CHAPTER L. LL 3 12 3 13. 5 14, 8 Ls. 9 16. ° LL AND MINERAL C( z E 10 18. USES OF STONES ; L 19. CHARACTERISTICS OR QUALITIES OF GOOD STONES 12 140 TESTING OF STONES 4 LU. DETERIORATION OF STONES 19 112. RETARDATION OF DECAY OF STONES a ‘L123 PRESERVATION OF STONES 2 114 COMMON BUILDING STONES OF INDIA 2 11S. SELECTION OF STONES FOR DIFFERENT USES 26 116 QUARRYING OF STONES 22 CHAPTER 2. BRICKS 21 INTRODUCTION 2 22. COMPOSITION (OR INGREDIENTS) OF GOOD BRICK EARTH 2 23. HARMFULL CONSTITUENTS OF BRICK EARTH a 24. CLASSIFICATION OF BRICK EARTH 34 FIELD TESTS FOR SUITABILITY 35 26 MANUFACTURE OF BRICKS 38 22 PREPARATION OF BRICKEARTH 8 28 MOULDING OF BRICKS 40 29. DRYING OF BRICKS 8 210, BURNING OF BRICKS 45 241 CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS sa 212 SIZE. WEIGHT AND COLOUR OF BRICKS 213 QUALITIES OF GOOD BRICK 214 TESTS FOR BURNT BRICKS 215. COMPARISON OF BRICK AND STONE AS BUILDING UNITS 1 246 SPECIAL SHAPES AND FORMS OF BRICKS 62 CHAPTER 3. ‘TIMBER aL INTRODUCTION 22 USES OF TIMBER ; 6 33 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TIMBER CONSTRUCTION 66 Copyrighted material(CHAPTER BEEBEEERE* s Sa. BEDBE*: (viii) CHARACTERISTICS OR QUALITIES OF TIMBER IE ITION AND SIFICATION OF GLASS INGRADIENTS OF PORTLAND CEMENT AND THEIR FUNCTIONS SETTING ACTION OF CEMENT. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS OF PORTLAND CEMENTS VARIOUS TYPES OF PORTLAND CEMENTS HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT SUPER SULPHATED CEMENT (IS ; 6909) SPECIAL CEMENTS MANUFACTURE OF PORTLAND CEMENT COMPARISON OF CEMENT WITH LIME USES OF CEMENT USES OF WHITE CEMENT CEMENT MORTAR INTRODUCTION CLASSIFICATION OF MORTARS SPECIAL MORTARS SBRBELREZEBRRE=BR2R 97 BE 103 104 107 107 m ns us 16 7 126 126 128 132 132 133, 135, 135 137CHAPTER “ERBBEE aE £*°RERE @EERBEBREE ES Ma. 12 13, (CEMENT CONCRETE INTRODUCTION INGREDIENTS OF CEMENT CONCRETE RCC, PSC_AND FERRO-CEMENT INTRODUCTION REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE PRESTRESSED CONCRETE (P.S.C.) EERRO-CEMENT ‘STEEL DEFINITION AND INTRODUCTION TYPES OF STEEL USES OF STEEL. MARKET FORMS OF STEEL USED IN CONSTRUCTION ‘STEEL__REINFORCEMENT - TOR STEEL UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING SURVEYING : OBJECT PRIMARY DIVISIONS OF SURVEY CLASSIFICATION PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS PLANS AND MAPS SCALES RECONNAISSANCE CHAIN SURVEY DIFFERENT METHODS OF LINEAR MEASUREMENTS: DIRECT MEASUREMENTS. INSTRUMENTS FOR CHAINING BEBE ae BE BREEER a GBB BERS 187 187 189 190 191 194 194 196 197 197 198,EEEREEERE PEEEEREERERE PEECEEEEEREEE (x) CALCULATION OF BEARINGS FROM ANGLES ‘THE THEORY OF MAGNETIC COMPASS THE PRISMATIC COMPASS PRECISE PLANE TABLE EQUIPMENT METHODS (SYSTEMS) OF PLANE TABLING INTERSECTION (GRAPHIC TRIANGULATION) ‘TRAVERSING ERRORS IN PLANE TABLING ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PLANE — TABLING UNIT IV LEVELLING DEFINITIONS METHODS OF LEVELLING LEVELLING INSTRUMENTS DUMPY LEVEL TILTING LEVEL LEVELLING STAFF BREREEB 61 6: 203 2m 2mCHAPTER CHAPTER 161 16.2. 16.21. 16.2.2. 163. 164. 165. (34) THE SURVEYING TELESCOPE TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENTS OF A _ LEVEL THEORY OF DIRECT LEVELLING (SPIRIT LEVELING) ‘TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS STEPS IN LEVELLING (Fig. 14.28) DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING HAND SIGNALS DURING OBSERVATIONS BOOKING AND REDUCING LEVELS BALANCING BACKSIGHTS AND FORESIGHTS CURVATURE AND REFRACTION RECIPROCAL LEVELLING PROFILE LEVELLING (LONGITUDINAL SECTIONING) CROSS-SECTIONING LEVELLING PROBLEMS PERMANENT ADJUSTMENTS OF LEVELS INTRODUCTION ADUSTMENTS .OF DUMPY LEVEL ADJUSTMENT _OF TILTING LEVEL AUTOMATIC OR AUTOSET LEVEL, CONTOURING GENERAL CONTOUR INTERVAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS METHODS OF LOCATING CONTOURS INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS CONTOUR GRADIENT USES OF CONTOUR MAPS UNIT V BUILDING PLANS INTRODUCTION TYPES OF PLANS CONVENTION OF CUTTING A PLAN ‘TYPES OF PLANS CONVENTIONAL SYMBOLS FOR CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS CONVENTIONAL SYMBOLS FOR DOORS, WINDOWS ETC CONVENTIONAL SYMBOLS FOR SANITARY ITEMS CONVENTIONAL SYMBOLS FOR ELECTRICAL ITEMS ILLUSTRATIVE PLAN CROSS - SECTION FOUNDATIONS NECESSITY OF FOUNDATION FUNCTIONS OF FOUNDATIONS 275 282 284 285 286 286 287 288 312 314 314 315 308 329 332 337 339 40 347 37 7 37 351 351 352 359 361 362(ait) ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD FOUNDATION ‘TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS BEARING CAPACITY OF SOILS DEFINITION METHODS OF ESTIMATING REARING CAPACITY ANALYTICAL METHODS. PLATE LOAD TEST PENETRATION TESTS PRESUMPTIVE BEARING CAPACITY VALUES FROM CODES SETTLEMENT OF FOUNDATIONS DEPTH OF FOOTINGS FOUNDATION FOR LOAD BEARING WALL : STRIP FOOTING FOUNDATION FOR FRAMED CONSTRUCTION : ISOLATED FOOTING OR PAD FOOTING RAFT FOUNDATION WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION INTRODUCTION WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS SOURCES OF WATER PER CAPITA WATER DEMAND QUALITY OF WATER COMMON IMPURITIES IN WATER AND THEIR EFFECT MICRO-ORGANISMS IN WATER STANDARDS OF PURIFIED WATER WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES SANITARY ENGINEERING WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT WASTEWATER TREATMENT LAYOUT . INTRODUCTION PHYSICAL UNIT OPERATIONS CHEMICAL UNIT PROCESSES BIOLOGICAL UNIT PROCESSES METHODS OF TREATMENT OF WASTEWATER FLOW DIAGRAMS 362 362 32 32 373 304 375 380 381 383 386 399 406 407 410 ais 416 417 423 433 435 436 437 437 438 438 439 440 441CHAPTER 1. CHAPTER 2. CHAPTER 3. CHAPTER 4. STONES BRICKS TIMBER GLASS UNIT I QStones 1.1. INTRODUCTION Man first built with what was at hand ; the three basic materials available to him were (i) wood, (ii) stone, and (iii) mud or clay. The history of architecture and civil constructions until as late as 1900 was largely the story of stone as the principal construction material. Stone was the structural material for construction of walls, columns, arches etc., the interior and exterior finishing material, the flooring material and the roofing material. It was also abundantly used for the construction of retaining walls, roads, walks, paths, steps, and for all types of sculpture, decorative and ornamental applications. In India, following are the examples of prominent constructions with stones : (i) All the forts (ii) Most of the ancient temples (iii) The Taj at Agra and Victoria Memorial at Calcutta, made of white marble from Rajasthan (iv) Red fort and Jama Masjid at Delhi made from red sand stone from Agra (v) Rashtrapati Bhawan and Central Secretariat of Delhi, built with red and grey sand stone from Rajasthan (vy) Umed Bhawan Palace made with ‘Chhitar’ red sand stone of Jodhpur The pyramids of Egypt, the excavated ruins of Troy, the remains of Grecian and Roman structures etc illustrate the popularity of stone as a building material practically in all parts of the World. 1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF STONES Stones are obtained from rocks forming the crust of earth’s surface. Rocks from which stones can be had for building purposes are classified in the following four heads (Fig 1.1). 1. Geological Classification (Based on mode of origin) (Igneous rocks (i) Sedimentary rocks (iii) Metamorphic rocks @)BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING ‘SXD0¥ JO NOLLVOIISSVID “I'l “Old seu |) mp] spr) pe fp ff pms fog ff spr] ape ope] spme) af) sp pmclag |) pm” || emp |} yog. |] sump | fsa} | smarmg |) prmmy |) emensng | | pegey | Jonna) | eames} | so (expr) eosin eae pg) (sa esi oo pg) (2unp apa wo peg ogo sony oes ea | opp pasty peng HD |STONES 5 2. Physical Classification (Based on physical features) (i) Stratified rocks (ii) Unstratified rocks (iii) Foliated rocks 3. Chemical Classification (Based on chemical composition) (i) Silicious rocks i) Argillaceous rocks (iii) Calcareous rocks 4. Hardness Classification (Based on hardness of stone) (Soft rocks (i) Medium rocks (iil) Hard rocks (iv) Very hard rocks 1.3. GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION Geologists classify rocks into following three main categories: (i) Igneous, primary or eruptive rocks (i) Sedimentary or aqueous rocks and (iii) Metamorphic rocks 1. Igneous, primary or eruptive rocks : Igneous rocks are those rocks which were formed by cooling of hot molten mass, called ‘magma’ present in the heart of the earth. Actually, earth was a molten mass in the early days of its birth. As the time passed, there was slow cooling of the external layers due to atmospheric radiation, giving rise to solidification ‘of magma and consequent formation of the rock. The molten material (i.e. the ‘magma’) present inside the earths crust, tries to come out to the earth's surface through cracks and weak portions like mouth of volcano etc. The ‘magma’ coming out to the earth’s surface is exposed to atmosphere and is cooled slowly, giving rise to solidification and consequent formation of rock called “igneous rocks” Thus, igneous rocks are of volcanic origin, having been formerly in a state of fusion; they include granites, traps and syenites. Such rocks are therefore the ‘primary rocks’. They are also known as ‘eruptive rocks’. The structural feature of igneous rocks depend upon the manner of its stratification, rate of cooling and composition of the constituent materials. Depending upon the rate of cooling and mode of crystallization, igneous rocks can further be classified as follows (Fig. 1.2) (i) Volcanic igneous rocks (ii) Hypabyssal igneous rocks (iii) Plutonic igneous rocks VOLCANIC IGNEOUS ROCKS : AMORPHOUS AND GLASSY : (BASALT; TRAP) UPPER LAYER (Quick CooLING) HYPABYSSAL IGNEOUS ROCKS : FINE CRYSTALLINE (DOLERITE, APITE) CENTRAL LAYER (MODERATE COOLING) BOTTOM LAYER (SLOW COOLING) PLUTONIC IGNEOUS ROCKS COARSELY CRYSTALLINE : (GRANITE , SYENITE , PERIODOLITE) FIG. 1.2. FORMATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS.8 BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING (i) Volcanic igneous rocks : Such rocks are formed due to volcanic eruption of the earth's surface. The rate of cooling is thus very quick, due to which these rocks are non-crystalline, amorphous, and glassy in texture. The top layer of such rock is quite smooth and shiny. The common examples of such rocks are : Basalt, Rhyolite, Andesite, Trap etc. (i) Hypabyssal igneous rocks : Such rocks are formed due to cooling of magma at relatively shallow depths, say upto 30 m.The cooling, though slower than the volcanic rocks, is quicker than the plutonic rocks. Consequently, these rocks have finely grained crystalline structure. Common examples of these rocks are : Dolerite, dolomite, apite ete. (iii) Plutonic igneous rocks : Plutonic rocks are formed due to the cooling of magma at a considerable depth from the surface of the earth. Hence the rate of cooling is very slow. Consequently, such rocks possess coarsely crystalline structure and the size of the crystal is normally large. Common examples are granites, diorites, syenite etc. 2. Sedimentary or Aqueous rocks : Sedimentary rocks are those rocks which are formed by gradual deposition or sedimentation under water, of weathering products of the pre-existing rocks on the surface of the earth. The igneous rocks, formed on the surface of the earth by the cooling of magma, is subjected to natural weathering agents like rain, air, frost, river flow, glacier, sea, temperature variations etc. These weathering agents break or disintegrate the surface rocks. These products of weathered rock are then transported by other agents (like wind etc.) from its place of origin and deposited elsewhere. This process of deposition is called the sedimentation process and the rocks so formed are known as sedimentary rocks. Most of the sedimentary rocks are formed by water depositing the weathered materials which it once conveyed in suspension and in solution. These materials are subsequently cemented together by lime, silica, potash etc. The examples LOAM CLAY SLATE CALCAREOUS ROCK LIME STONE FIG. 13. FORMATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKSSTONES 7 of su rocks are : slate, sand stone, lime stone, gypsum, lignite etc, as illustrated in Fig 1. Groups of sedimentary rocks : As stated above, sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition of products of weathering of parent rock. Based on the type of deposit, sedimentary rocks can be divided into the following groups. () — Residual deposits (ii) Sedimentary deposits (iii) Chemical deposits and (iv) Organic deposits (i) Residual deposits : These deposits are those products of weathering which are left in place of origin itself, and are not transported by the weathering agents. (ii) Sedimentary deposits : These are those insoluble weathering products which are carried by suspension, and deposited elsewhere by sedimentation. Majority of sedimentary rocks fall under this group. (ili) Chemical deposits : These are those soluble weathering products which are carried away in solution by the weathering agent like water. The dissolved weathering products are later deposited by processes like evaporation and precipitation etc., giving rise to the formation of sedimentary rocks. (iv) Organic deposits : These are those weathering products which are deposited by organic organisms through biological processes. Alternative grouping of sedimentary rocks ; Sedimentary rocks can also be grouped under the following three heads on the basis of deposition of original particles : (a) Mechanical method of deposition (b) Chemical method of deposition (c} Organic method of deposition (a) Deposits by mechanical method : These are those deposits which are formed by transportation of weathered particles from one place to the other by water. Common examples of such deposits are : Sand stone, loam clay slate, clay rocks etc. (b) Deposits by chemical method : These are those deposits which are formed by dissolved particles of weathered rocks which precipitate later duc to lowering of temperature and consequent deposition of these precipitated particles when the flowing water slows down, The common examples of such deposits are : lime stones, gypsum, calcareous rocks etc. (©) Deposits by organic method : These are those rocks which are formed by the action of animals, organic organisms and plants out of their detrital remains. Common examples of such sedimentary rocks are : peat, lignite and volatile lime stone etc. 3. Metamorphic rocks : Metamorphic rocks are those rocks which are formed due to change in the character of pre-existing rocks (i.e. igneous rocks or sedimentary rocks) coused by great heat, pressure or both. The process of change in the character of pre-existing rock is called metamorphism. The common agents of metamorphism are : (i) Heat (ii) Pressure, and (iii) chemically active fluids. The heat is supplied by the rising temperature or by the igneous magma present at the great depth. Heat transfer is generally initiated by the high temperature of magma. Pressure is developed due to the load or over burden8 BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING (ie. overlying rock) or by the movement of rocks which may be either uniform pressure or directed pressure. Uniform pressure exists in ‘liquids’ while the directed pressure exists in ‘solids’. ‘Types of metamorphism : Due to various combinations of heat, uniform pressure and directed pressure, there are the following four types of metamorphism: (i) Thermal metamorphism (ii) Cataclasic_ metamorphism (iii) Dynamo-thermal metamorphism and (iv) Plutonic metamorphism Thermal metamorphism is caused primarily due to high temperature and the rocks so formed are called the thermal metamorphic rocks. Cataclasic metamorphism takes place mostly at earth's surface where temperatures are low and directed pressure is predominant factor. The rocks so formed are called cataclasic metamorphic rocks. Temperature and uniform pressure do not play any role in their formation. Dynamo-thermal metamorphism takes place at some depth below the earth's surface where the original rock is subjected to both heat as well as pressure/stress. The rocks so formed by the metamorphism brought about by both heat and stress are known as dynamo-thermal metamorphic rocks. Lastly, plutonic metamorphism is caused at great depths where rocks acquires plastic nature and where the stress (i.e. directed pressure) takes the form of uniform pressure. Thus heat and uniform pressure become the prominent factors at great depths, and the rocks so formed are called the plutonic metamorphic rocks. MUO STONE SHALE SLATE PHILITE FIG. 14. FORMATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS Results of metamorphism : (Fig 1.4) As a result of metamorphism, the following results are obtained : 1. Lime stone and marl become marble. Mud stone becomes slaie Clay stone becomes hornblende Sand stone becomes quartzite MS PS Laterite and granite become gneiss 6. Basalt and trap become schist 1.4. PHYSICAL CLASSIFICATION Rocks can be classified as under, based on the general structure : 1 Stratified rocks z Unstratified rocks and 3. Foliated rocksSTONES 9 1. Stratified rocks : Stratified rocks are those which have distinct plangs of stratification, and which can be easily splitted into thin layers along these planes. Suith.'tocks are formed by deposition of one layer above the other. Sedimentary rocks are stratified rocks since stratification or cleavage is distinctly clear in these rocks. Common examples of stratified rocks are : sand stones, lime stones, slates. 2. Unstratified rocks : Unstratified rocks are those which do not have distinct planes of stratification, Such rocks, therefore, can not be splitted into thin layers, The structure of such rocks may be crystalline granular or compact granular. The igneous rocks of volcanic origin and the sedimentary rocks affected by movement of earth belong to this group of rocks 3. Foliated rocks : The characteristic feature of such rocks are that they have a tendency to be splitted up in particular or definite direction only. Foliated structure is quite common in metamorphic rocks. Foliated rocks comprise of this laminations hence they are also called laminated rocks. 1.5. CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION The chemical classification, also known as the engineering classification or scientific classification, is based on the chemical composition of the rock. According to chemical classification, the rocks may fall into the following classes : 1. Siliceous rocks 2. Axgillaceous rocks, and 3. Calcareous rocks 1. Siliceous rocks : Siliceous rocks are those in which the principal constituent is silica Such rocks are hard and durable and are not easily affected by weathering action. However, silica in combination with other weaker minerals may disintegrate easily. In order to make them hard and strong, these rocks should contain maximum amount of free silica. Common examples of siliceous rocks are : granites, quartzites, syenites etc. 2. Argillaceous rocks : Argillaceous rocks are those in which argil or clay is the principal constituent. These rocks are hard and durable, but are brittle. Such rocks are also called clay rocks. Common examples of such rocks are : slates, laterites etc. 3. Calcareous rocks : Calcareous rocks are those in which calcium carbonate (i.e. carbonate of lime) is the principal constituent. The durability of these rocks depends upon the constituents present in the surrounding atmosphere. Common examples of such rocks are: lime stone, marble, dolomite etc. 1,6. HARDNESS CLASSIFICATION Based on the hardness, stones can be classified as soft, medium, hard and very hard, with various rocks falling under each type as under : 1. Soft rocks : Common examples of soft rocks are : (i) Tale (ii) Gypsum (iii) Slate {iv) Sand stone 2. Medium rocks : Common examples of medium rocks are (i) Lime stone (ii) Dolomite 3. Hard rocks : Common examples of hard rocks are10 BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING (i) Deccan trap (ii) Basalt (ii) Granite (iv) quartzite 4. Very hard rocks : Common examples of very hard rock are : (i) Granite (ii) Trap rock (iii) Taconite The hardness of a rock is dependent on the hardness of its mineral constituents. The scale of hardness of mineral constituents is shown in Fig. 1.5. ROCKSALT CALCITE 4—}-FtousPar 9—| corunoum 5—{— apatite 6—{-FELSPAR 7 + QUARTZ, e—| topaz to——ptamono 1—7-™ALc to FIG. 1.5. SCALE OF HARDNESS OF MINERALS 1.7. COMPOSITION AND MINERAL CONSTITUENTS OF STONES Rocks are composed of the following main chemical constituents : (a) Mineral Earths (i) Silica or quartz GiO2) (i) Alumina (Aly 03) (iii) Lime (CaO) (iv) Magnesia (MgO) (b) Alkalies (i) Soda (Na2O) (i) Potash (KO) (<) Acids (i) Carbonic acid (d) Minor constituents : There are sometimes small percentages of the following (Iron oxide (i) Manganese oxide Physically, rocks or stones are composed of (i) one or more of the above mentioned mineral earths held mechanically together by some cementing material. 1. Silica or Quartz (SiO,) : Silica or quartz is the main constituent of sand stone, granite and certain varieties of gneiss. Pure quartz is crystalline, translucent and white. However, it is coloured in various shades due to the presence of small amount of metallic oxides. Flint, chalcedony, agate and jasper are the coloured varieties of quartz. Common sand is a variety of quartz. The transparent crystal of quartz is known as rock crystal while the compact translucent mass of quartz is called the horn stone. It has a specific gravity of 2.6 and hardness of 7. It is weather proof and resists the attack of acids with the exception of hydrofluoric acid. 2. Felspar (K,O. Al, O,. 6 Si O,) : Felspar, which is the chief constituent of all igneous rocks, is made up of silicate of aluminum with silicate of sodium or silicate of potassiumSTONES t or a mixture of the two. Some times, K,O is replaced by Na, O or CaO. Felspar is often coloured due to the presence of small quantity of oxides of metals. The colour of red granite is due of the presence of iron oxide. When felspar contains large proportions of calcium, potassium or sodium, it is liable to cause quicker decay. Felspar has many varieties, the common being that of orthoclase, microline and plagioclase. The specific gravity of felspar is between 2.6 to 2.75 and its hardness is 6. 3. Mica : Mica is the silicate of aluminum with potassium (and some times with magnesium in addition), and occurs in the form of very thin transparent plates or laminate along which it readily splits. It's flakes have metallic luster. Mica has two varieties: Muscovite which is white and biotite which is dark brown or black. The presence of mica in stone causes its quick disintegration. Hence its presence in large quantity in a stone in not desirable. Its specific gravity is between 2.7 to 3.2 and its hardness is between 2 to 3. 4. Hornblende (5 (Ca Mg) . 6 Si O,)] : Hornblende is the silicate of calcium and magnesium which occurs in crystals, fibres and grains. This mineral is very heavy, strong and durable but brittle. It is brown, black or dark green in colour. It has glossy luster. It is present in a number of igneous rocks. Its specific gravity varies from 2.9 to 3 and hardness varies from 5 to 6. 5. Augite (Ca. Mg. SiO,) ; This mineral is similar to hornblende, but is heavier as its specific gravity is upto 3.6 against 3 of hornblende. Its hardness is between 5 to 6. It is found in abundance in Deccan trap. It is also called Pyroxene. The octagonal crystals of augite change into chlorite by hydration. 6. Calcite or calcium carbonate (Ca, CO,) : Calcite or calcium carbonate is the chief constituent of many sedimentary rocks such as lime stone, chalk and calcareous stones. It also occurs in sand stone and shale as cementing material. It is generally colourless, but the presence of impurities may give it yellow, brown or red colour. When attacked by mineral acids, it gives out carbon dioxide. Its specific gravity varies from 2.7 to 2.9. 7. Magnesite or Magnesium carbonate (MgCO,) : This mineral is harder than calcium carbonate but is less soluble in water. It is rarely found in rocks except in lime stones. 8. Gypsum (CaSO,.2H,O) : Gypsum is the hydrated sulphate of calcium and is white in its purest state. However, due to presence of impurities, it may have grey, teddish, yellowish or black colours. It is crystalline and its solubility in water is very poor. It has specific gravity of 2.3 and hardness of 2. 1.8. USES OF STONES Stones are used extensively for the following purposes. 1. Building construction : Stones are used as structural unit for the construction of foundations, walls, columns, lintels, arches etc. 2. Flooring and roofing : Stones are used extensively for flooring in the form of thin slabs, and also for roofing either alone or in combinations with steel or timber girders. 3. Heavy constructions : Stones are used as blocks in the construction of bridge piers, abutments, retaining walls, light houses, chimneys and dams.2 BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING 4. Pavings : Stone slates are used as pavings for pavements, walk ways, foot paths, open areas etc. 5. Ballast : Stones are invariably used in the form of ballast for railway track. 6. Facia work : Stone slabs are used for face work of buildings for architectural treatment. 7. Damp proof course : Stone layer may be used as damp proof course in build- ings/structure made of other structural units such as bricks, hollow blocks etc. 8. Concrete ingradient : Stone ballast, commonly known as coarse aggregate is used for the manufacture of lime concrete, cement concrete, artificial stone, hollow blocks etc. 9. Blast furnace flux : Stones are also used as blast furnace flux. 10. Road construction : Stone units and stone ballast are used as base material for road construction. 11. Stone dust : Stone may also be used as stone dust, in place of sand in locations where sand is not available. 12. Manufacture of lime and cement : Lime stone is used extensively for the manufacture of lime and cement. 1.9. CHARACTERISTICS OR QUALITIES OF GOOD STONES The following characteristic or qualities are desirable for good stones used for con- struction work 1. General structure : General structure relates to the manner in which the particles forming the mass of a stone are arranged. Unstratified structure yield hard, durable and strong building stone. However such stones cannot be easily cut into any desired shape and size. Hence unstratified stones, mostly obtained from igneous rocks, are suitable for ()) construction of foundations (ii) construction of heavy structures such as dams, retaining walls etc. (iii) use as ballast and (iv) use as coarse aggregate for concrete. Stones obtained from stratified rocks are commonly used as building units of construction of walls, columns etc for coursed masonry. They are also useful for dressed stone work. Foliated structured stones are not strong and hence are not suitable for masonry construction. 2. Compactness : Compact stones are strong and durable. Such stones are obtained from rocks of older formations found at a greater depth. 3. Texture and fineness of grains : Texture of stone is indicated by the arrangement, size and shape of the grains in the stone. Fine grained stones are most suitable for dressed, carved and moulding works. Stones with homogeneous distribution of grains have attractive look. Stones with crystalline texture are strong and durable and are suitable for building construction while stones with non-crystalline texture are not durable and hence are not suitable for construction work. 4. Appearance : Appearance of stones is an important factor for its use for external works, and for facia work of buildings. Some stones, such as red sand stones, have beautiful appearance, and hence are used extensively for construction of face work of buildings.STONES 3 Marble and granite are most suitable for external facia work, external claddings, and floorings, since they take good polish. 5. Crushing strength : A good stone should have high strength. The load required per unit area to crush a specimen of stone subjected to compressive load is known as crushing strength, expressed as N/mm? A good building stone should have crushing strength greater than 10 times the maximum stress expected in the structure where the stone is to be used. Table 1.1. gives the crushing strength of various stones. TABLE 1.1. CRUSHING STRENGTH Rock Stone | Range of crushing strength (N/mm) 1. Igneous rocks 1. Besalt 150 - 206 2. Diorite 90-150 3. Granite 90-210 4. Syenite 90-150 5. Tap 300 - 380 2. Sedimentary rocks 1. Laterite 2-4 2. Lime stone 40-90 3, Sand stone 55-110 4. Shale 030 -0.80 3. Metamorphic rocks 1. Gneiss 150 - 200 i 2. Shre 70 - 200 3. Marble 80-140 4, Scap stone 60-100 6. Facility of working and dressing : The stone should be of the type such that it can be cut to the desired size and shapes. Mostly, coursed masonry is used in building construction. Hence the stone should be such that it can be cut to the stone blocks/units of desired uniform height. Also, it should be such that it can be easily carved, moulded and dressed. However, this property is opposed to its strength, durability and hardness. 7. Durability :_A good building stone should be durable and should have enough resistance to weathering. The durability of a stone depends upon (i) its chemical composition, (ii) its physical structure, (iii) its position in the building and (iv) its resistance to atmospheric and other agencies. Stones which are crystelline in structure, homogeneous and close grained with good cementing material have better durability 8. Resistance to weathering : A good building stone should have good resistance to the action of weather, i.e. wear and tear due to atmospheric agencies such as rain, frost, wind, alternate conditions of heat and cold, alternate conditions of wetness and dryness, chemical agencies such as dissolved acidic gases in rain etc. The best way to assess the resisting power of a stone is to study the performance of buildings constructed with similar stones in the locality. 9. Hardness : Hardness of a stone becomes an important factor when it is to be used at locations subjected to considerable amount of wear and friction, such as the ‘case of floors and pavements. The coefficient of hardness ‘is determined by the hardness test.4 BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING 10. Toughness : Toughness of a stone is its resistance to impact. The toughness index is determined by the impact test. Stones with toughness index greater than 19 are considered good stones, while stones with toughness index less than 13 are considered poor stones. For construction of roads, stone with higher toughness index should be used. ll. Fracture : A stone is considered to be good and suitable for construction if its fracture is sharp, even, bright and clear with grains well cemented together. A poor stone is the one in which the fracture is dull, chalky and earthly, since they are liable for early decay. 13. Percentage wear : A good building stone has sufficient resistance to abrasion. The percentage wear is determined by attrition test. The percent wear should be much less than 3%, 14, Resistance to fire : The resistance of a stone to fire depends upon its mineral composition. The mineral composition of a stone should be such that its shape is preserved during fire and cracking does not occur. The causes of failure of a stone during fire are : (i) rapid rise of temperature, (ii) sudden cooling during fire extinguishing operations, (iii) different coefficients of linear expansions of the mineral constituents and (iv) chemical reaction in the constituents. Lime stones resist fire upto 800°C only, and after that they split into CaO and CO,. Sand stones with silicates as binding material have better fire resistance. Argillaceous stones, though poor in compressive strength, have better fire resistance. 15. Porosity and water absorption : Greater the porosity of a stone, greater are the chances of its decomposition or disintegration. The porosity depends upon the void space between the mineral grains and the manner in which they are grouped. On the other hand, the property of water absorption is dependent on the mineral constituent of rock. Porosity of stone is expressed in terms of absorption of water with the dry weight of stone. The porosity seriously affects the durability of stones. When rain water, containing acidic gases forming light acids, are absorbed by porous stones, the reaction of such water with the mineral and other constituent cause them to crumble. Similarly, in cold regions, the pore water freezes resulting in increase in volume and the consequent disintegration of stone. Compact stones have negligible porosity while clay stones have high porosity. Hence porous stones should not be used in places where the structure is subjected to frost, rain or moisture. 16. Specific gravity and unit weight : Heavy stones are more compact, less porous and more strong, and are more suitable for various engineering applications such as construction of dams, weirs, retaining walls, piers, abutments, docks, harbours etc. In general, for a stone to be good for construction, its specific gravity should be greater than 2.7. Stones having specific gravity less than 2.5 are considered unsuitable for construction works. 1,10. TESTING OF STONES The assessment of different properties mentioned in the previous article is done by putting the stones to the following tests : 1. Acid test 2. Attrition test 3. Absorption test 4. Brads testSTONES 5. Crushing strength test 6. Crystallisation test 7. Freezing and thawing test 8. Hardness test 9. Impact test 10. Microscopic test 11, Smiths! test 12. Specific gravity test 13. Toughness. test 1. Acid test : This test is carried out on stone to check the weathering resistance, specially for sand stones. Procedure(i) Take about 50 to 100 gm of stone chips (ii) Immerse them in solution of hydrochloric acid for 7 days. (iii) Agigate the solution at intervals. (iv) Take out the chips and dry them. (v) Examine the edges and corners of the chips for their sharpness. ‘A good building stone will maintain the sharp edges and will keep its surface free from powder. Such stones will have good weathering resistance. If edges are broken and powder is formed on the surface, presence of calcium carbonate will be indicated, and such stone will have poor weathering resistance. 2. Attrition test : The aim of this test is to determine the resistance of the stone to abrasion, specially for those stones which are to be used for path ways, pavements and roads subjected to the grinding action of the traffic. The test is conducted on Davails’ aurition cest_ machine (Fig. 1.6). Such a machine has one or more cylinders mounted diagonally at an angle of 30° to the horizontal, with arrangement of rotating them at the rate of 30 revolutions per minute (RPM) FIG. 1.6. DAVAL'S ATTRITION TEST MACHINE Procedure: (i) Take about 5 kg mass of crushed stone ballast of about 60 cm size and’ put it in the cylinder of Daval’s testing machine (ii) Rotate the cylinder at 30 RPM for 5 hours. (iii) Stop the machine, take out the contents and sieve them through 2 mm sieve (iv) Weigh the portion retained on the sieve and calculate the loss of mass. The percent wear is then given by : Percent wear = (ay16 BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING where M, = Initial mass of stone ballast (=5 kg) Mz = Final mass of stone ballast (kg) 3. Absorption test : The water absorption test is carried out to determine the quality of stone. Procedure (i) Take about 500 gm of crushed stone passing through 20 mm sieve and wash it to remove all the dust particles (ii) Place these washed stone pieces in the oven operating at 105°C for 3 days, so that all the moisture is evaporated (iii) Take out the stone pieces from the oven and cool them in a desiccator, at room temperature (iv) Weigh 50 to 100 gm of the specimen from the desiccator, and immerse them in distilled water for 3 days at temperature between 20°C to 30°C (v) Take out the specimen from the distilled water. Then =M M % absorption = x 100 (1.2) where M2 = Final mass of stone specimen M, = Initial mass of specimen. 4. Crushing strength test : This test is conducted on a compression testing machine. The test samples are either in the form of cubes or cylinders, which are finely dressed or finished from all sides. The diameter or the least lateral dimension of the test pieces, known as specimen, is not less than 40 mm, with ratio of height to diameter or least lateral dimension as 1:1. The minimum number of specimens is three. Procedure: (i) Prepare a minimum three number of specimens which are well dressed or finished from all sides (2) Keep the specimens immersed in water for 72 hours, at room temperature, since the specimens are to be tested under saturated condition.(3) Take out the specimen and cover the two bearing surfaces either with plaster of paris or with 5 mm thick plywood. (4) Put the specimen in the compression testing machine and load it gradually, increasing the load at the rate of 14 N/mm? per minute until the specimen breaks down or crushes (5) Note the failure load. The crushing strength is then equal to the load at failure divided by the area of load bearing surface. The average of three values on the three specimens is then the crushing strength of the stone 5. Hardness test : The hardness test is conducted on Dorry’s testing machine. Procedure (i) Prepare a cylindrical specimen of the stone, having a diameter of 25 mm and height of 25 mm (ii) Find the mass of the specimen. (iii) Place the specimen in Dorry’s testing machine and press it with a pressure of 12.5 N. (iv) Rotate the annular steel disc of the machine at 28 RPM. During this rotation sprinkle coarse sand of standard specifications on the top of disc (v) Stop the machine after 1000 revolutions, take out the specimen and find its mass accurately. (vi) Determine the coefficient of hardness from the following equation : Coefficient of hardness = 20 - ess oh is e (1.3) Alternatively the hardness test may be performed by scratching the stone with a knife on Mohr's scale.STONES uv 6. Impact test ; Impact test is carried out on a impact machine to determine the toughness of stone. Procedure (i) Prepare a cylindrical specimen of stone, having 25 mm diameter and 25 mm height (ii) Place the specimen on the cast iron anvil of the impact testing machine (iii) Allow the steel hammer (weighing 20 N) of the machine to fall axially over the specimen, in a vertical direction to give blows from variable heights. The height of first blow is kept 1 cm, that of second blow as 2 cm and that of nth blow as n-cm (iv) Note the blow number (n) at which the specimen breaks. Compute the toughness index from the expression : Toughness index =: aay where n=nth blow of n cm height at which the specimen breaks 7. Microscopic examination : This is basically a geologists test. Thin sections ot stone are taken and placed under a microscope to study the following properties (i) Average grain size (ii) Texture of the stone (iit) Mineral constituents (iv) Type of cementing material (v) Presence of pores, fissures, veins, shakes etc (vi) Presence of harmful constituents (vii) Condition of fractured surfaces. 8. Smith’s test : Smith's test is conducted to find out the presence of water soluble matter present in the stone. It is only a qualitative test. Procedure (i) Take few chips or pieces of stone and place these in a glass tube (ii) Fill this tube will clean clear water (iii) After about 1 hour, shake the tube vigorously along with its contents (iv) If the water becomes dirty, it will indicate the presence of earthy matter in the stone. Durability test : The test based on IS : 1126-1974, is carried out on natural stones to assess their durability. Procedure: (i) Prepare three specimens of the stone, which may be cither in the form of 50 mm cubes, or in the form of cylinders of 50 mm diameter and 50 mm height. (ii) Find the mass (M,) of the specimen (iii) Suspend the specimen is a saturated solution of sodium sulphate decahydrate for 18 hours at room temperature (20 - 30°C). (iv) Air dry the specimen for 30 minutes and then place it an oven (105° + 5°C) for 4 hours, for drying (v) Take out the specimen from the oven and allow it to cool at room temperature (vi) Steps (iii) to (v) constitute one cycle. Repeat these three steps for 30 cycles, weighing the specimen after every Sth cycle to determine the change of mass of the specimen due to disintegration. The mass of the specimen should be taken only after making the specimen thoroughly free from sodium sulphate solution by repeated washing (vi) Find the mass (M,) of the specimen after 30 cycles, and determine the durability value of the specimen from the following equation :is BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING Durability value= change in the mass = MM 100 on (1.4) H Average for all the three test specimens is taken as the durability value for the stone. 10. Weathering resistance test : This test is conducted as per Indian Standard Specification (iS : 1125 - 1074) Procedure : (i) Prepare test specimen in the form of either 6 cm cube or a cylindrical specimen of 6 cm diameter and 7.5 cm height. The test is performed on 3 such specimens. Each test specimen should be finished smooth and the edges should be rounded to a radius of 3 mm by grinding (ii) Dry the specimen to constant weight in an oven for 24 hours at, 105° +5°C (iii) Cool the specimen in a desiccator at room temperature (20° to 30°C) and find its mass M, to the nearest 0.01 gm (iv) Immerse the specimen in water for 24 hours, at room temperature, find the mass M, of the specimen while totally immersed and freely suspended in water (v) Remove the specimen from water, wipe off the moisture by damp cloth and find its mass M, (vi) Place the specimen in a flat dish of porcelain containing 2 gm of powdered gypsum and 20 ml of water, and keep the dish in the oven. Dry the specimen to constant weight, for at least 5 hours, in the oven. (vii) Remove the dish from the oven and cool it at room temperature. This constitutes 1 cycle (vii) Repeat the cycle 29 times more. Remove the test specimen after 30th cycle and clean it with a stiff fibre brush to remove all the particles of gypsum clinging to the surface of the specimen. (viii) The specimen is immersed in water again for 24 hours, taken out, surface dried and weighed, first in air (Mj and then immersed in water and freely suspended (M,). The increase in absorption and in volume of the specimen after 30 cycles of the test are calculated as follows : Mi-M: 100 (1.5) (1.6) 100 a7 and (1.8) where a= original absorption of the specimen at the end of 24 hr immersion inal absorption of the specimen after 30 cycles V;= original volume of the specimen at the end of 24 hr immersion inal volume of the specimen after 30 cycles of the test Yw= density of water a@-a Increase in absorption due to weathering -@—“' 100 (9) a,STONES V; Increase in volume= o(1.10) Yi 11. Specific gravity test : The following procedure is adopted for determination of specific gravity of stone, as per IS : 1121-1974. Procedure: (i) Crush 500 g of thoroughly washed specimen of stone to 3 mm size particles; thoroughly mix and prepare samples of 50 gm each (ii) Grind each sample in an agate mortar to size that will pass 150 micro IS sieve. Remove all the magnetic materials introduced during crushing/grinding with the help of magnets (iii) Dry the same in an oven (105° - 110° C), cool in a desiccator and weigh in a weighing bottle (iv) Clean the specific gravity bottle, wash and dry it to constant weight in the oven. Cool the bottle in a desiccator and find its mass (M,) in an analytical balance (v) Place about 15 gm of crushed specimen from weighing bottle into the specific gravity bottle, close the bottle with stopper and find the mass (M,). (vi) Fill the specific gravity bottle with distilled water to three fourth of its capacity and boil the bottle with its contents for about 10 minutes. Gently roll the bottle on sides to remove entrapped air, if any (vii) Cool the bottle at room temperature, fill it with distilled water, put the stopper and find its mass (M,) after cleaning it outside dry. (viii) Empty the bottle, wash it thoroughly, fill it with distilled water, put the stopper and find its mass (M,) after cleaning its outside dry. Compute the specific gravity (G,) and the room temperature (t°C) from the following expression : Ge M:-M) (Ms ~ M2) ~ (Ms ~ M2) 1.11, DETERIORATION OF STONES Deterioration or decay of stone is caused by the chemical and physical changes brought by some of the following weathering agencics : 21.11) 1." Alternate heat and cold. 2. Alternate wetting and. drying 3. Wind 4. Rain 5. Frost 6. Atmospheric impurities 7. Living organisms 8. Vegetable growth 9. Nature of binding material (or mortar) used in construction. 10. Natural decay 1, Temperature variation : Alternate heat and cold Heat causes the stone to contract, thereby inducing internal tensile stresses in the stone. Cold induces compressive stresses. At places where temperature variations are both intense as well as frequent (such as in western and northern parts) stone would crumble because of the setting up of internal stresses which reverse in cyclic order. 2. Alternate wetting and drying : Wetness in stone is caused by rain, dew, snow etc. while dryness is caused due to intense sunshine. If this cycle of wetting and drying is too frequent, the face of the stone which is exposed to the direction of prevailing wet wind wears out and crumbles.20 BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING 3. Wind ; A piercing wind forces the moisture or rain water into its pores. It also causes the moisture in the surface pores to evaporate, thus inducing cold. Dusty winds cause deterioration of stones because of the abrasive action of dust particles. 4. Rain : Rain water acts both physically and chemically. The physical action of rain is due to the erosive and transportative power of water and the chemical action is due to its solvent capacity, decomposition, oxidation and hydration. The joint action causes most of the rocks to crumble. Alternate soaking due to rain and subsequent drying duc to sunlight causes disintegration and loosening of particles. In addition, the showers of rain striking the surface of stone cause impact, resulting in the loosening and washing away of the surface particles. The structural defects in stone, such as cracks open joints etc. permit the rain water to travel deep inside to cause further decay through such mechamical action. The chemical action of rain water is due to the contamination of the rainwater with gaseous atmospheric impurities such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, HCL, SO, etc. in its passage through the atmosphere to the surface of the earth. In addition to these, other impurities like, magnesia, soda, potash, iron also get dissolved in the rain water. In addition to the decomposition effect and the solvent action of aciduated rain water, the chemical reactions which disintegrate stones are mainly oxidation and hydration. 5. Frost : In hilly areas and in cold places, the moisture present in the atmosphere enters the pores of the stone. During nights, the moisture freezes and in doing so it increases in volume, causing disintegration of stone 6. Atmospheric impurities : The atmosphere contains various impurities which have adverse effects on stones. The atmosphere in industrial area is polluted with smoke and gets charged with HS, HCl and SO,. Sulphurous acid reacts on calcium carbonate in stone and forms a thick black deposit commonly called ‘soot’ which is CaSO,. Even calcareous stones, immediately behind this black skin or blisters of soot, crumble on account of crystallisation of CaSO, in the pore and the crust of the soot flakes off, exposing a fresh surface of stone to the action of the acid. 7. Living organisms : Some living organisms like worms and bacteria act upon stones and deteriorate them. Some living organisms secrete organic acids which have corrosive action on stone minerals. Certain category of worms bore holes in stones, thereby weakening them, 8. Vegetable growth : The creepers and other forms of trees develop on stone surface with their roots in joints between the stones and in the cracks in the stones. Such roots attract atmospheric moisture in these joints and keep the stone moist and damp. In addition to these, lower forms of vegetation life, such as lichens and mosses grow on the surfaces of stones and in the open joints or cracks. The roots in these joints and cracks cause mechanical and chemical adverse effects. They secrete organic acids which bring about chemical decomposition of rock mineral. 9. Nature of binding material or mortar used in construction : The binding material, ive the content of mortar used in construction work may some times contain harmfulSTONES 21 constituents which react chemically with the mineral contents of stone, causing the stone to disintegrate. 10. Mutual decay : When building blocks of different types of stones are used, there may be reaction between the constituents of these stones, leading to mutual decay. For example, if a layer of sand stone is used under a layer of lime stone, then the chemicals washed out from lime stone by the rain would cause decay of sand stone. Similarly if granular lime stone is used with magnesium lime stone, the granular lime stone may deteriorate due to absorption of magnesium sulphate from magnesium lime stone. 1,12, RETARDATION OF DECAY OF STONES The decaying action of weathering agencies on the stones can be retarded by taking the following precautions : 1. Use of compact siliceous stones : It is desirable to use only the compact siliceous stones for the external faces of the walls exposed to atmosphere, These stone units must have dense crystalline texture. Sand stones used for the construction should be cemented with silicious binding material. Lime stones and calcareous sand stones with open texture should not be used for external walls, specially in industrial towns. 2. Use of large size stone units : Large size stone units should be used for the construction of external walls so that the joints are reduced to a minimum, as joints are the agents of weakness. 3. Use of dressed stones : Use of well dressed, finished and polished stones should be preferred to rough faced stones. 4. Use of external renderings : External renderings such as pointing or plastering should be given at the time of construction. The use of cement plaster or cement pointing, using pure silica sand, is advisable. If only pointing is used, the pointing should be repaired frequently. 5. Laying stone on natural bed : During construction, stone should be laid on its natural bed. 6. Filling of joints : All the joints between the stone blocks, both external as well as internal, should be completely filled, using cement mortar in pure silica sand. No hollow or cavity should be left, so that a sound and solid structure is obtained. 7. Use of seasoned stone : It is observed that freshly quarried stone contains sap which may accelerate the decaying action. Hence only seasoned stone should be used. 8. Cleaning of external surfaces : The exposed stone surfaces should be kept as clean as possible, by dusting it properly and then washing it with water at frequent intervals. 1.13, PRESERVATION OF STONES The decay or deterioration of stones can be prevented to some extent if they are properly preserved. There is no single preservative which can be applied to all kinds of stones. Different stones need different preservatives. A good preservative should possess the following properties.2 BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING 1. It should be impervious soas not to permit penetration of moisture into the surface and joints of stone. 2. It should be colourless. Also, it should not develop objectionable colour later. 3. It should be sufficiently hard to resist abrasive actions of atmospheric agencies. 4. It should be thin and less viscous soas toeasily penetrate the pores of the stone surface. 5. It should be non-corrosive, nontoxic and harmless 6. It should have long life 7. It should have easy application 8. It should be cheap and economical Following are commonly used preservatives : 1. Linseed oil : Linseed oil may be applied to the external face of the stone either in raw state or in boiled state. Raw linseed oil does not foul the original shade of stone, but it needs frequent application, say once in a year. Boiled linseed oil lasts much longer but it changes the original shade and makes the stone surface dark. 2. Solution of silicates : Silicate solution can be applied to the external surface either with the help of a brush or can be sprayed, It does not change the original shade of the stone, and one application lasts for 2 to 4 years. It is specially suitable for sand stones. Alternatively, the stone faces to be preserved are washed with a thin solutions of silicate of soda or potash and on drying, the solution of calcium chloride is applied over it. This results in the formation of silicate of lime which is insoluble, repels air and water, and washes out the common salt formed on the surface. 3. Solution of alum and soap : Alum and soft soap (oil soaps) are taken in the proportion of 0.75 : 0.5 kg and dissolved in 10 litres of water. The thoroughly mixed solution when applied to the external stone surface, acts as preservative. 4. Solution of baryta : Barium hydroxide, Ba(OH), can be applied to the external surfaces of stones to preserve the stone, specially when the decay is due to calcium sulphate (CaSO,). The following reaction takes place between baryta and calcium sulphate: Ba (OH): + Ca SO, = Ba SO, + Ca (OH): (1.12) Calcium hydroxide absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and forms calcium carbonate (CaCO,) which further adds to the strength of stone. This preservative is long lasting since it is insoluble and is least affected by atmospheric agencies. 5. Paraffin application : Paraffin can either be applied alone, or may first be dissolved in neptha and then applied to the external surfaces of stones. Though it is impervious, it changes the original colour of stone. 6. Painting : Paint, when applied to the external faces of stones, acts as preservative, though it changes the original colour of stone. If deep penetration is required, it may be applied under pressure. 1.14. 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