The Korean Automobile Industry: Challenges and Strategies in the Global Market

Author(s): Dong-Ok Lee, Keunchul Lee, Jae-Jin Kim and Gill-Chin Lim
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Journal of International Marketing, Vol. 4, No. 4 (1996), pp. 85-96
Published by: American Marketing Association
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Executive
Insights:
The Korean Automobile Industry?
Challenges and Strategies in the Global Market

and future strategies

article deals with the current challenges
in
To under
the
the
Korean
automobile
global market.
for
industry
the trends of the world market
and weaknesses,
stand its strengths
vehicles
and the development
automobile
of the Korean
for motor
are
In
Korea's
the
automobile
discussed.
produc
first part,
industry
A brief overview
is examined.
tion in the world market
of the pro
This

ABSTRACT

is provided
along with a
consumption
of automobiles
car produc
Korean
the
of
development
description
of
four-stage
are identified
tion. In the second part, various forces of production
in the global mar
automakers'
that affect Korean
competitiveness
the
role
labor
ket. Capital
relations,
formation,
of government,
research
and develop
management
technology,
style, production
are discussed
in light of
and workmanship
ment,
briefly. Finally,
some of the challenges
auto
Korean
the
current observations,
for
some
recommen
are
out
in
and
mobile
the
pointed
industry
future
are offered.
dations for automakers,
labor, and the government
duction

and

in Korea reflects various ways in

vehicle production
the automobile industry has been integrated into the
at differing times. While Ko
global scheme of manufacturing
rea's industrialization
took different forms of integration into
the global economy, ranging from the export of high-labor

Motor
which

contents

to low-labor

contents,

the production

techniques

in

creasingly adopted higher levels of technology and capital

1946-93)
input. Figure 1 (World Motor Vehicle Production
shows the long-term trends in automobile production in the
global context. In 1946, total production was only about 3.9
million

vehicles.

put over time,

biles increased
This growth of
tion techniques

Despite

short-term

fluctuations

in total

Dong-Ok

Lee

Keunchul Lee
Jae-Jin Kim
Gill-Chin Lim

out

long-term production of automo

in 1993.
steadily, reaching about 48.4 million
was
in
to
innovation
due
produc
production
and the improvement of labor productivity.
the overall

In the late 19th century, passenger cars were made by the

system. It was not until 1914 that an in
craft production
crease in productivity was realized by the mass production
system. Henry Ford and Alfred Sloan were instrumental in
led to the American
this new approach, which
developing
domination of the world automobile industry through most
of this century. Japan's market share was very small in the
early 1960s but eventually grew through the 1980s to be as
large as that of the United States and Europe. It is widely ac
that the phenomenal growth of Japan's share is
knowledged
to the high productivity
achieved by the lean
due mainly

Korea's

Automobile

Production

World

in the

Market

Submitted June 1995

1995
December
February 1996
Revised

? Journal of International
Marketing
Vol. 4, No. 4, 1996, pp. 85-96
ISSN 1069-031X

85

of Toyota

(Womack,

Toyota and Taiichi

by Kiichiro

system pioneered

production
Ohno

and Roos

Jones,

1990).

Figure 1.
World Motor Vehicle
1946-93
Production,

1960

1955

1950

1945

1970

1965

1975

1980

1985

1995

1990

year
Source: Ward's Automotive

The

relative

and

the

been

of

the

accompanied

tional

equity

ships,
among

marketing,
various

tionships

of

decline

rise

and Data Book.

News, Marketing,

1976-1994

automobile

the American

industry
have
also
industry
of
interna
emergence
relation
joint ventures,
supply
and assembly
arrangements
automobile

Japanese
by the widespread

arrangements,

technology,
around
companies
the world's
among
major

the world.

interrela

The

reflect

automakers

how

the Newly Industrialized Countries (NICs) have entered the

world market. As shown in Figure 2 (Shares ofWorld Vehicle
Production

production

Korea's

1946-93),

share

of automobile

increased gradually during the 1970s and 1980s.

Figure 2.
Vehicle
1946-93
by Region,

Shares
Production

by Region,

of World

Western Europe

20

o)

Source: Ward's

86 Dong-Ok

Automotive

News, Marketing,

Leef Keunchul

and Data Book.

Lee, Jae-Jin Kim,

*-

fo m

1976-1994

and Gill-Chin

Lim

There have been several stages of development

in the Korean
automobile industry since 1962, centered around the indige
nous

automakers,

Kia,

including

and

Daewoo,

Hyundai,

Samsung. Using previous analyses (Korea Automobile Manu

facturers Association
1993, Hyun 1989, Lee 1993a, 1993b,
and 1993c, Tomisawa 1987), we present the following four
stage development model of the Korean automobile industry.
Stage One (1962-1967): Semi-Knockdown
Assembly
Two Korean automakers(Kia
and Hyundai) began pro
duction.
Local

was

content

near

zero.

Technology and auto parts were supplied

foreign licenses and joint ventures.

by obtaining

Stage Two (1968-1974): Complete Knockdown

Daewoo began production and established
ture with General Motors.

Assembly
a joint ven

assembled

Hyundai

Ford Cortina with

21 percent

local

content.

Kia produced

Brisa.

Stage Three (1975-1981): Mass Production with

Local Content
Substantial
Local

content

Increased

growth of per capita GNP.

of Korean-made

cars

increased

tially to 85 percent.
Some mass production techniques were
cluding the Toyota production system.

substan

introduced,

in

New Product Development

Stage Four (1982-present):
and Export
The auto industry began product diversification
and in
house R&D.
Hyundai

began exporting

Excel

to the North American

market.

The Samsung group started to build automobiles. Kia

and Daewoo also entered the United States carmarket.

The increased mobility of capital along with the rising power

of transnational
cooperation has altered the nature of the
worldwide
division
of labor over the past three decades.
countries shares some
While the experience of developing
characteristics with that of more advanced economies, Ko
rea's case provides interesting insights on how such waves of
global change have altered traditional industrial relations,
thereby engendering various sources of innovation. It is the
purpose of this section to examine some of the salient fea
tures of competitiveness
necessary for the Korean automobile
Executive
Challenges

Industry?
Insights: The Korean Automobile
in the Global Market
and Strategies

87

Sources of Global
Competitiveness:
Forces
of Production

industry to succeed in the global market. Particular attention

is paid to critical dimensions
of automobile production,
in
cluding capital formation, labor relations, the role of govern
ment,

management

style,

and development,

production

research

technology,

and workmanship.

between the
Capital Formation. An important distinction
and
markets
of
the
United
States
and
that of Ko
Japan
capital
rea hinges on the proportion of foreign ownership. The motor
vehicle industry of both the United States and Japan partici
pated in capital markets in Korea, although the extent of their
participation was limited by government regulation. The Ko
rean

government

various

provided

to induce

incentives

capi

financial markets. Major

tal formation through national
Korean automakers have enjoyed very little equity capital in
vestment from automakers of the United States and Japan.
Daewoo had 50 percent capital participation of GM through a
joint venture which ended in 1992, and Hyundai operates
For the formation of
with 13 percent capital of Mitsubishi.
capital, the interlocking structure of Korean industry itself fa
cilitates a reliable financial market for the Korean industrial
au
of domestic
(chaebol). The ownership
conglomerate
com
with
is
other
tomakers managed by shared stockholding
in the same

panies

chaebol

(Steers

et al.

For

1989).

example,

the shareholder of Hyundai Motor Company is also the share

holder of Hyundai Precision & Industries Company Limited
(HPICL). Both companies belong to Hyundai Chaebol group,
and

both

motor

manufacture

vehicles,

parts,

and

compo

Itwas only in the 1970s that the Korean government

supported formation of a national stock market and encour
aged Korean chaebol to release some of their shares into it.
The chaebol structure and associated production linkages fa
cilitate extra-market flexibility. For example, HMC purchases
some components exclusively from HPICL through subcon
tracting, although the quality and market price may not be
competitive in national and foreign markets.
nents.

Labor Relations. Because labor enjoys substantial flexibility

in terms of cost and efficiency, itmay be the most critical ele
ment in the long-term competitiveness
of automakers around
the world. Labor, in its various aspects, determines how effi
can

automakers

ciently

operate

with

regard

to cost-savings,

product quality, and the ease with which new technologies

can be adapted. As such, labor is an important source of
In the United States, labor relations
global competitiveness.
are

generally

characterized

as adversarial,

a situation

that has

firms and
frequently
impacted the efficiency of American
their subsidiaries throughout the world. On the other hand,
the competitiveness
of Japanese firms has tended to benefit
from

a more

consensual

and man

between
relationship
of Korea,
labor relations

labor

case

ized as authoritarian.

The labor-management

relationship

agement.

88 Dong-Ok

In the

Lee, Keunchul

Lee, Jae-Jin Kim,

are character

and Gill-Chin

is

Lim

strictly hierarchical and workers tend to be much more "un

der the thumb" of their superiors. Generally, workers have
fewer rights than their counterparts in the United States and
relations tend to be less cooperative between labor and man
agement in the United States than in Japan. However, the au
thoritarian system no longer works as it did in the past workers have organized and are demanding democracy at
work while obtaining wage increases and improved working
in

conditions

the

In Korea,

process.

low

less and less of an advantage

proving

labor

are

wages

in global competition.

The Role of Government. National governments play a key

role in shaping domestic economies. The form of government
varies

intervention
tax and

expenditure

tended

to intervene

banks,

consumers.

and

from

countries,

among

to the provision

vention

of incentives

direct

systems.

In Korea,

directly

in the activities

For

through

the government

has

of industry,
held

the government

example,

inter

market

and subsidies

the

primary ownership of banks until the mid-1980s. Under the

state-led model of industrialization,
industries took great ad
of
industrial
the
vantage
country's
policy, which set the sec
toral initiatives of subsidies. The government selected certain
industrial sectors as strategic targets of growth and provided
them with low-rate interest loans and tax subsidies (Amsden
1989). To boost the export markets for Korean goods, the in
dustries were permitted to have dual prices for domestic and
foreign

markets.

ten higher

Market

for Korean

prices

consumers

were

government

regimes

labor movements

national

oppressed

throughout the period of intensive industrial growth.

only in 1987 that the government established minimum
laws.

The

government

a responsibility
Management
munity

social

While
within

atmosphere

Korean

in

organizations

tends to be very authoritarian

(W. B. Kim
necessitate

Japanese
production
techniques
relations
between
and
management

style of Korean
these

wage

insurance,

a com
encourages
as in Japan,
com

culture

Because

thoritarian

Itwas

taken on instead by large firms.

Style.

cooperative
latest

to provide

neglected

pany management
1989).

of

than the prices set for foreign markets. Moreover,

production

firms has hindered

labor,

import of the

In general,

techniques.

the au
Korean

companies lag behind their American and Japanese counter

parts in improving the technical aspects of management. Ko
rea's

competitive
derives
from

advantage
strong

in organizational

management

emphasis

management
on company

pace with which

spirit. For example, the record-breaking
a
new
was
established
factory
recently heralded as a
Hyundai
success of Hyundai spirit rather than technological advances
or management

efficiency.

Other

companies

also

emphasize

the cultural aspect of total devotion of workers to the firm.

Kia underscores Kia-In (Kia People), Samsung is proud of the
its growth has been
Samsung family, and Daewoo believes
Executive
Challenges

Industry?
Insights: The Korean Automobile
in the Global Market
and Strategies

89

on the concept

founded

of Korean

features

on self-sacrifice
American

companies.

devotion

automobile

If one assumes

automobile

than

Japanese
leaders
relentlessly

corporate

a top-down

in

in Korea

less effi

workers,

demand

true grassroots

without

process

discrepancy

emphasis

loyalty

and

that

and

sac

that the company culture is formed

in the cultural

management

Such

is rarely observed

companies.

rifice, it can be concluded

by

an

that Korean automobile workers work

as a team

ciently
Korean

automobile

and complete

are specific

These

of self-sacrifice.

then

continues,

If this

support.

norm of automobile

company
soon

may

employees

feel a sense of betrayal and exploitation.

Indeed, one might
one
of
the
has
been
that
this
major reasons for labor
suspect
to
massive
strikes and protests.
has
led
which
discontent,
in production technology
Production Technology. Advances
contribute to the improvement of product quality as well as
tech
labor productivity. The invention of mass production
to
dominate
the
States
world
led
United
automakers
niques
car market.

automakers

Japanese

Similarly,

one

became

of

the key practitioners of lean production techniques. The cur

rent status of Korea's technological
suggests
development
that the invention of new technology needs to be embedded
in the specific political and cultural environment of the na
tion-state. While Korea has attempted to import the latest in
lean

and mass

production

successful

technologies,

adoption

depends heavily on the culture of Korean workers and indus

try. Interviews with several autopart firms in the summer of
1995 suggested that significant change is still needed in orga
nizational

culture

before

Korean

businesses

can

successfully

adopt techniques of lean production. One of the major diffi

culties of implementing
organizational
changes in produc
tion is closely tied to the infrastructural differences among
firms, including technological development,
employment re
lations, and interfirm linkages.
Research

and

Government

Development.

ac

investment

70 percent of Korea's total R&D

counted for approximately
investment during the 1960s, 70s, and early 1980s. By the
1990s, however, 84 percent of the nation's R&D investment
was drawn from the private sector (Ministry of Science and
1993). Itwill be a key challenge for Korean in
Technology
to develop since,
to
which
determine
technologies
dustry
over

time,

such

tal and manpower.

vestments

consume

activities

For example,

and more

than

700

massive

amounts

of capi

it takes over $2 billion

people

to develop

a new

in in
car

engine (KIET 1994). Thus, R&D investment will continue to

be an important measure of market competence in the future.
In spite of a rapid increase in R&D investment in Korea, the
total spending of the five major automakers there amounted
to only about 12 percent of GM's total R&D outlays in 1991.
90 Dong-Ok

Lee, Keunchul

Lee, Jae-Jin Kim,

and Gill-Chin

Lim

research manpower
of the Korean automobile industry
20
of
that of Japan in 1987. Equally im
percent
equaled only
portant, capital investment in R&D tends to concentrate heav
ily on the improvement of hard technology, including emission
control, design simulations, fuel efficiency, and the develop
ment of alternative fuels, while R&D spending for the improve
ment of management
and production
techniques tends to
remain relatively low. Recently, automakers founded the Ko
Also,

rean Automotive

Workmanship.

relations.

can

also

be an

source

important

advantage. InKorea and Japan, workers

as

"work"

to support

labor-management

including

Workmanship

of competitive
their

in order

Association

Manufactures

R&D of soft technology,

to master,

something

or to
perfect,

identify

while

work

ers in theWest tend to do the "job" (what they are employed

in
for) at work. Yet, despite strong devotion toworkmanship
Korea, Korean products have tended to suffer from higher de
fect ratios than normally found in Japan. Interviews with man
agers

and

in Korean

workers

shopfloor

automobile

companies

indicated that the higher defect ratio is closely related to differ

ences

in

among

technology

subcontracting

firms.

Another

problem concerns the fact that larger firms hold very limited
control over the production technology of their subcontractors.

From its beginning

current

status

in small knockdown

as a major

competitor

assembly plants to its

in passenger

cars

to the

world market, the Korean automobile industry has delivered

a rather impressive performance. Will Korea be able to sustain
its successful
record in an increasingly competitive world
in the

market
various

forces

future?
that

In the previous
the operations

affect

we examined
section,
auto
of the Korean

mobile
industry and found that there are numerous factors
that distinguish itfrom the industries of the United States and
Japan. Some of these factors reflect strengths that can serve as
long-term

sources

of global

competitive

advantage.

In a provocative article entitled "The Myth of Asia's Miracle,"

Krugman (1994) has suggested that the rapid growth of Asian
countries such as Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Korea is
of resources. By mak
due largely to the effective mobilization
a
historical
with
the
ing
comparison
growth of communist
economies in their earlier years, he argued that the high growth
of the Pacific Rim has been more a result of increases in input
than

increases

in the efficiency

of production.

Krugman

con

is the secret that brought

tends that "deferred gratification"
such high growth to those nations. This thesis is also supported
by business leaders in Korea who have emphasized the impor
tance of company culture, which is grounded in "sacrifice" and
"devotion."

Itmay

well

be

then

that Korea's

success

in the auto

industry is largely the result of judicious resource mobilization

combined with the self-sacrifice of the Korean people.
Executive
Challenges

Industry?
Insights: The Korean Automobile
in the Global Market
and Strategies

91

Challenges

and Strategies

In light of the above analysis, it is now appropriate to advance

some suggestion on how the Korean automobile industry might
enhance its competitive position in the global marketplace.

R&D, Technology,

and Efficiency

First of all, itmay be useful for the industry to carefully ex

amine its technological capability and its contribution to sus
tainable growth. These findings suggest that, while past
competitive advantage has resulted in large part from growing
investment in capital and labor, these factors alone cannot
sustain

in the

advances

continuing

long

term.

To

continue

their progress of recent years, itwill be increasingly important

for the industry to invest in R&D for creating new products
and in the latest operations technology for improving produc
tive processes. To this end, there is a need to conduct a careful
to the
of technology
the contribution
study investigating
in
Korea.
the
of
automobile
industry
growth
is much
It was pointed out that Korea's R&D spending
smaller than that of Japan or the United States and that Ko
rean

have

companies

motor

produced

vehicles

bor

utilizing

rowed technology. Technology can be either borrowed from

foreign countries or developed by domestic scientists and en
on foreign technology can be profitable
gineers. Dependency
run
in the short
but will not allow Korean automakers to be
the in
leaders on the world scene. To be truly competitive,
own
to
must
increase
initiatives
efforts
its
develop
dustry
such efforts, it is unlikely that firms
technologies. Without
can
as Samsung
(Han-Kook
operations

function

such

Management

Innovation

Il-Bo,

as

little more

28 March

than

assembly

1995).

is just as critical as technological

Innovation inmanagement
innovation (Hammer and Champy 1993, Champy 1995). Af
ter many years of suffering from loss of market share and
profits, American automobile companies have taken pains to
re-engineer

their management

systems.

manage

Strategic

ment has been rigorously applied, organizational systems re

structured, and employees laid off for leaner, more efficient
and

management

production.

recent

The

in the

comeback

United States auto industry is clearly linked to management

efficiency gained by re-engineering. Similarly, management
innovation
Korean

firms.

is a prerequisite
One
suggestion

tion of new management

rean

culture

and work

multidisciplinary

The major
Knowledge

Sharing

some

92 Dong-Ok

the competitiveness
of
an
adaptive
applica

would

be

techniques
ethic.

This

integrated

is certainly

into the Ko

a new

area

for

are owned

by

research.

automobile

of the country's

ing in markets

to sustain

companies
largest

for a variety

Lee, Keunchul

in Korea

business

conglomerates

of goods

Lee, Jae-Jin Kim,

and services

compet

ranging

and Gill-Chin

Lim

from perishable consumer items to durable goods. They are

in constant competition with one another and so far, there
has been little effort among the automakers to cooperate in
technological development. While it is unrealistic for all of
to engage jointly in such efforts, there are
these companies
areas where

certain

cooperation

and

can

knowledge-sharing

be a benefit, all without sacrificing the competitive spirit es

sential to an efficient market. For example, the sharing of
world market information and publicly available technologi
cal know-how, as well as the joint development of capital in
tensive technology
for public
offering wider implications
well-being,
tomakers.

are areas
The

ripe

country's

for cooperation

among

au

Korean

government-sup

well-developed,

ported research institutes (GRIs) can also play a significant

role in enhancing knowledge
(Nam 1994).

In the face of a rapidly changing global economy and polity, it

is important for the industry to acquire detailed information
and to undertake comprehensive
analyses regarding the de
mand for, and supply of, motor vehicles in the global market.
A detailed study of global supply and demand can guide goals
for overall

production,

long-term

ning, the split between domestic

and specialization
in production
that

economic

other

Asian

biles.

Given

growth
countries

in China,
create
will
in culture,

differences

capital

investment

consumption
items. There

Global Demand and Supply

plan

and exports,
is little doubt

and
Thailand,
Indonesia,
new
automo
demand
for
taste,

new

and preferences,

production and marketing strategies need to be developed if

Korea wishes to enter these potentially enormous markets. At
the same time, these nations are also potential suppliers that
can support Korea's growing productive ability.

In recent

years,

consumer

preferences

for automobiles

have

changed significantly. This trend implies that diversification

in design and an ability to predict changes in the market and
to swiftly alter production
and marketing plans are all be
in an automobile
coming essential
company's
ingredients
overall strategy. High factory productivity
alone can no
longer guarantee or sustain success in the world automobile
market. A company capable of delivering a quality product
while maintaining
quick response in design will be awinner.
Transition from the lean production system to the agile pro
duction system will be timely.

In a recent

newspaper

interview

article,

a Hyundai

Challenges

Responsive
Design, Pro
and Delivery
duction,
Systems

executive

agreed with the reporter that a decline in Hyundai's share in

the American market is clearly linked to the relatively lower
quality of Hyundai cars (Detroit Free Press 1995). It is gener
ally accepted that the success of the invasion of Japanese au
tomakers into the American market was largely the result of
Executive

More

Industry?
Insights: The Korean Automobile
in the Global Market
and Strategies

93

Quality

the high quality of their cars. Similarly, the recapture of mar

firms in recent years has also been
ket share by American
a
of
function
improved quality. Thus, Korean automo
largely
bile companies need to place the highest emphasis on quality
if they want to continue their past record of exports and to
expand their markets further.

Labor Management

Relations

Earlier, the authoritarian and adversarial relationship between

in the Korean automobile
labor and management
industry
was commented on. At the height of intense confrontation
and strikes, serious damage was done to the overall amount
of the country's production. Traditionally,
instead of follow
a
in
the
of
resolution
labor conflicts,
ing negotiating strategy
Korean

workers

have

to resort

tended

means

to extreme

such

as demonstrations,
strikes, and violence (Lim and Lee 1988).
Given the benefits that would accrue to both labor and man
agement to learn about negotiation
approaches, workshops
and training sessions for labor leaders and managers should
be widely conducted. There are a growing number of useful
and

references

that use

practices

(Fisher and Ury 1991, Susskind

1991).
Ury
flicts

Redefining the
Role

of Government

Dong-Ok Lee is assistant professor

in integrative studies/social
sci
ence atMichigan State University.
Keunchul Lee is research associ
ate in mechanical
at
engineering
State
University.
Michigan
Jae-Jin Kim is a Ph.D. candidate
in economics
at Michigan
State
University.

Gill-Chin Lim is endowed profes

sor of geography and urban plan
ning atMichigan State University.

and Cruikshank

con

1987,

Many governments around the world are burdened by bureau

cracy and inefficiency, with rules, regulations, and corruption
posing major obstacles to free-market enterprise. The Korean
government has attempted to provide various incentives to
private companies to promote industrial growth and has estab
lished government-supported
research institutes to stimulate
scientific and technological
progress. However, during the
of
the
1960s, 70s, and 80s, the government
high growth period
neglected to uphold labor's basic rights, and has taken little re
cent action to provide a supportive system for ordinary work
a high level of motivation
ers. Maintaining
to work hard
requires solid support for the well-being of workers.
Tension

The Authors

to resolve

negotiation

also

exists

between

tion

and

the auto

and

government

indus

in Korea leans toward heavy regula

try. Public policymaking

undemocratic

authoritarian,

in general.

decisions

One of the critical tasks of the new civilian government

should be to initiate needed government reform in policy ar
eas

affecting

the automobile

industry.

as fluctua

Moreover,

yen, and dollar have an immediate and

on
the importing and exporting of motor ve
profound impact
hicles and parts, and as trade barriers among nations affect
the production and consumption of automobiles, the Korean
tions

in the won,

government
economic
In summary,

would
issues
there

do well
involving
is a strong

bor, and government

94 Dong-Ok

to pay keen
trade barriers

Lee, Keunchul

to work

need

attention
and

for Korean

to macro

exchange

rates.
la

automakers,

together in greater harmony

Lee, Jae-Jin Kim,

and Gill-Chin

to

Lim

to manage more efficiently,

to resolve
develop technology,
more
more
conflicts
automobiles glob
peacefully, and to sell
in
Reorientation
in
reform
ally.
thinking,
policies, re-engi
of new
neering in management,
emphasis on development
neces
are
and
of
the
work
all
ethic
realignment
technologies,
sary if Korea expects to thrive in the increasingly competitive
global market. If aspects of culture have been a key to the suc
cess of individual companies,
then Korea would do well to
a
ethos
national
encouraging domestic automakers
develop
to succeed in the world market.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This article is part of a larger study
on the Korean automobile industry
conducted under the auspices of
CAMPS (Comparative and Multidis
ciplinary Planning Study Group).
CAMPS Group consists of scholars
who study issues in transformation
of societies

from

comparative

and

multidisciplinary
perspectives.
the
includes
group
geog
Currently
raphers,

economists,

engineers,

computer
Gill-Chin

planners.

automotive
scientists,
Lim,

and

professor

of geography and urban planning,

is directing
the group. Dong-Ok
Lee is responsible
for industrial
policy,

Keunchul

tive technology,
economic

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