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AND CAPACITANCE
dQ
I
dt
( convention current)
or,
I J S
I J dS
S
( convention current)
I Sx
where: vx represents the x component of
the velocity, v.
And in terms of current density,
J x vx
and in general
J v
where: J or vv is the convention current
density
Sample Problem 1
The vector current density is given as J =
(4/r2)cos ar + 20 e-2r sin a r sin cos
a A/m2. (a) Find J at r = 3, = 0, = .
(b) Find the total current passing through
the spherical cap r = 3, 0 < < 20O, 0 <
< 2, in the ar direction.
CONTINUITY OF CURRENT
The principle of conservation of charge
states simply that charges can be neither
created nor destroyed, although equal
amounts of positive and negative charge
may be simultaneously created, obtained
by separation, destroyed, or lost by
recombination.
The continuity equation, follow this
principle when considering of any region
bounded by a closed surface. And the
current through the closed surface is
CONTINUITY OF CURRENT
I J dS
S
CONTINUITY OF CURRENT
The current at closed surface, however, is
an outward-flowing current and it is the
integral form of the continuity equation,
and the differential, or point, form is
obtained by using the divergence theorem
to change the surface integral into a
volume integral:
dS
J
)
d
vol
CONTINUITY OF CURRENT
Next represent the enclosed charge Qi by
the volume integral of the charge density,
d
(
J
)
d
vol
dt vol
CONTINUITY OF CURRENT
Keeping the surface constant, the
derivative becomes a partial derivative and
may appear within the integral,
J
)
d
vol
vol t
( J )
d
t
CONTINUITY OF CURRENT
And the point from the continuity equation,
Sample Problem 2
Assume that an electron beam carries a
total current of 500 A in the az
direction, and has a current density Jz that
is not a function of or in the region 0 <
< 10-4 m and is zero for < 10-4 m. If the
electron velocities are given by vz = 8 x
107 z m/s, calculate v at = 0 and z =:(a)
1 mm; (b) 2 cm: (c) 1 m.
Seatwork
1. Given the vector current density J =
102za - 4cos2a A/m2: (a) find the
current density at P( = 3, = 30O, z = 2);
(b) determine the total current flowing
outward through the circular band = 3, 0
< < 2, 2 < z < 2.8.
Answer 180a 9a A/m2; 518 A
Seatwork
2. Current density is given in cylindrical
coordinates as J = - 106z1.5az A/m2 in the region
0 20m; for 20 m, J = 0. (a) Find the
total current crossing the surface z = 0.1m in the
az direction. (b) If the charge velocity is 2 x 106
m/s at z = 0.1 m, find v there. (c) If the volume
charge density at z = 0.15 m is -2000 C/m3, find
the charge velocity there.
Answer -39.7 mA; - 15.81 kC/m3; -2900 m/s
METALLIC CONDUCTOR
Metallic Conductor
permit a higher-energy
level in the valence
band to merges
smoothly, to a
conduction band by the
help of kinetic energy
produce by an external
field that will result in an
electron flow.
METALLIC CONDUCTOR
The valence electrons,
or conduction, or free,
electrons, having a
charge Q = -e will move
under the influence of
an electric field, E, and
will experience a force:
F = - eE
METALLIC CONDUCTOR
And the valence electron velocity (drift
velocity) is linearly related to the electric
field intensity by the mobility of the
electron in a given materials (i.e. free
space or crystalline)
vd = - eE (electron velocity is opposite in
direction to E)
where is the mobility of an electron
(positive)
METALLIC CONDUCTOR
In terms of current density, J:
J e e E
where:
ee
Therefore;
J E
METALLIC CONDUCTOR
METALLIC CONDUCTOR
I J dS JS
S
L
Therefore; V
I
S
a
Va b E dL E dL E Lb a
b
Vab E Lba
or
or
V IR
V EL
but
I
V
J E
S
L
where:
L
R
S
METALLIC CONDUCTOR
Insulator did not
permit any electron
flow due to an existing
gap between the
valence band and the
conduction band. In
this case the electron
cannot accept any
additional amounts of
energy.
METALLIC CONDUCTOR
Semiconductors had a
small forbidden
region that separates
the valence band and
the conduction band.
A small amounts of
energy in the form of
heat, light, or an
electric field may raise
the energy of the
electrons and provide
a conduction.
Sample Problem 3
Find the magnitude of the electric field
intensity in a sample of silver having =
6.17 x 107 mho/m and e = 0.0056 m2/V.s
if: (a) the drift velocity is 1 mm/s; (b) the
current density is 107 A/m2; (c) the sample
is a cube, 3 mm on a side, carrying a total
current of 80 A; (d) the sample is a cube, 3
mm on a side, having a potential
difference of 0.5 mV between opposite
faces.
Sample Problem 4
An aluminum conductor is 1000 ft long and
has a circular cross section with a
diameter of 0.8 in. If there is a dc voltage
of 1.2 V between the ends, find: (a) the
current density; (b) the current; (c) the
power dissipated, using your vast
knowledge of circuit theory.
Seatwork
1. Find the magnitude of the current density in a
sample of silver for which = 6.17 x 107 S/m
and e = 0.0056 m2/Vs if: (a) the drift velocity is
1.5 m/s; (b) the electric field intensity is 1
mV/m; (c) the sample is a cube 2.5 mm on a
side having a voltage of 0.4 mV between
opposite faces; (d) the sample is a cube 2.5 mm
on a side carrying a total current of 0.5A.
Answer: 16.53 kA/m2; 61.7 kA/m2; 9.87MA/m2;
80.0 kA/m2
Seatwork
2. A copper conductor has a diameter of 0.6 in and
it is 1200 ft long. Assume that it carries a total dc
current of 50 A. (a) Find the total resistance of
the conductor. (b) What current density exists in
it? (c) What is the dc voltage between the
conductor ends? (d) How much power is
dissipated in the wire?
Answer: 0.0346; 2.74 x 105 A/m2; 1.729 V; 86.4
W
Prove:
Consider a closed surface conductor in a
free space boundary
( In static conditions, tangential
E dL 0 electric field intensity and electric
flux density are zero.)
and E = 0,
1
1
Et w EN , atb h EN , ata h 0
2
2
where: a to b = c to d = w and b to c = d
to a = h
Et w 0
Et 0
( h = 0 and w 0(finite))
Dt Et 0
top
bottom
sides
Q(Cylinder Sides)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
A potential field is given as V = 100e-5x sin
3y cos 4z V. Let point P(0.1,/12,/24) be
located at a conductor-free space
boundary. At point P, find the magnitude
of: (a) V; (b) E; (c) EN; (d) Et; (e) S
Methods of Images
Dipole Characteristics
infinite plane at zero
potential that exists
midway between the two
charges.
Consider a vanishingly
thin conducting plane
that is infinite in extent
and have an
equipotential surface at a
potential V = 0, and
electric field intensity
normal to the surface.
Methods of Images
This can be represented
by a single charge
(image) above the plane
and maintain the same
fields, removing the
plane and locating a
negative charge at a
symmetrical location
below the plane.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
A point charge of 25 nC is located in free
space at P(2,-3,5), and a perfectly
conducting plane is at z = 0. Find: (a) V at
(3,2,4); (b) E at (3,2,4); (c) S at (3,2,0).
Solution to Problem 6
Given:
z=0
V = 0 at z = 0 at (3,2,4)
R = (3,2,4) (2,-3,5) = (1,5,-1)
R = (3,2,4) (2,-3,-5) = (1,5,9)
(a)
(b)
Solution to Problem 6
(b)
(c)
SEMICONDUCTORS
Intrinsic Semiconductor pure material
(i.e. germanium or silicon)
Two types of current carriers:
1. Electrons are those from the top of the
filled valence band which have received
sufficient energy (usually thermal) to cross
the relatively small forbidden (1 electron
volt energy gap) band into the conduction
band.
SEMICONDUCTORS
2. Holes are vacancies left by the
electrons represent unfilled energy states
in the valence band which may also move
from atom to atom in the crystal.
Both carriers move in an electric field, and
they move in opposite directions; hence
each contributes a component of the total
current which is in the same direction as
that provided by the other.
SEMICONDUCTORS
The conductivity is a function of both hole
and electron concentrations and mobilities,
ee hh
where:
= conductivity
e and h = electron and hole charge
densities
e and h = mobility of electrons and
holes
SEMICONDUCTORS
or
= e + h
where: e = Neee
h = Nheh
Ne and Nh = electron and holes
concentrations
Electron charge, e = 1.602 x 10-19 C
e = mobility of electron (0.12, silicon;
0.36, germanium)
h = mobility of holes (0.025, silicon; 0.17,
germanium )
SEMICONDUCTORS
Doping the process of adding impurities
to a pure semiconductor.
Acceptors furnish extra holes and form
p-type materials.
Donor provide additional electrons and
form n-type materials.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 7
Using the values given in this section for
the electron and hole mobilities in
germanium at 300 K, and assuming hole
and electron concentrations of 2.7 x 1019
m-3, find: (a) the component of the
conductivity due to holes; (b) the
component of the conductivity due to
electrons; (c) the conductivity.
Solution to Problem 7
1 = Neeh
= (2.7 x 1019)( 1.602 x 10-19)(0.17)
= 0.735 mho/m
2 = Neee
= (2.7 x 1019)( 1.602 x 10-19)(0.36)
= 1.557 mho/m
NATURE OF DIELECTRIC
MATERIALS
The characteristic which all dielectric
materials have in common, whether they
are solid, liquid, or gas, and whether or not
they are crystalline in nature, is their ability
to store electric energy.
This storage takes place by means of a
shift in the relative positions of the internal,
bound positive and negative charges
against the normal molecular and atomic
forces.
NATURE OF DIELECTRIC
MATERIALS
A non-polar molecule does not have this
dipole arrangement until after a field is
applied. The negative and positive
charges shift in opposite directions against
their mutual attraction and produce a
dipole which is aligned with the electric
field.
NATURE OF DIELECTRIC
MATERIALS
p Qd
n
ptotal pi
i 1
1
P lim
pi
0
i 1
NATURE OF DIELECTRIC
MATERIALS
Consider a dielectric
containing non-polar
molecules, no dipole
moment and P =0. In
the interior, an
incremental surface
element , S and an
electric field, E,
produces a moment p
= Qd in each
molecule, such that p
and d make an angle
with S.
NATURE OF DIELECTRIC
MATERIALS
Net total charge that crosses the
elemental surface in an upward direction,
Qb nQd S
Qb P S
Qb P dS
S
NATURE OF DIELECTRIC
MATERIALS
Total enclosed charge, QT
E dS
S
where: QT Qb Q
Q = total free charge enclosed by the
surface S.
Enclosed free charge,
Q QT Qb ( 0 E P) dS
S
D 0 EN P
NATURE OF DIELECTRIC
MATERIALS
For Polarizable Material
Q D dS
S
P b
0 E T
D v
QT
dv
v
NATURE OF DIELECTRIC
MATERIALS
In ferroelectric materials the relationship
between P and E is not only nonlinear, but
also shows hysteresis effects.
The linear relationship between P and E is
P e0 E
NATURE OF DIELECTRIC
MATERIALS
Substituting to the value of D:
D 0 E e0 E (e 1)0 E
where:
R e 1
Therefore
0 R
where: =
permittivity
SAMPLE PROBLEM 8
A certain homogenous slab of lossless
dielectric material is characterized by an
electric susceptibility of 0.12 and carries a
uniform electric flux density within it of 1.6
nC/m2. Find: (a) E; (b) P;(c) the average
dipole moment if there are 2 x 1019 dipoles
per cubic meter; (d) the voltage between
two equipotentials 1 in. apart.
Solution to Problem 8
Given:
Xe = electric susceptibility = 0.12
D = electric flux density = 1.6 nC/m2
dipoles/cu.m = 2 x 1019
a) D = 0E + Xe 0E = 0E(Xe + 1)
E = D/ [0(Xe + 1)] = (1.6 x 10-9)/[(8.854 x 10-12)(0.12 +1)]
= 161.35 V/m
b) P = Xe 0E = (0.12)(8.854 x 10-12)(161.35)
= 171.4 x 10-12 C/m2 or 171.4 pC/m2
c) Average dipole moment = (171.4 x 10-12)/(2 x 1019)
= 8.57 x 10-30 C-m
d) V = ES = (161.35)(0.0254) = 4.09829 V or 4.10 V
Dt Et 0
DN EN S
E dL 0
S
Dtan 1
or
Etan 1 Etan 2
Dtan 1 1
Dtan 2 2
Dtan 2
D dS Q
S
DN1S DN 2S Q S S
DN1 DN 2 S
component of D is
continuous)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9
The region y < 0 contains a dielectric
material for which R1 = 2.5, while the
region y > 0 is characterized by R2 = 4.
Let E1 = -30ax + 50ay + 70az V/m, and
find: (a) EN1; (b) Et1; (c)Et1; (d) E1; (e) 1
Solution to Problem 9
Given:
R1 = 2.5
R2 = 4
E1 = -30ax + 50ay + 70az V/m; y = normal
a) EN1 = E1ay = (-30ax + 50ay + 70az) ay = 0 +
50 + 0 = 50 V/m
b) Et1 = E1 EN1 = -30ax + 50ay + 70az - 50ay = 30ax + 70az V/m
c) Et1 = |Et1| =
Solution to Problem 9
d) E1 = |E1| =
e)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 10
Continue problem 9 by finding: (a) DN2; (b)
Dt2; (c) D2; (d) P2; (e) 2
Solution to Problem 10
E1 = -30ax + 50ay + 70az
E2 = -30ax + Ey2ay + 70az
D1 = 0R1E1
= (8.854 x 10-12)(2.5)(-30ax + 50ay + 70az) = - 0.664 x 109a + 1.107 x 10-9a + 1.55 x 10-9a
x
y
z
D2 = Dx2ax + 1.107 x 10-9ay + Dz2az
D2 = 0R2E2
Dx2ax + 1.107 x 10-9ay + Dz2az = (8.854 x 10-12)(4)( -30ax +
Ey2ay + 70az)
Dx2 = -1.062 x 10-9
Ey2 = 31.26
Dz2 = 2.48 x 10-9
D2 = -1.062 x 10-9ax + 1.107 x 10-9ay + 2.48 x 10-9az
D2 = -1.062ax + 1.107ay + 2.48az nC/m2
Solution to Problem 10
a) DN2 = D2ay = (-1.062ax + 1.107ay + 2.48az) ay = 0 +
1.107 + 0 = 1.107 nC/m2
b) Dt2 = Et20R2 = (76.2)(8.854 x 10-12)(4) = 2.70 x 10-9
C/m2 = 270 nC/m2
c) D2 = -1.062ax + 1.107ay + 2.48az nC/m2
d)
CAPACITANCE
Capacitance the ratio of the magnitudes
of the total charge on either conductor to
the potential difference between
conductors. And it is measured in farads
(F), where a farad = 1 Coulomb/Volt
Q
C
V0
where: Q = surface integral over the
positive conductor.
CAPACITANCE
CAPACITANCE
Consider two conductors embedded in a
homogenous dielectric. Conductor M2
carries a total positive charge Q, and M1
carries an equal negative charge. There
are no other charges present, and the total
charge of the system is zero.
CAPACITANCE
Let Vo, the potential difference between
M2 and M1, and carrying a unit charge
from the negative to the positive surface,
and the capacitance is given by,
dS
E dL
CAPACITANCE
CAPACITANCE
Consider a simple two-conductor system
in which the conductors are identical,
infinite parallel planes with separation d.
Choosing the lower conducting plane at z
= 0 and the upper one at z = d, a uniform
sheet of surface charge S on each
conductor leads to the uniform field.
CAPACITANCE
S
E
az ( = permittivity of the
homogenous dielectric)
D S az
DN DZ S (charge on the lower plane)
DN DZ (charge on the upper plane)
Potential difference between the lower and
upper plane,
S
S
V0
E dL
dz
d
upper
d
lower
CAPACITANCE
And the charge value,
Q S S
Therefore,
Q S
C
V0 d
where:
S = surface charge
density
S = surface area
2
2
2
2
S d S
1
1
1
d
S
S
WE E 2 dv
dzdS
Sd
2
2 vol
2 0 0
2
2 d 2
or
2
1
1
1
Q
WE CV 02 QV0
2
2
2 C
SAMPLE PROBLEM 11
Find the relative permittivity of the
dielectric material used in a parallel plate
capacitor if : (a) C = 40 nF, d = 0.1 mm,
and S = 0.15 m2, (b) d = 0.2 mm, E = 500
kV/m, and S = 10 C/m2; (c) D = 50
C/m2 and the energy density is 20 J/m3.
Solution to Problem 11
(a)
(b)
Solution to Problem 11
(c)
Given:
D = 50 x 10-6 C/m2
W = 20 J/m3
SEVERAL CAPACITANCE
Consider a Coaxial cable or coaxial
capacitor that has inner radius a, outer
radius b, and length L. The value of the
capacitance is given by,
2 L
C
ln( b / a)
SEVERAL CAPACITANCE
Consider a spherical capacitor formed of
two concentric spherical conducting shells
of radius a and b, b > a. The expression
for the electric field,
( = dielectric
Q
permittivity
Er
2
between the region
4r
of the
spheres)
SEVERAL CAPACITANCE
Potential difference using the line integral,
Q 1 1 (Q =represents the
Vab
total charge o the
4 a b inner sphere)
SEVERAL CAPACITANCE
The Capacitance is given by,
or
Q
4
C
Va b 1 1
a b
C 4a
SEVERAL CAPACITANCE
Coating the sphere with a different
dielectric layer, for which = 1, extending
from r = a to r = r1,
Q
Dr
2
4r
Q
Er
(a r r1 )
2
4 1r
Er
Q
4 0 r
(r r1 )
SEVERAL CAPACITANCE
The potential difference is,
r1 Qdr
Qdr
Va V
2
r1 4 r
4 r 2
1
0
a
Q
Va V
4
1 1 1 1
1 a r1 0 r1
SEVERAL CAPACITANCE
Therefore,
4
C
1 1 1 1
1 a r1 0r1
SEVERAL CAPACITANCE
Consider a parallel-plate capacitor of area
S and spacing d, where d is small
compared to the linear dimensions of the
plate. The capacitance is given by 1S/d,
using a dielectric permittivity 1. Suppose
another part of the capacitor dielectric has
a permittivity of 2, then the potential
difference given by Vo is,
SEVERAL CAPACITANCE
V0 E1d1 E2d2
DN1 DN 2
or
1E1 2 E2
SEVERAL CAPACITANCE
V
0
Eliminating E2; E1
d1 d 2 1 / 2
The surface charge density,
S D1 1E1
1
V0
d1
d2
Q S S
1
1
C
1
1
V0
V0 1 d1 d2
1S 2 S C1 C2
SAMPLE PROBLEM 12
Find the capacitance of: (a) 20 cm of
58C/U coaxial cable having an inner
conductor 0.0295 in. in diameter, an outer
conductor having an inside diameter of
0.116 in., and a polyethylene dielectric; (b)
a conducting sphere 1 cm in diameter,
covered with a layer of polyethelene 1 cm
thick, in free space; (c) a conducting
sphere 1 cm in diameter, covered with a
layer of polyethelene 1 cm thick, and
surrounded by a concentric conducting
sphere 1.5 cm in radius.
Solution to Problem 12
a)
b)
c)
Solution to Problem 12
b)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 13
A parallel-plate capacitor contains three
dielectric layers, Let R1 = 1, d1 = 0.2 mm,
R2 = 2, d2 = 0.3 mm, R3 = 3, d3 = 0.4 mm,
and S = 20 cm2. (a) Find C. (b) Find the
percentage of the total stored energy
located in each of the three regions.
Solution to Problem 13
a)
b)
CAPACITANCE OF A TWO-WIRE
LINE
CAPACITANCE OF A TWO-WIRE
LINE
Consider the potential field of two infinite
line charges. A positive line charge in the
xz plane at x = a and a negative line
charge at x = -a. The potential of a single
line charge with zero reference at a radius
of Ro is,
L R0
V
ln
2 R
CAPACITANCE OF A TWO-WIRE
LINE
Combining the potential field,
L R10
R20 L
R10R2
ln
V
ln
ln
2 R1
R2 2 R20R1
Letting R10 = R20 (placing zero reference at
equal distance from each line) and R1 = x
and R2 =y,
2
2
2
2
L
x a y
L x a y
V
ln
ln
2
2
2
2
2
4
x a y
x a y
CAPACITANCE OF A TWO-WIRE
LINE
Choosing an equipotential surface V = V1
and letting K1 = dimensionless parameter
of potential V1
4V1 / L
K1 e
CAPACITANCE OF A TWO-WIRE
LINE
Therefore,
x a y
K1
2
2
x a y
2
K1 1
2
2
x 2ax
y a 0
K1 1
2
2a K1
K1 1
2
x a
y
1
1
K1 1
2
CAPACITANCE OF A TWO-WIRE
LINE
In equipotential surface where V = V1, the
surface is independent value of z ( a
cylinder) and intersects the xy plane in a
circle of radius b,
2a K
Centered at x = h, y = 0;
K1 1
ha
K1 1
where: a h 2 b 2
h h b
K1
b
2
( x = 0)
K1 1
CAPACITANCE OF A TWO-WIRE
LINE
But
K1 e
2V0 / L
4 V0
Therefore, L
ln K1
The value of the capacitance is given by,
L L 4L 2L
C
V0
ln K1 ln K1
or
2L
2L
C
1
2
2
ln h h b / b cosh (h / b)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 14
Find the capacitance between a circular
conducting cylinder in air, 2 mm in radius,
and: (a) a conducting plane, 1 cm distant
from the cylinder axis; (b) a conducting
plane, 1 cm distant from the cylinder axis;
(c) a similar cylinder, axes separated by 1
cm.
L=1
= 0 = 8.854 x 10-12
r = b = 2mm = 2 x 10-3 m
d = h = 0.01 m
a)
b)
c)
Solution to Problem 14
Solution to Problem 14