The Palestinian Diaspora, 1948-1985

Author(s): Pamela Ann Smith

Source: Journal of Palestine Studies, Vol. 15, No. 3 (Spring, 1986), pp. 90-108
Published by: University of California Press on behalf of the Institute for Palestine Studies
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2536751 .
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The PalestinianDiaspora,
1948- 1985
PamelaAnn Smith*
Aftera long silence, studiesof the Palestiniansand the Palestine
in the
LiberationOrganizationhave begunto appearin some profusion
United States and Europe,as well as in the Arab world.Little is still
known,however,aboutthePalestiniandiaspora-thosePalestinians
living
outsidethe bordersof whatwas once mandatory
Palestine.In part,this
reflectsthe generaltendency,until recently,to regardsuch people as
"refugees"or as "Arabs," indistinguishable
fromthe remainderof the
In addition,eventhoseU.S.,
hostcountries.
populationin theneighboring
avoidedpolemicsand
European,and Israelistudieswhichhavesuccessfully
partisanship
have tendedto focuson thepartofthePalestinianpopulation
thatis moreeasilyaccessibleto Westernresearchers-those
livingin the
Israeli-occupiedterritories.
Nevertheless,if the full dimensionsof the
Palestinianproblemare to be understood,all those Palestiniansliving
outside their formerhomeland must be recognizedas a part of the
Palestinianpeople and as havingconcernforand interestin the fateand
futureofwhatwas once theirown country.
This studydrawson a longerworkbegunin theearly1970sthatsought
Palestiniansare, thesizeof theircommuto ascertainwherethedispersed
nities,and theireconomicandsocialwayoflifein exile.1Class analysiswas
transcendor
used to determinethe degreeto whichnationalaspirations
Pamela Ann Smith is a journalistspecializingin the Middle East and authorof Palestineand the
Palestinians
1873-1983 (New York:St. Martin'sPress,1984).

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DIASPORA 91

thatpeasants,
withthekindsofsolidarity
andcommoninterests
conflict
aregenerally
classelsewhere
oftheruling
merchants,
ormembers
workers,
assumed
to share.

ofNewClasses,1948-1966
ExileandtheFormation
of Palestinenumbered
In 1947 the Arabpopulation
1,303,585,70
yearslater,the
percentof whomlivedin the ruralareas.2Thirty-four
ofwhich2.6 million,
almost
or
totalled
4.5 million,
Palestinian
population
of mandatory
just under60 percent,werelivingoutsidethe territory
oftheWest
thatis, outsideIsraeland theoccupiedterritories
Palestine,
Palestinian
is
community
Today,thelargest
Bank,Gaza,andal-Himmah.
morethanhalfthepopulation.
constitute
in Jordan,
wherePalestinians
inLebanon,Syria,Kuwait,
andSaudi
arefound
Othersizablecommunities
intheotherGulfstates,
Egypt,
Libya,
concentrations
Arabia,withsmaller
(seeTable 1).
Iraq,andCyprus
residein theUnitedStates.Manyof
Morethan100,000Palestinians
theWestBanktowns
from
ofRamallah,
Bayt
themareChristians
originally
Some Palestinians
who workedforthe Palestine
Jala,and Bethlehem.
to Britainwherethey
theMandateperiodemigrated
during
government
in the 1960s
severalthousand
students,
werejoinedbyothers,
including
in Brazil,Argentina,
communities
Chile,and
and 1970s.The Palestinian
established
by immigrants
otherpartsof LatinAmericawereoriginally
undertheTurksduring
WorldWarI; theirnumbers
conscription
fleeing
inLatinAmerica,
which
after1948,andtodaythecommunities
increased
in thediaspora,
countfourgenerations.
areamongthewealthiest

TheImpoverishment
ofthePeasantry
or
Palestinians
whoenjoyedfamily
someofthewell-to-do
Although
in otherpartsoftheArabworldhadbegunto leave
connections
business
after
theUnitedNationsGeneralAssembly
calledforthe
Palestine
shortly
inNovember
oftherefugees
ofthecountry
1947,thevastmajority
partition
Jewish
brokeoutbetween
theHaganah-theunderground
leftafter
fighting
and later,after14 May 1948,during
irregulars
army-andPalestinian
and the
battlesbetweentheHaganah,theArabLegion(Transjordan),
in Lebanon,
armies
ofEgypt,
safety
sought
Syria,andIraq.Manyinitially
in
theheavyfighting
during
particularly
Syria,orotherpartsofPalestine,
in
themassacre
of254villagers
of1948andafter
theGalileein thespring
after
DayrYasinin April.Othersfledto theWestBankandTransjordan,

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92 JOURNAL
OF PALESTINESTUDIES
Table 1:The Palestinian
Population,
1981
Percent
ofTotal
ArabOil States:
Kuwait
Saudi Arabia
Oman
UnitedArab Emirates
Qatar
Libya
Iraq
Bahrain
OtherArabStates:
Jordan(East Bank)
Lebanon
Syria
Egypt
Europeand theAmericas:
UnitedStates
West Germany
LatinAmerica
c
Other:
TotalOutsidePalestine:
Palestine:
West Bank
Israel
Gaza Strip
TotalIn Palestine:
TotalPalestinian
Population:

299,710
136,779
50,706

594,295

13.4

1,774,671

39.9

124,856

2.8

36,504a
24,233a

23,759
20,604
2,000

1,148,334
358,207
222,525
45,605a
104,856
15 oob
5,000b

833,000
550,800
451,OOOa

120,116

2,613,938

2.7
58.8

1,834,800
4,449,138d

41.2
100.0

1980 (Damascus:PLO CentralBureauof Statistics,

Source:Palestinian
Statistical
Abstract,
1981).
D'Une Guerrea l'Autre(Paris:La Decouverte/Le
a. Eric Rouleau, in his Les Palestiniens:
for1981 do not countthe Palestinianpopulationof
Monde, 1984), notesthatthe figures
in Abu Dhabi puts
to Egyptin April1982; thatthePLO representative
al-'Arish,returned
in Doha estimates
fortheEmirates
at closerto 70,000;and thatthePLO office
thefigure
the
numberin Qatar has risento 30,000 or more.
NabeelShaath,"High-Level
b. Figures
for1970,takenfrom
Palestinian
Manpower,"
Journal
of
Palestine
Studies
andLatinAmericahas
I, no. 2 (Winter1972),81. The totalforWestGermany
beendeductedfromthePLO's figure
for1981of 140,116for"other"countries.
c. IncludesEasternEuropeas well as Canada, Australia,Africa,and otherpartsofAsia.
betweenthetotalPalestinianpopulationlistedhere
d. Thereis an unexplaineddiscrepancy
Statistical
(as takenfromthe Palestinian
Abstract,
1980) and the actualtotal.

held by the
the entryof the Arab Legion, seekingrefugein territories
and the southern
forces.Still others,includingmanyfromJaffa
Jordanian

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DIASPORA 93

army
andfledtothe
theprotection
oftheEgyptian
sought
coastaldistricts,
itself.
Gaza Striporto Egypt
offoodrations
hadbeenorganized,
1949,whena program
ByJanuary
at almostone
registered
forreliefwasestimated
ofrefugees
thenumber
set up to housethosewho
campsweregradually
million.3Makeshift
inarmy
schools,
orchards,
barracks,
convents,
shelter
hadsought
originally
430,000Palestinians
barns,andcaves.Bytheendof 1949,an estimated
werehousedin thesecamps;another250,000had managedto find
orthrough
charitable
institutions
withfriends
orrelatives
accommodation
forfreefoodrations.4
Overtheyears,thenatural
butwerestillregistered
in thenumbers
in therefugee
alsoled to an increase
population
increase
hadreached1.3 million.Of
forrelief;
byMarch1966thefigure
registered
the West Bank),with
livedin Jordan(including
these,the majority
164,000in Lebanon,and 139,000in Syria.5
ofthosein thecampsand registered
for
The overwhelming
majority
whohadownedtheirownhomesand landin
relief
wereeitherpeasants
farmers
andsharecroppers
whohadtilledplotsinornear
ortenant
Palestine
urbanlife,whohad
Unlikethosewhohadexperienced
nativevillages.
their
orwhohadbusiness
contacts
abroad,thepeasantry
an education,
received
theland,waslost.
becauseitssourceoflivelihood,
deprived
wasuniquely
household
goods,andsome
Whilea fewwereableto takeoutlivestock,
landin theneighboring
agricultural
tools,thelackofsuitable
agricultural
withtherelatively
inwhichtheytookrefuge,
combined
highrates
countries
existedin theagricultural
whichalready
sector,meant
ofunemployment
wereunabletoescapethepoverty
andloss
thatmostofthepeasant
refugees
in the campsoveryears,and evendecades,
of skillsthatconfinement
entailed.
landbyPalesthefactthatthepurchase
ofagricultural
Furthermore,
in
meantthat
wasforbidden
tinians
excepton theWestBankand Jordan
somewealthinexileoften
were
eventhosewhodidmanagetoaccumulate
toa landless
proletariat,
their
former
wayoflife.Reduced
unabletorecreate
as
wereforced
totakeupwhatworktheycouldfind,
primarily
thepeasants
in
in
in
few
the
or
the
trades,
building
seasonallaborers agriculture,
inJordan,
Lebanon,and
theurbancenters
around
whichexisted
industries
wereemployed
bytheUnitedNationsReliefand
Syria.Severalthousand
in 1950,as construction
workers
or
Works
(UNRWA),established
Agency
and
in theproduction
ofessential
textiles,
soap,
clothing,
goods-shoes,
in thecamps.
bricks-needed
ofSaudiArabiaandtheGulfstatesinthe1950s
Therapiddevelopment
anotheravenueof employment.
By the end of 1953, 3,000
provided

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OF PALESTINESTUDIES
94 JOURNAL

bytheArabianAmericanOil Company
wereemployed
Palestinianrefugees
(Aramco)in Saudi Arabia,wheretheirpreviousexperiencewithmodem
withthe English
tools and equipmentin Palestineand theirfamiliarity
valuableas foremen.Palestinianworkers
languagemadethemparticularly
facilitiesin Saudi
werealso importedto build port,rail, and residential
tutors,andpersonal
Arabiaand theGulfstatesand to workas seamstresses,
in
maidsin privatehomes.A fewwho had workedin the oil refineries
orin thePalestinepolicefoundjobs in thepublic
Palestine,in therailways,
ofKuwaitand Qatar,as well as in Saudi Arabia.6
sectorindustries
withtheworking
conditionsin theoil
However,Palestiniandiscontent
industryand in the Gulf states soon led to a series of strikesand
in Kuwait,Bahrain,Qatar, and Saudi Arabia. In 1956,
demonstrations
againstthecombinedIsraeli,French,
whentheunrestescalatedintoprotest
and Britishinvasionof the Suez Canal, the local regimesclampeddown
sharplylest the discontentspreadto theirown populations.Hundredsof
Palestinianworkersweredeportedand otherswerebannedfromjobs in
sensitivesectors.7By 1958, only those Palestinianswith professional
such as engineers,urbanplanners,doctors,and educators,
qualifications,
wereallowedto workin theGulfstatesin largenumbers.

TheGrowth
oftheBourgeoisie
whoseassetsconsistedof
In contrast
thosePalestinians
to thepeasantry,
skillswereoftenable to makea newlifein
or transferable
movableproperty
thestandardoflivingthey
even surpassed
exile that,withtimeand effort,
by
had enjoyedin Palestine.In contrastto the pictureoftenportrayed
ofthestateofIsrael,Palestinewas
Zionists,on theeve oftheestablishment
one of the mostmodemregionsin the Middle East. As a resultof the
whichhad resultedin theawarding
ofhugegovernment
wartime
prosperity
fromHaifa, a
contractsfromthe British,the beginningof oil exporting
of
risein agricultural
exportsto Europe,and the development
significant
considamassed
corporateformsof business,manyPalestinianmerchants
erablewealthin the formof stocksand shares,bank deposits,cash, and
abroad.
financialinvestments
Some 44.7 millionPalestinianpounds($179 million,at 1945 exchange
rates) in capital,or about 16 percentof the total capitalowned in the
was held bythenon-Jewish
populationin theformof assetsthat
country,
accountsin London
abroad.8Balancesheld in sterling
couldbe transferred
wereeasilyaccessibleto thoseforcedintosuddenexile,and the releaseof
blockedaccountsheldin thePalestinianbranchesofBarclaysBankand the

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DIASPORA 95

OttomanBank followinginternational
negotiationsin the early 1950s
lives in the diaspora.Some ?10
providedadditionalsumsforrebuilding
toJordan
in theformofbank
tohavebeentransferred
millionwasestimated
ofsucha sum
depositsand cash duringthesameperiod.9(The magnitude
equaledthetotalamountofmoney
can be gaugedbythefactthatthisfigure
in circulationin the HashemiteKingdomat the time.)
to investin newbusinesses
These sumsenabledmanyPalestinians
or to
Arabcountries.YusifBaydas,a
reestablish
theircompaniesin neighboring
Palestine,investedfundsobtainedby
foreign
exchangedealerin mandatory
colleaguesfromBarclaysalongwithothereamingshe had made afterthe
devaluationofthePalestinepoundto starta newmoneyexchangebusiness
in Beirutthatin 1951becametheIntraBank. Byearly1966,Intrawas the
in Lebanon. Its holdingsincludedthe Hilton
largestfinancialinstitution
and PhoeniciaHotelsin Beirut;sharesin MiddleEastAirlines,theportof
in
Beirut,as well as a shipyardin France;miningcompaniesregistered
in
the
Fifth
Avenue
ChampsElysees Paris,
England;and realestatealong
in Manhattan,and Park Lane in London. Intra also owned banks,
brokeragehouses,and tradingcompaniesin Geneva, Rome, Frankfurt,
New York,Sa6 Paulo, Dubai, Liberia,SierraLeone, and Nigeria.10
foundedin 1930 by a Palestinianpeasant
The Arab Bank, originally
fromthevillageofBaytHanina,'Abd al-HamidShuman,managedin 1948
some of its funds,records,and staffto 'Amman,whereits
to transfer
forpayingclaimsimmediately
helpedit to expandthroughout
reputation
the Arab world.By the mid-1960s,in additionto more than a dozen
in Switzerbranchesin the Arab countries,itsholdingsincludedaffiliates
land,WestGermany,and Nigeria.The bank'sauditor,Fu'adSaba, moved
Saba and Company,to Beirutand 'Amman.In 1955
theoffices
ofhisfirm,
oil companiesin the Gulf and was
it began workingforinternational
able to takeon manymoreAmericanclientswhowereexpanding
thereby
theiroperationsin the Middle East. The Arabia InsuranceCompany,
whosefoundersincludedSulaymanTannus (also a memberof the Arab
Bank's Board of Directors),moved to Beirutand fromthere set up
additionalbranchesinJordan,
Kuwait,Bahrain,Qatar,Dubai, Abu Dhabi,
Sudan, Libya,Tunisia,Morocco,and Britain.11
in
whohad studiedengineering
EmileBustani,a Lebaneseentrepreneur
to Palestineduringthe Second World War,
Britainbeforeemigrating
projectsforthe British
gained usefulcontactsworkingon government
duringthe war. After 1948, his firm,the Contractingand Trading
Company(CAT), obtainedhuge contractsin the oil fieldsin the Gulf
Aden, Syria,and
states(manyof whichwerestillBritishprotectorates),

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OF PALESTINESTUDIES
96 JOURNAL

Company(CCC), foundedin
Lebanon.12 The ConsolidatedContractors

1963 by threePalestinians-HassibSabbagh, MuhammadKamal 'Abd

al-Rahman,andSa'id TawfiqKhuri-also specializedin projectsin theGulf
as well as in Libyaand Nigeria.By the early1970s,it was doingbusiness
wereconsideredto
$60 milliona year,and itsfounders
worthan estimated
rankamongthe wealthiestmen in the Palestiniandiaspora.13

Families
TheDeclineoftheRuling
Palestine'sindigenousrulingclass-which by 1948 consistedof the
notableswho had access to highpositionsin the Islamiccourts,schools,
a
as well as the main landowningfamilies-suffered
and administration,
of the state of Israel. The muftiof
mixedfate afterthe establishment
al-Hajj Amin al-Husayni,who had led the resistanceto the
Jerusalem,
wasexiledto Egyptand latertookup residencein
ofthecountry,
partition
Lebanonwherehe died in the early1970s. His opponents,thosefamilies
withKing'Abdallahand who
like the Nashashibiswho allied themselves
acceptedthe annexationof the West Bank by Jordanin 1950, found
facedwitha dilemma:eitherto acceptHashemitehegemony
themselves
it offered
forprosperity
and forsecuringinfluential
and the opportunities
or to continueinsistingon the
positionsin the Jordaniangovernment,
ofthearmedstruggle
against
ofPalestineand theresumption
independence
and
security
theIsraelioccupationoftheirhomeland.14 The first
promised
oftheirclassposition,butat thecostoflosinganyclaims
themaintenance
themwiththelossof
theirownpeople;thesecondthreatened
to represent
positionsbut, in the eyes of the
theirlands, estates,and government
theirclaim to speakforthe
wouldhave buttressed
majorityof refugees,
Palestiniansas a whole.
on both the East and West Banksof the
While discontentsimmered
their
newlyenlargedKingdomofJordan,the rulingfamiliesconcentrated
inwhatwasthenbasicallya tribalsystem.
to obtainreforms
efforts
on trying
rule,a moderncivilservice,and
However,theirdemandsforconstitutional
on the West
economic and social developmentprograms-particularly
Bank-met withstrongoppositionfromthe new king,Hussein,who had
in 1951 and the
assassination
inheritedthe throneafterhis grandfather's
subsequentillnessofhis father.
led by Sulayman
In 1956, when a nationalistcoalitiongovernment
in theChamberofDeputiesand in thecabinet,
Nabulsiobtaineda majority
the pro-Hashemite
loyalistswithinthe Palestinianrulingclasswereagain
divided.Those fromthe previouscabinetsfearedthatthe economicand

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DIASPORA 97

socialreforms
demanded
by Nabulsi-whosecoalitionincludedsupport
fromtheBa'thpartyand theCommunists-went
toofar,particularly
in
oftradeunionrights
and thepromotion
theirrecognition
of indigenous
industrial
capitalat theexpenseoftheimport/export
tradein whichsome
Palestinian
families
ofthemostprominent
wereinvolved.
Theywerealso
to end British
controloverthe
concerned
thatNabulsi'sdetermination
inJordan
ArabLegionanditsinfluence
wouldleavethemvulnerable
tothe
ofthemoreradicalPalestinian
intellectuals
to the
demands
sympathetic
andEgyptian
President
Nasir.
Ba'th,theCommunists,
theyounger
members
of thesefamilies
Others,however,
particularly
intheWestandwhosympathized
whohadbeentrained
withthepan-Arab
toopenthekingdom's
Nabulsi's
administration
parties,
supported
attempts
ofpromotion
toPalestinians
andtotheprinciple
basedonmerit
rather
than
Some like QadriTuqan, a member
on tribalor clan affiliation.
of a
prominent
WestBankfamily
thathadbuiltupstrong
business
connections
on theEastBank,had already
stoodas Communist
candidates.
Others,
suchas Tahsin'Abdal-Hadi,AnwarNusaybah,
andHikmat
al-Masri,
had
resisted
attempts
bythecourtandthecabinetbothtonullify
theelections
ofDeputies,
andthereby
andto disbandtheChamber
helpedto pavethe
15
wayforNabulsi'svictory.
ofparliament
anddeclaration
ofmartial
Theking's
dismissal
subsequent
lawin April1957solvedtheissue.Political
parties
werebanned,andthe
NabulsiandotherPalestinian
leaders
oftheopposition,
including
deputies
ofBritish
in
whosupported
The landing
him,werearrested.
paratroopers
in July1957aftera reported
'Ammanand in otherpartsofJordan
coup
thekingeffectively
attempt
against
putan endto thereform
attempts.
whohad playedan activerolein theopposition
ThosePalestinians
or forcedintoexileif theywerenot
foundthemselves
eitherdeported
madetheirpeace withthe
alreadydetained.Whilesomesubsequently
in the 1960s,loyalists
withinthe rulingfamilies
continued
monarchy
from
theperiodto rejectdemands
theirownconstituents
for
throughout
ofthenationalist
socialandeconomic
changeandfora resumption
struggle
oftheirhomeland
and theJordanian
againstboththeIsraelioccupation
oftheWestBank.
annexation
intheJordanian
Inreturn,
withimportant
theywererewarded
positions
of theNashashibi,
Variousmembers
government.
Tuqan,Dajani, 'Abd
wereappointed
to seatsin the
families
and Nusaybah
al-Hadi,Jayyusi,
UpperChamberand/or
cabinet,whileothersheldhighministerial
posts
rulein theWestBank.Otherswere
theperiodofJordanian
throughout
in Jordanian
servedas ambassadors
givenkeypostsin thearmedforces,

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98 JOURNAL
OF PALESTINESTUDIES

embassiesabroad,or wereencouraged
to standforthe Chamberof
Deputies.This,together
withJordan's
policyofproviding
salariesforthe
intheWestBank,* *
mayors,
judges,municipal
officials,
andcivilservants
enabledtheseclansto continuein powerat a timewhenPalestinians
in thediaspora
wereturning
to otherleadersin theirefforts
elsewhere
to
obtaintheirnationalrights.

andClass,1967to 1982
Nationalism
Theoutbreak
ofthe1967WarandtheArabdefeat
ledtoa newexodus
from
ofPalestinians
from
theWestBankandGaza.Somewererefugees
the
1948Warwhohadbeenlivingin campsin thenewlyoccupiedterritories
orin theGolanHeights
to leaveforthesecondtime
andwhowereforced
intheirlives.Thousands
ofothers
leftlateras themilitary
occupation
and
the expansion
ofJewish
settlements
themof theirhomesand
deprived
livelihoods
andleftthemvulnerable
to economic
stagnation
andpolitical
ofPalestinians
As a result,
oppression.
by1972thenumber
registered
for
orabouthalfthetotalPalestinian
relief
hadrisento 1.5million,
population
at the time.Morethan40 percentof these,640,000,werehousedin
16
refugee
campsofonekindoranother.
ofcivilwarinLebanonaddedstillmore
Threeyearslater,theoutbreak
lists.By1979,after
the1976Phalangist
totherelief
the
onslaught
against
refugee
campsofTal al-Za'tarand Qarantinaand thebrief1978 Israeli
ofsouthern
hadincreased
to 1.8 million.
occupation
Lebanon,thenumber
Afterthe Israeliinvasionin June1982,the subsequent
massacres
and
in thecampsofSabraandShatila,andthedestruction
ofothers
fighting
isbelieved
tohaverisentomore
bothinBeirut
andinthesouth,thefigure
17
thantwomillion.

TheCreation
Class
ofa NewWorking
ofa wholeclass
Thedispersal
ofthepeasantry
andthesudden
separation
of peoplefromtheirlivelihoods
createda new landlessproletariat,
or
withinPalestinian
subproletariat,
society.Manyof thoseon reliefwere
thosewhoseskillshaddeteriorated
elderly,
during
longyearsofunemployhadbeenkilled,enrolled
whoseproviders
as
ment,orwomenandchildren
**Jordon
paysthe salariesof onlythosewho wereemployedat the timeof the 1967 war,not those
employedsubsequently-Ed.

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DIASPORA 99
Table2: Palestinians
Registered
forReliefas a Percentage
1949 to 1979
oftheTotalPalestinian
Population,
Year

NumberRegistered
forRelief

Total
Population

1949a
1979

1,000,000
1,804,000

1,304,000
4,390,000

Percentage
76.7
41.1

in Palestine,"in IbrahimAbu
Transformations
Sources:JanetAbu Lughod,"Demographic
University
Press,
Lughod(ed.), TheTransformation
ofPalestine
(Evanston,Ill.: Northwestern
1977), 155; PalestinianStatistical
Abstract,1980 (Damascus: PLO Central Bureau of
Statistics,1981); UNRWA annualreports(New York:UN, selectedyears).
for1949 is available,the 1947 figure
aAs no populationfigure
givenbyJanetAbu Lughod
was used.

inthevarious
orhadleftthecampsinsearch
movements,
fighters
guerrilla
ofworkelsewhere.
However,thesefigures
disguiseanothertrendamongthe displaced
since1967:theachievement
ofself-sufficiency
by
peasantry,
particularly
leftthecampsandinmanycases
largenumbers
ofrefugees
who,as a result,
inthenumbers
rolls.Despitetheabsolute
increase
withdrew
from
therelief
therelative
shareofthepopulation
ofthoseneeding
registered
assistance,
ofthetotalpopulation,
forrelief,
as a proportion
declined
actually
priorto
the Israeliinvasionof Lebanonin 1982. Whilecompletedata is still
lacking,a crudeestimate
indicates
thatthissharehadfallenfromabout
in 1949to onlyabout41 percent
in
ofthetotalpopulation
76.7 percent
1979(seeTable2).
achievedself-sufficiency
The availableevidencesuggests
thatrefugees
workin agriculture,
either
thebuilding
andindustry,
or
trades,
byfinding
to areassuchas SaudiArabiaand theGulfstates,where
byemigrating
was available.Some refugees
also
work,both skilledand unskilled,
oftheirownin theshanty
to setup smallshopsandbusinesses
managed
ofthelarger
and'Amman.
townsandurbanquarters
cities,suchas Beirut
insewing
income
andlaundry
Womenoften
bytaking
supplemented
family
inthefields
inaddition
oflocallandlords.
work
toworking
Children
found
laborers.
as street
vendors,
messenger
boys,andas agricultural
countries
Unliketheperiodbefore1967,whentheneighboring
found
of largenumbers
of
an economicburden,the emigration
the refugees
of
to theGulfled to theemployment
andJordanians
Lebanese,Syrians,
ofthesecountries
inthelocaleconomies
toreplacethosewho
Palestinians
indisposable
incomemadepossible
therapidincrease
hadleft;similarly,
by
theGulfstates
after
thegrowth
ofoilexports
sentbackfrom
theremittances

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100 JOURNAL
OF PALESTINESTUDIES

led to a risingdemandforlaborin the neighboring

Arab countries,
in theurbanareas.
particularly
Onlya fewexamples
canbe givenhere,butthechangewasperhaps
the
in Jordan.
mostremarkable
Government
development
plans,whicheminthenumbers
phasized
bothagriculture
andindustry,
ledtoan increase
of
Palestinians
employed
to harvestcropsseasonallyand to installnew
worksand greenhouses;
othersfoundjobs in foodprocessing
irrigation
in warehouses,
metalfabrication
textileplants,and
factories,
workshops,
and publicutilities.In Lebanon,
garages,as well as in construction
workintheportofBeirut,
as wellas inindustry,
Palestinian
found
refugees
in Jordan,
and agriculture.
construction,
However,unlikethesituation
mostofthesejobsweretemporary.
(Forexample,
ofthe4,845Palestinians
inLebaneseindustry,
from
thecampsemployed
construction,
andutilities
in 1971,only390 had permanent
jobs.)18In Syria,government
policies
ofPalestinians
inagriculture,
tended
topreclude
theemployment
butsome
inservice
toobtainemployment
managed
industries,
construction,
andthe
in governtrades.Otherswhohad obtained
vocational
building
training
in localmanufacturing.
mentschoolswereemployed
oflarge
Byfarthelargest
changecamewiththeincreased
emigration
numbers
ofPalestinians
toSaudiArabia,Libya,andtheGulfstatesafter
the
in themid-1960s
in oil exports
rapidincrease
andthecommencement
of
andinfrastructural
the
hugenewindustrial
development
projects
following
inthelate
riseinoilpricesin 1973and1974.Unlikethesituation
fourfold
1950sandearly1960s,thepressing
needforlaborled to a relaxation
of
immigration
restrictions,
althoughmostPalestinian
workers
werestill
prevented
from
bringing
theirfamilies
withthemorfrom
settling
permaPreference
wasgivento thosewithvocational
nentlyin thesecountries.
fromtheyounger
thoserefugees
whohad
training
(including
generation
in UNRWAschoolsor abroad)or previous
work
obtainedan education
in the
sentby theseworkers
Remittances
to theirfamilies
experience.
toleavethecamp,tobuilda newhomeor
campsoftenenabledthefamily
A fewofthe
education
fora sister
orbrother.
ortoprovide
business,
higher
in theGulflaterestablished
businesses
oftheir
campresidents
employed
ownandthemselves
becamesuccessful
entrepreneurs.

andRetreat
TheBourgeoisie:
Challenge
oftheGulfin thelate1960sand 1970s
Whiletherapiddevelopment
incontracts
obtained
and
alsoledtoan increase
byPalestinian
corporations
forPalestinian
banksandentrepreneurs,
theirability
to
business
additional

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DIASPORA

101

wasseverely
oflocal
eroded
bythegrowth
fully
tapthesenewopportunities
in the late
in SaudiArabiaand theGulfstates,beginning
bourgeoisies
and
signedby the government
1950s.In Saudi Arabia,an agreement
of
those
employed
not
less
than
70
percent
that
Aramcoin 1957stipulated
applicants
in theoil industry
shouldbe Saudis.Whilethelackofsuitable
in
ofSaudisemployed
at first,
hindered
by 1964thepercentage
progress
hadrisento52 percent.19
andmanagement
postsintheindustry
supervisory
onAramcotoawardrelated
Thiswasaccompanied
pressure
bygovernment
a policythatwasalsoencouraged
byU.S.
contracts
toSaudientrepreneurs,
on ArabIndustrial
Aramco's
to thekingdom.
specialdepartment
aidfunds
workto
and maintenance
beganto farmoutconstruction
Development
with
the
to
them
and provide
Saudicontractors
capital,tools,equipment,
thejob.
neededto complete
andrawmaterials
intootherareas,suchas the
At thesametime,Aramcobeganmoving
and powerand waterfacilities,
of roads,schools,housing,
construction
toSaudicontractors.
Manyofthese
whichwerealsogiven,where
possible,
in theirownright,
Saudislaterbecameextremely
wealthy
entrepreneurs
the import
of vitalindustrial
and
covering
running
holdingcompanies
and local
consumer
insurance,
shipping,
petrochemicals,
goods,banking,
wholacked
entrepreneurs,
Bythelate 1960s,Palestinian
manufacturing.
as well
andtechnical
expertise
theeasyaccesstoAramco's
capitalsubsidies
anddevelopment
found
funds,
as to government
licenses,
permits,
import
difficult.20
competition
In Kuwait,legislation
theemployment
of nationalswas
encouraging
in 1965bythepromulgation
ofa newIndustrial
followed
Law,whichgave
overallsectors
oftheeconomy
construccontrol
thegovernment
including
firms
weresubjectto
and banking.All industrial
tion,manufacturing,
shareholders
own51 percent
whichstipulated
thatKuwaiti
nationalization,
firms
Non-Kuwaiti
werebannedfrom
setting
up
ormoreofthetotalshares.
Suchmeasures
institutions.21
meantthatPalestinian
financial
andbanking
withtheirnewmajority
hadto sharetheirprofits
shareholders
companies
on themforvitalimport/export
working
licenses,
andbecamedependent
andcontracts.
andbuilding
permits,
ofnewregimes
whichshunned
private
enterprise,
theadvent
Elsewhere,
ordiscouraged
theestablishment
ofcompanies
bannedcapitalexports,
by
availableto Palestinian
further
limitedthe opportunities
nonnationals
inIraqin 1958anditsreplacement
Thefallofthemonarchy
entrepreneurs.
ledbyMajorGeneral'Abdal-Karim
Qasimledto
regime
bya republican
thatdeprived
oftherightto
foreigners
changesin theeconomy
sweeping
andforeign
transactions.
ortoengageinbanking
exchange
repatriate
profits

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102 JOURNAL
OF PALESTINESTUDIES

In 1964whentheBa'thists
sectors
cameunder
cametopower,
all industrial
wereestablished
torun
andpublicly-owned
companies
government
control,
and
commercial
much
thereby
eliminating of
themajorindustrial
sectors,
firms,
bothIraqiand
awarded
on contract
to private
theworkpreviously
Palestinian.
ofa republic
The overthrow
ofKingIdrisin Libyaandtheinstallation
in
1969
to
of
Mu'ammar
led
the
arrest
headedby
Qadhdhafi September
tothekingoras civilservants
whohadserved
as advisers
manyPalestinians
in the government
administration.
Banks,insurancecompanies,and
werenationalized
a yearlater,andmostPalestinindustries
manufacturing
or
submit
to
a
oftheirassets.
Libyantakeover
toleave
ianfirms
wereforced
in thelate1950s
on private
In Syria,therestrictions
introduced
enterprise
inretailtrade,construcand 1960sleftsomescopeforPalestinian
activity
declineoftheSyrian
butthecontinuing
due
economy
tion,andtransport,
in
the
war
of
with
Israel
and
the
early
mid-1960s,
to the
attrition
funds
causedbythe1967War,andthelackofdevelopment
devastation
sectorin general.
affected
theprivate
adversely
whohadsuccessfully
managed
torebuild
Bythelate1960s,Palestinians
newonesmodeled
on thecorporate
abroadorto establish
theirbusinesses
at a distinct
disadvantage.
linescommonin theWestfoundthemselves
theirneweconomic
Unableto translate
powerintothekindofpolitical
insociety
andin
influence
thatwouldenablethemtosecuretheirposition
conclusion
that
of
came
to
the
a
state
theeconomy,
only
by
creating
they
wouldtheybe abletocompete
withthe
theirowninPalestine
successfully
in the Arab world.Theircommitment
to
othergrowing
bourgeoisies
nationalism
wasfurther
reinforced
bythefatesuffered
bysome
Palestinian
in thepreceding
decade.
oftheircompatriots
The first
Twocaseswereparticularly
relevant.
wastherelative
decline
ofCAT following
thesuddendeathofEmileBustaniin a planecrashin
manyPalestinians
regarded
1963.Whilefoulplayhasneverbeenproved,
limitations
suffered
to be
thecrash,andthesubsequent
byhiscompany,
announced
before
hisdeath,to
shortly
intention,
linkedbothto Bustani's
forArab
ofLebanonandtohisdetermined
runforthepresidency
campaign
in a waythatwouldhaveencouraged
theuseofoil
economic
integration
22 Bustani's
ofnationality.
ofallArabs,irrespective
forthebenefit
revenues
byhiserstwhile
success,theyfelt,had becometoo greatto be tolerated
rivals.
waswhathappenedto IntraBankand to Yusif
Evenmoredramatic
oftheruling
a seriesofsuddenwithdrawals
bymembers
Baydas.Following
inKuwaitandSaudiArabia,theCentralBankofLebanonrefused
families

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DIASPORA

103

toprovide
a loanto Intraeventhough
itsassetsoutweighed
itsliabilities.
in
of
The bank'ssubsequent
collapse October1966notonlyleftthousands
oftheirfundsbutalso removed
a sourceoffinance,
depositors
deprived
formanyothertalented
Palestinians
managerial
expertise,
andemployment
whohadbeenencouraged
byBaydasorbyIntra.The bank'sprizedassets
in theU.S., Kuwait,Qatar,and Saudi
overto itscreditors
wereturned
wasleftbankrupt
and laterdiedofa heart
Arabia,whileBaydashimself
ForthescoresofPalestinian
he had
attackin Switzerland.23
companies
hisdeathand thecollapseofIntrawereblowsfrom
helpedto establish,
whichmanyneverrecovered.

Families
under
IsraeliOccupation
TheRuling
The Israelioccupation
of the West Bankand Gaza in June1967
within
thetraditional
removed
a majorsource
ofsupport
forthoseelements
andwhohad
rulingfamilies
whohad remained
loyalto theHashemites
the
annexation
of
the
West
Bank.
Although
Jordan
accepted Jordanian
to paysalariesto municipal
officials
the
continued
and civilservants,
of Israeliruledealta devastating
blowto thetradepatterns
imposition
intheaftermath
ofthe
whichboththeWestBankandGazahadestablished
wereamongthoseworstaffected.
1948War.The traditional
landowners
couldno longer
be easily
The important
orange
cropinGaza,forexample,
toArabmarkets
viaJordan,
whiletheIsraeli
policyofconfiscating
exported
bothfornewJewish
settlements
and forthe
land and waterresources,
thelarger
ofcashcropsforexport,
reduced
cultivation
and
landholdings
ofmaking
viableintheWest
commercial
addedtothedifficulty
agriculture
BankandGaza.
withinthe rulingfamilies
Those individuals
who had set up new
on
Bank
the
East
continued
to thrive
and trading
industries
companies
created
ofnewrefugees
bothbecauseofthedemand
and
bythehugeinflux
demandin SaudiArabiaandtheGulfstates.However,
becauseofrising
fromthe new military
suffered
theirkin in the occupiedterritories
andfrom
thecompetition
theysuddenly
regulations
imposed
bytheIsraelis
Whileat first
theabilityto
to theterritories.
facedfromIsraeliexports
forthe establishment
of new
exportto Israelprovidedsomeimpetus
the
andproperty
urbanconstruction,
development
industries,
agricultural,
ofsalestaxes,thelossofskilledlabor,and thelackofbasic
imposition
formanysegments
ofthetraditional
families
infrastructure
madeitdifficult
to adaptto thenewconditions.24

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OF PALESTINESTUDIES
104 JOURNAL

A majorblowcamein 1974following
thecivilwarinJordan,
whenthe
ofthePLO bytheArabSummit
inRabatledthe
endorsement
Conference
monarchy
to reduceits support
forits clientswithinthe Palestinian
Policieswereestablished
to "Jordanize"
thekingdom
aristocracy.
and to
from
remove
Palestinians
influential
postsinthecabinetandinthecivilian
administration.
andagricultural
andindustrial
Development
funds,
salaries,
wereno longerreadily
availableto theloyalist
on the
subsidies
families
WestBank.Those who protested
foundthe kingdom's
divide-and-rule
tacticstendedto favortheirrivals.
inthe
Bythemid-1970s,
eventhoseelements
ofthelandedaristocracy
WestBankthathad supported
the Hashemites
againstthe nationalist
ofPalestinians
demands
hadbeguntodeclare
livingintheotherArabstates
forthe PLO and forthe creationof a separate
openlytheirsupport
Palestinian
statein the West Bank and Gaza. While they,like the
hadcometobelievethattheirinterests
couldonlybeprotected
bourgeoisie,
ina stateoftheirown,theirdecision
tosupport
thePLO alsoreflected
the
radicalism
withinthe occupiedterritories
growing
thathad begunto
theirownpositions,
a trendthatwasconfirmed
in the 1976
undermine
elections
whenbothCommunist
,municipal
party
andpro-PLOcandidates
ingaining
control
ofseveral
succeeded
important
postsintheWestBank.25

ThePalestinian
Diaspora,1982to 1985
The pastthreeyearshavebeendismalforall Palestinians,
whatever
in Lebanonwere
theirpositionin Palestinian
society.Developments
theIsraeliinvasionin June1982andthesubsequent
particularly
painful:
in thecampsofSabraand Shatilawerefollowed
massacre
byextensive
in thesouthandthe"warofthecamps,"whichfirst
brokeoutin
fighting
beensubjected
to theinternecine
conflict
ofa
May1985.Havingalready
decadeofcivilwar,Palestinians
livingin thecampsand in thecitiesof
foundtheirlivesandlivelihoods
even
Beirut,
Sidon,Tyre,andelsewhere
morethreatened
thanbefore.
Families
weredividedas manyoftheyoung
from
LebanonwhenthePLO'sfighters
weredispersed
menwereevacuated
to otherpartsoftheArabworld.
had helped15,000
By the middleof 1984, UNRWA's assistance
families
to
to rebuildtheirshattered
homes,butfundswereinsufficient
facilirebuild
manytraining
centers,
hospitals,
clinics,waterdistribution
andschoolsthathadbeendamaged
or destroyed.
ties,workshops,
Many
at all afterthe
refugees
livingoutsidethecampsreceivedno assistance
refused
to givepermission
to rebuild
Phalangist-dominated
government

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DIASPORA

105

homes located outsidethe existingcamps.26By the end of June 1985,

another683 Palestinianshad been killed, 2,000 woundedand 30,000
renderedhomelessby attackson Sabra, Shatila, and Burj al-Barajinah
campsin Beirut.Another1,500 Palestinians
weremissing,and the lackof
27
medicalresources
meantthatmanyofthe woundedwereleftuntreated.
Elsewherein the diaspora,the fragmentation
of the PLO and the
of countrieslike Egyptand Jordanto negotiatewithIsrael
determination
meantthatthe Palestinianslivingin thesecountrieswerekeptunderan
even tighterrein than usual. In Syria,the hostilityof the government
towards
YasirArafatandFatehprovidedanotherelementoffriction
inwhat
was alreadya tensesituation,particularly
afterthe eruptionof fighting
in
end
of
northLebanonat the
1983betweenthoseforcesloyalto Arafatand
thosesupported
by Syria.
in Lebanonalso coincidedwitheconomic
Unfortunately,
theconflicts
in Saudi Arabiaand the Gulfstates.As a resultofthe drop
retrenchment
in oil revenues,government
spendingplans were cut back sharplyand
contractswerecancelledor delayed.Contractors,
particularly
local Arab
and Palestinianfirms,
wereoftenthe last to be paid. While some of the
largerPalestiniancompaniescouldbidetheirtimebycuttingstaff
and costs
or by obtainingworkoutsidethe Gulf states,the recessiondrastically
availablebothto thosewithinthecampswhohad
reducedtheopportunities
sought to emigrateto the Gulf and to those professional,educated
Palestiniansalreadylivingin thesestates.Pressurein Kuwait,Qatar, the
United Arab Emirates,and Saudi Arabia to reducethe amountof work
givento nonnationals
grewas a result,andbymid-1985,manyPalestinians
werebeingbarredfromentry.Relativeswereoftenforbidden
to visittheir
kinlivingin thesestates,and thosePalestinians
on thevergeofretirement
facedthe prospectof losingtheirrightto stayonce theirworkpermits
expired.
With familiesdividedand sons, daughters,and grandchildren
often
as theywentto Beirut,London,and the U.S. for
separatedpermanently
schooling,medicalcare, or jobs, the wealthiermiddleand uppermiddle
class Palestiniansin the Gulf foundtheirlives more constrainedthan
in Lebanon, the West Bank, or
before.Comparedto theircompatriots
Gaza, theyweremorefortunate,
but, like the displacedpeasantry,they
in thevariouspeace plansbeingnegotiatedin the
couldtakelittlecomfort
West. Unless, and until,theyare also giventhe rightto returnto their
all the insecurity
homeland,theyfaceendlessyearsofstatelessness-with
theireconomicpositionsrelativeto
this implies-howevercomfortable
otherPalestiniansin the diaspora.

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106 JOURNAL
OF PALESTINESTUDIES

In contrast,
livingin theWestBankcouldat leastlook
thePalestinians
forward
to some hope of progressin talksbetweenJordanand the PLO
andthecreationofan autonomous
aimedat achievingan Israeliwithdrawal
state.Yet even hereit was farfromclearhow muchland wouldbe given
back-assumingthatthe talksmetwithsuccess-givenIsrael'scontinued
the PLO. In the meantime,the
intransigence
on the issueof recognizing
an
amongPalestinrepression
continued,and withit upsurgein militancy
impatience
boththeirgrowing
thatreflected
iansin theoccupiedterritories
Israel'spartial
to rollbacktheoccupationfollowing
andtheirdetermination
fromLebanon.
withdrawal
Forthe old rulingclass,the talkscouldnot come soon enough.They
held out the hope of reducingthe threatthey faced fromthe rapid
radicalization
thatin the 1980shas led to an upsurgein IslamicfundamenfortheCommunist
talismand in support
partyin theWestBankand Gaza.
in the
of
Israeli
Withthedecline the
economy,therisein unemployment
andtheescalatinginflation,
suchradicalization
seemed
occupiedterritories,
on the proposedtalksbetween
likelyto spread,rapidlybarringprogress
Jordan,the PLO, Israel,and the U.S.
ofthePalestinianpopulation,bothin thediasporaand
Forall segments
ofthe nationamongthosestilllivingin theirhomeland,the importance
assumeda new dimensionin the 1980s,howeversplittheir
aliststruggle
leadershipappearedto be to the outsideworld.The ringingendorsement
thatArafatreceivedat thePalestineNationalCouncilmeetingin 'Amman
of the supportvarious
in November1984 underlinedthis, irrespective
factionswithinthe
Palestiniansfeltforone or anotherof the contending
fromall socialbackgrounds
expressed
PLO. While in private,Palestinians
orsimply
ofthisorthatleader,ofthewaythePLO wasorganized,
criticism
the determinaArafatcontinuedto symbolize
ofthe divisionsthemselves,
tion to achieve theirnationalgoals despitethe divisions,the various
to translate
theworld's
policiesoftheArabstates,orArafat'sowninability
fortheircauseintothekindofactionneededon thepart
growing
sympathy
to makepossiblegenuineprogress
on
ofthe U.S. and Israeligovernments
a peacefulsettlement.
expressedby Palestinianson
By the mid-1980s,despitethe differences
or tacticalgoals-the wisdomof acceptinga smallerstatein the
strategic
ofthe
West Bank and Gaza, an alliancewithJordan,or the continuation
had becomea nationalcause that
nationalism
armedstruggle-Palestinian
divisionsofclass,place ofexileororigin,religion,and gender.
transcended
In this, the PLO, whatever its other failings, had succeeded.

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DIASPORA

1. PamelaAnn Smith,Palestine
and thePalestinians1876-1983(New York:St. Martin's
Press,1984).
2. Janet Abu Lughod, "The Demographic
of Palestine,"in Ibrahim
Transformation
Abu Lughod(ed.), The Transformation
of
Palestine(Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern
University
Press,1977), 155.
3. This estimatewas made by William St.
Aubin, the delegateof the Leagueof Red
CrossSocieties.See his article,"Peace and
Refugeesin the MiddleEast," The Middle
EastJournal
3, no. 3 (July1949): 251.
4. S.G. Thicknesse,ArabRefugees:
A Survey
Possibilities
ofRe-settlement
(London:Royal
Instituteof InternationalAffairs,1949),
102. See also the Annual Reportof the
Secretary-General
oftheUnitedNations,July
1, 1948 to June 30, 1949 (New York:
UnitedNations,1949) and thefinalreport
oftheEconomicSurveyMissionsentto the
area by the UN in 1949 (UN A/AC 25/6,
Part1).
5. UnitedNationsReliefand WorksAgency
(UNRWA), Registration
Statistical
Bulletin,
UN DocumentA/6018, No. 1/66 (First
Quarter,1966), 27.
6. See David Sperling,"The ArabianAmerican Oil CompanyGoes to Lebanon"(Cambridge,Mass.: CenterforMiddle Eastern
Studies, Harvard University, 1965);
ThomasStauffer,
"The Industrial
Worker,"
in S.N. Fischer(ed.), SocialForcesin the
MiddleEast (New York:GreenwoodPress,
1968); and David H. Finnie,DesertEnterprise:The MiddleEast in Its Local Environment(Cambridge,Mass.: HarvardUniversityPress,1958); and Smith,172-3.
7. Sperling,2; Finnie,102; FawazTurki,The
Disinherited:
Journalof a PalestinianExile
(New York:MonthlyReviewPress,1972),
89; and al-Jazirah
al-Jadidah
(The New PeofthePeople'sDemocratic
ninsula,Journal

107

Republic of Saudi Arabia, n.p., 1972)

(trans.by the Arab SupportCommittee,
Berkeley,
Calif.), 4-5
8. Of the totalcapitalownedin Palestinein
1945 amounting
to 281 millionPalestinian
pounds,?P 132.6 millionwasownedbythe
non-Jewish
population.Of this,about ?P
74.8 was investedin land and another?P
13.1 millionin agricultural
buildings,
tools,
and livestock.The remainder,?P 44.7
million,was investedin industry,
stocks,
andcommodities
orinvestedabroad.About
?P 1.3 millionhad been used to purchase
automobilesand otherformsof motorized
2 vols.
transport.
See A SurveyofPalestine,
(Jerusalem:Government of Palestine,
1946), 2:569.
9. UN Department
of EconomicAffairs,
Reviewof EconomicConditions
in theMiddle
East, 1951-1952, DocumentE/2353/Add.
1, ST/CA/19/Add.1 (New York: UN,
March1953), 114.
10. Fordetailsof Intra'sholdingssee The New
YorkTimes,October1966 to January
1967.
11. J.C. Hurewitz,The Struggle
for Palestine
(New York: Greenwood Press, 1968),
189-90; PalestinePersonalia(Tel Aviv,
1947).
12. For a historyof the companysee William
W. Miller,"The CAT Company,"master's
thesis, American Universityof Beirut,
1955.
13. Annuairedes societeslibanaisespar action
(Beirut:MiddleEast CommercialInformationCentre,1970). See also Who'sWhoin
theLebanon1974 (Beirut:PublitecPublications,GedeonHouse, 1974) and thearticle
on Hassib Sabbagh by Colin Smith, "A
Palestinian'sDream of Home," The Ob9 February
server,
1975.
14. Underthetermsofthearmistice
agreement
betweenIsraeland Transjordansignedin
April 1949, King'Abdallahhad agreedto

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

OF PALESTINESTUDIES
108 JOURNAL
preventall "land, sea or air militaryor
forces. . includingnonpara-military
anywarlike
regular
forces"fromcommitting
or paraor hostileact against"themilitary
military
forces"of Israel.[The textappears
(London:R. Hale,
in Ann Dearden,Jordan
infiltrators
were
1958), 201-8.1Thereafter,
In Decemlikelyto be shotor imprisoned.
on the West Bankand in
ber,Palestinians
citizensand
JordanweredeclaredJordanian
laws.
subjectto Jordanian
15. Fordetailsoftheelectionand ofthepreviand thecabous debateswithinparliament
A Political
inet,see Aqil H. Abidi,Jordan:
Study,1948to 1957 (London:Asia Publishing House, 1965); Dearden; and Marius
StelJordaniens
Haas, HusseinsKonigsreich:
lung im Nahen Osten (Munich: Tuduv
1975).
Verlagsgesellschaft,
16. Edward Hagopian and A.B. Zahlan,
"Palestine's Arab Population: The
ofthePalestinians,"
Journal
of
Demography
Palestine
StudiesIII, no. 4 (Summer1974).
of
17. Annual reportsof the director-general
the United Nations Relief and Works
Agency (UNRWA); PalestinianStatistical
Abstract,1980 (Damascus: PLO Central
Bureauof Statistics,1981), 361.
18. BasimSirhan,"PalestinianRefugeeCamp
Studies
Lifein Lebanon,"Journal
ofPalestine
IV, no. 2 (Winter1975), 101.
Devel19. KemalSayegh,Oil andArabRegional
opment(New York: Greenwood Press,

1978),85, 87.

20. For details of Aramco's operationssee

Oil
Finnie,op. cit.; and StephenLongrigg,
in theMiddleEast (London:RoyalInstitute
of International
Affairs,
1968).
21. See M.W. Khoja and P.G. Sadler, The
andRolein
Economy
ofKuwait:Development
International
Finance(London: Macmillan,
1979), 125; and Naseer H. Aruri and
Samih Farsoun,"PalestinianCommunities
and Arab Host Countries," in Khalil
Nakhlehand Elia Zureik(eds.), The Soci-

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

ologyof the Palestinians

(London: Croom
Helm, 1980), 136.
Bustani'sownviewson employing
Palestinians and on regionaleconomicintegration
are availablein his bookMarcheArabesque
(London:R. Hale, 1961).
Detailsof the collapseare availablein The
New YorkTimes,16, 19, 20, and 30 October 1966 and 17 November1966. See also
The Banker122, no. 551 (January1972);
and MichaelField,A Hundred
MillionDollarsa Day (London: Sidgwick& Jackson,
1975), 138-42.
Interviewswith Rashid Shawa, Bassam
Shaka'a, Muhammad Milham, and
MuhammadZ. Nashashibiin London,May
1980 to June1981. See also JamilHilal,
al-Diffahal-Gharbiyyah:al-Tarkib allqtisadiyyah
w-al-ljtima'iyyah,
1948-1974
ofthe
(The Economicand Social Structure
West Bank, 1948-1974) (Beirut, 1974);
EmileSahliyeh,"WestBankIndustrial
and
Agricultural
Development:
The BasicProblems,"Journal
ofPalestine
StudiesXI, no. 2
(Winter1982); HishamAwartani,"West
A New Outlook," AlBank Agriculture:
ResearchBulletin,no. 1
Najah University
(Nablus, 1981); 'Atallah Mansour,"West
Bank Aid," Events(London), 17 October
1977; and Sarah Graham-Brown,"The
ImWest Bank and Gaza: The Structural
pact of IsraeliColonization,"MERIP Reports74 (January
1979).
On thegrowthoftheCommunist
partyon
the West Bank and in Gaza duringthe
middleand late 1970s see Salim Tamari,
"The PalestinianDemand for Independence Cannot Be PostponedIndefinitely,"
1981.
MERIP Reports,
October-December
Reportof the Commissioner-General
of
UNRWA to theUN GeneralAssembly
July
1, 1983 toJune30, 1984 (New York:UN,
1984).
Medical Aid for Palestinians (MAP),
"BeirutCamps Appeal" (London) August
1985.

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