hill Book Company, Inc.: New York, 1954.
8. Baer, P.G.; Frankle, J.M. The Simulation of Interior Ballistic
Performance of Guns by Digital Computer Program; Ballistic
Research Laboratory: Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, 1962.
9. Robbins, F.W.; Raab, T.S. BRL-MR-3710, A LumpedParameter Interior Ballistic Computer Code using the TTCP
Model; Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, 1988, ADA203295.
10. Bailey, A.; Murray, S.G. Explosives, Propellants and
Pyrotechnics; Brasseys (UK): London, 1989; 1718.
11. Incropera, F.P.; DeWitt, D.P. Fundamentals of Heat and
Mass Transfer, 4th Ed.; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: New York,
1996; 501504, 839843.
12. Corner, J.A. Theory of the Interior Ballistics of Guns; John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.: New York, 1950; 339343.
13. Moeller, C.E.; Bossert, A.J. Measurement of Transient
Bore-Surface Temperatures in 7.62 mm Gun Tubes; National
Technical Information Service: Springeld, VA, 1973,
AD780938.