Applied

Geotechnics
Landfill Settlement and
Liners
A/Prof Hadi Khabbaz
Email: hadi.khabbaz@uts.edu.au

Solid Wastes

Geotechnical Aspects of
Landfills
Landfill Stability
Landfill Settlement
Landfill Liners

Potential landfill infrastructure failure

modes: stability and integrity
(Dixon and Jones, 2005)

Potential landfill infrastructure failure

modes: stability and integrity
(Dixon and Jones, 2005)

Potential landfill infrastructure failure

modes: stability and integrity
(Dixon and Jones, 2005)

Potential landfill infrastructure failure

modes: stability and integrity
(Dixon and Jones, 2005)

Potential landfill infrastructure failure

modes: stability and integrity
(Dixon and Jones, 2005)

Potential landfill infrastructure failure

modes: stability and integrity
(Dixon and Jones, 2005)

Potential landfill infrastructure failure

modes: stability and integrity
(Dixon and Jones, 2005)

OUTLINE
Landfill Settlement
Compacted Clay Liners (CCLs)
Compaction
Clay Mineralogy

Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GCLs)

Landfill

Settlement

Settlement
Settlement occurs during filling stage and continues over
an extended period.
Landfill settlement is mostly due to compression of wastes.
Final settlement can be as large as 30% of the initial fill
height.
Early settlement during filling stage is desirable.
A large post-closure settlement is undesirable.
Surface ponding and crakes in cover soil
Damage to geomembrane and leachate collection system

Settlement of foundation soil may be significant if landfill is

located on soft ground.

Mechanism of Solid Waste Settlement

The settlement of landfill affects:
The design of protection systems (covers, barriers
and drains)
Storage capacity
Cost and feasibility of using the underlying refuse for
the support of buildings, pavements and utilities.
Excessive settlements

Cause fracture of covers & drains

Increase moisture into the landfill

Produce more leachate

Complexity of Solid Waste Settlement

The mechanisms of refuse settlement are complex.

Why?

1. Extreme heterogeneity of waste fill

2. Presence of large voids
3. Chemical reactions (corrosion, oxidation and
combustion)
4. Biological degradation (fermentation and decay)

Factors Affecting the Magnitude of Settlement

1. Waste compaction effort and placement sequence
2. Content of the decomposable materials
3. Overburden pressure and stress history (vertical
expansion over an old landfill
4. Leachate level and fluctuation in the landfill
5. Landfill operation methods (e.g. leachate recirculation
accelerates biodegradation)
6. Environmental factors (e.g. moisture content,
temperature and gases present )

Estimation of Landfill Settlement

The settlement of MSW includes primary consolidation and
long-term secondary compression (creep).

H Hc H
H = total settlement of solid waste
Hc = primary settlement of solid waste
H = long-term secondary settlement of solid waste

Primary Settlement
e
Ho
1 eo

S Hc

How can e be estimated?

It is different for soils under various loading
conditions
It can be simulated in the lab using
Oedometer test.

Primary Settlement
Solid waste behaviour depends upon previous loading history.

e
e1

pc

e1 Cr log(

'1 '1
)
'1

e 2 Cc log(
e2
2

'2 '2
)
'2

Pressure (kPa)
log scale

10

Primary Settlement
Settlement

if o f pc

S tf

Settlement

Cr

log ( f ) Ho
1 eo
o

if pc o f

S tf

f o

Cc

log( f ) Ho
1 eo
o

Primary Settlement
Settlement

S tf

if o pc f

Cc
Cr

log ( pc ) Ho
log ( f ) Ho
1 eo
o
1 eo
pc

11

Primary Settlement
In 1-D Consolidation assume the
soil is fully saturated:
Sr = 1 then:
Sr . e = G s . w

eo = Gs . w o

What is the value of Gs?

NOTE: Gs, Cc and Cr are not constant for
MSW.

Secondary Settlement (Creep)

H

C
t
log ( 2 ) Ho
1 e1
t1

H = long-term secondary settlement

e1 = void ratio of the waste layer at the end of primary consolidation
Ho = initial thickness of the waste layer before settlement
C = secondary compression index
t1 = starting time of the time period for which long-term settlement of
the layer is desired (e.g. t1 = 1 month)
t2 = ending time of the time period for which long-term settlement of the
layer is desired

12

Example
The filling procedure of a new municipal solid waste landfill is listed
below. Calculate the total settlement at the end of the 5th month.
Height of solid waste filled

Time period
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th

feet

metre

month

12

3.6

month

18

5.4

month

16

4.8

month

10

3.0

month

14

4.2

gwaste = 70 lb/ft3 (11 kN/m3)

o = 1000

lb/ft2

t1 = 1 month

(48 kPa)

H0 = 70 ft (21.34m)
Cc= Cc/(1+eo) = 0.26
C= C/(1+e1) = 0.07

Example (Solution)

26

13

27

First layer

Second layer

Third layer

28

14

Fourth layer

Fifth layer

2.51/21.34 = 0.118 or 11.8%

29

Compacted
Clay Liners

15

Compacted Clay Liners

Compacted clay soil is widely used
1. to line landfills and waste impoundments,
2. to cap new waste disposal units, and
3. to close old waste disposal sites.

Compacted clay liners and covers should have a

permeability coefficient less than or equal to a
specified maximum value. (k = 1.010-9 m/s)

Compacted Clay Liners (CCLs)

32

16

www.abgltd.com/Erosamat%20type%203.asp

http://www.caawsystems.com/products/images/Geonet%20(3).JPG

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17

www.ettlinc.com/Ldfl%20CQC-CQA%20Services.HTM

Geomembrane Liners (GLs)

Seam lengths should be monitored carefully

36

18

37

Clay Liner

19

Comparison between Geotechnical Compacted Clay

and Landfill Compacted Clay Liners
Design Criteria:
Geotechnical Compacted
Clay
Bearing capacity (shear
strength); compressibility

Design Criteria:
Landfill Compacted Clay
Permeability, shear
strength, shrinkage
potential, chemical
resistance and compatibility

Construction
Requirement:

Construction
Requirement:

90 to 100% of maximum dry 90 to 100% of maximum dry

density (both sides of
density (wet side of
optimum water content)
optimum water content)
Lift thickness is generally
250 to 450 mm.

Lift thickness is not more

than 150 mm after
compaction
39

Quiz
Many deposits of clayey soil (e.g. glacially deposited
materials) are mixed with gravel.
According to laboratory testing results it is possible to
achieve a hydraulic conductivity less than 110-9 m/s
using a soil with up to 50% gravel. Do you think this
soil can be used directly in field construction
specifications for a clay liner? Why or why not?
Isolated pockets of segregated gravel particles, whose voids
are not filled with clayey material would tend to increase the
overall hydraulic conductivity of the clay liner.
40

20

Clay Liner Blowout

Empty landfill, with liner, below the water table

Critical Hydraulic Head for Liner Base

2

c d
g
hb K b u s d
g w Lb
gw
hb = critical head (relative to landfill base elevation, m)
Kb = empirical constant 1/3
gw = unit weight of water (kN/m3)
gs = unit weight of soil (kN/m3)
cu = undrained shear strength of clay (kPa)
d = liner thickness (m)
Lb = length of base of landfill (m)

21

Example
An empty landfill with a clay liner is shown in the figure.
The thickness of the liner, d, is 800 mm. The undrained
cohesion of clay is 100 kPa and its density is 1.8 t/m 3.
Find the factor of safety of this clay liner against blowout.

2.8m
2m

2.5m

hb = 1.36 + 1.44 = 2.8 m > 2 m OK

Compaction and Permeability Consideration

One of the most important aspects of construction to
have low hydraulic conductivity is proper remoulding
and compaction of the soil.

Important tests are:

1. Compaction Test
2. Permeability Test

22

Compaction and Permeability Consideration

Compaction Test

Permeability Test

Permeability Tests

Constant Head

qL
Aht

Falling Head

aL h1
ln
At h2

From Das, 2001

23

Compaction

47

1m
1m

Variable

Uncontrolled Landfill
(No controlled placement
and no compaction)

Controlled Sanitary
Landfill
(Spread and compacted
in layers of 2-3m thick;
encapsulated with soil
in cells of 2-6m thick)

24

Compaction
Definition: Mechanical densification of soil is
called compaction. It involves expulsion of air
from void spaces of a soil.

Application: compaction is very important

when soil is used as construction materials.

Advantages:
Reduce compressibility
Increase strength
Reduce permeability

49

Factors Affecting Compaction

Compactive effort (compaction energy)
Water (moisture) content

Soil type
Initial density (void ratio)

Compaction energy is a function of:

Field

Lab

Number of passes of rolling equipment

Frequency and amplitude of loading equipment
Number of drops of a falling hammer
Weight and height of drop of hammer
50

25

Compaction Mould in the Lab

Volume 1000 cm3

http://geotech.uta.edu/lab/Main/SandCone/index.htm

51

Compaction Hammer in the Lab

52

http://www.controls.it/immagini/product_zoom/33_EN_Compaction_new.jpg http://www.eleusa.com/pdf/Soil/compaction.pdf

26

Compaction Hammer

http://www.eleusa.com/pdf/Soil/compaction.pdf

53

Sample Ejector

http://www.eleusa.com/pdf/Soil/compaction.pdf

54

27

Compaction Standard Test

Proctor (1930)
Proctor Introduced dry density as a measure of
compaction.
The water content of the soil is very likely to vary
from time to time, hence the field total unit weight.
Therefore, the dry unit weight of the soil is always
used as a means of reporting the test results and
eventually applying in real applications.
55

Compaction Standard Test

Proctor (1930)

Compaction:
Mass of hammer

Height of hammer fall

Standard
2.7 kg
300 mm

No. of Layers

No. of blows per layer

25

Compaction energy*

AS 1289

595.5 kJ/m3
56

28

Compaction Standard Test

Proctor (1930)

Compaction:

Standard

Modified

2.7 kg

4.9 kg

300 mm

450 mm

No. of Layers

No. of blows per layer

25

25

595.5 kJ/m3

2701 kJ/m3

Mass of hammer
Height of hammer fall

Compaction energy*

57

Compaction Energy
E = mgh (J)

Vol.1000 cc

Standard Compaction:
E1 = 2.79.80.3 = 7.94 J
Et = (7.35 J) (3 layers) (25 blows) = 595.5 J
Es = 595.5 J / 1000 cm3 = 595.5 kJ/m3
58

29

Dry Unit Weight (kN/m3)

Compaction Curve

MDD = 2.28 t/m3

OMC = 6.8%

Water Content (%)

59

Effect of Compaction on Soil Structure

Max. dry
density

Optimum
water
content
60

30

Effect of Compaction on Soil Structure

Wet side of
compaction

Dry side of
compaction

Wet Side of the

Optimum Water
Content

Change in
Permeability

Dry Density

Permeability cm/s)

61

Moisture Content (%)

62

31

Field Density
1. Sand Replacement
2. Water or Oil Replacement (Balloon test)
3. Core Recovery Method (for cohesive soils)
4. Nuclear Density Meter
63

Field Density (1)

64

32

http://geotech.uta.edu/lab/Main/SandCone/index.htm

65

66

33

67

68

34

69

Field Density: Water replacement

Check valve

70

35

Field Density: Balloon Test Device

71

Field Density: Oil Replacement

72

36

Lift Height

450 mm

73

Relative Compaction (RC)

Re lative Compaction

RC

Field Density
100
Max. Lab Density

g d( field)
g d,max(Lab)

100

Can Relative Compaction be greater than 100%?

74

37

Saturated Line (Zero Air Voids)

Zero
Air
Voids

75

Useful Relationships
Gs w Sr e

dry

Gs w
1 e

dry

wet
1 w

zav

Gs . w
1 wG S

Dry Density

Zero Air Voids

Dry Density

76

38

Tamping Foot Rollers (Mesh, Grid)

Sheeps-foot Rollers for clay
High contact pressures 1400 - 1700 kPa
Several parallel rollers can be towed
Suitable for cohesive soils

77

Example
For a clayey soil used as liner material, the Modified
Proctor Test results were:

( g d )max 18.2 kN / m3
w opt 14%

G s 2 .7
Determine the value of the degree of saturation at the
maximum dry density.

78

39

Example (Solution)
Given:
e

( g d )max 18.2 kN / m3

w opt 14%

vt
g
Gg
1 s 1 s w 1
vs
gd
gd

Gs w Sr e

Sr

G s 2 .7

2 .7 9 .8
1 0.454
18.2

Gs w 2.7 14

e
0.454

Sr 83.26%
Sr 83%
79

Dynamic Compaction
H
M

Dynamic compaction involves dropping a heavy mass

(M) from a certain height (H) several times in one
place. The process is repeated on a grid pattern
across the site.

40

Dynamic Compaction

Trials indicate that the masses in the range

of 5 to 20 tonnes and drops in the range of 5
to 20 m are effective for compacting loose
sandy soils and MSW but not clayey soils.

41

Compaction Pattern

http://www.iaeg.info/iaeg2006/PAPERS/IAEG_294.PDF

Maximum Depth

dmax HM
dmax = the maximum depth of influence (m)
H = the average drop height (m)
M = the mass of the pounder (t)
= 0.3 to 0.6 (depends on the site properties)
0.6
0.35
0.5

Silty sand
Municipal waste
Clayey sand

0.3 - 0.4
0.4 -0.5

Silt with low Sr

Silt with high Sr

42

Quiz
The dynamic compaction method is applied on a closed
municipal solid waste landfill site. The mass of the pounder
is 10 tonnes and the average drop height is 8 m.
(a) Determine the maximum depth of influence for this
dynamic compaction.
(b) If the required influence depth is 4 m, calculate the
drop height if the same pounder is employed.

43

Recap for Compaction

Standard and Conventional Compaction
optimum moisture content (OMC)
maximum dry density (MDD)
dry side and wet side of OMC
Dynamic Compaction
(is an effective and economical alternative
to conventional compaction)
87

Clay
Mineralogy

44

CLAY MINERALOGY

0.002mm

0.2
0.060mm

0.6

6
2mm

20
60mm

200mm

1. Clays play a primary role in reducing hydraulic

conductivity of soils used in the construction of
liners and slurry walls for contaminant of waste
disposal facilities
2. Clay minerals have a crystalline structure, an
equivalent diameter of less than 2 mm. Its
permeability coefficient is very low (10-8 - 10-12 m/s).

Shape of Clay Particles

3. Clay particles are generally flaky (plate-like in
shape) but some are tubular

Flocculated
Structure

Dispersed
Structure

(edge-to-face
or edge-toedge)

(face-to-face
orientation)

4. Their thickness is very small relative to their length

& breadth, in some cases as thin as 1/100 of the
length

45

Specific Surface
Clays have a large surface area with a high percent of
constituting molecules distributed on the surface and
carry a net negative charge. This charge attract the
positive end of water molecules. Thus a lot of water
may be held as adsorbed water within a clay mass.

The specific surface is defined as the surface area (m2)

per gram of mass.

It ranges from: 5 to 800 m2/g for clays.

1 to 0.4 m2/g for silt and 0.04 to 0.001 m2/g for sand.

Example
Calculate the Specific Surface of the following particle:
Gs = 2.6
L = 2.5 mm

W = 1 mm
t = 50 nm

Specific Surface

Surface Area (m2 )

Mass (g)

SS

AS
AS

.V Gs . w .V

SS

2(2.5 1 0.05 1 2.5 0.05)1012

16.5 m2 / g
12
2.6(2.5 1 0.05)10

46

Bonds in Clay Minerals

Primary bonds: hold together the atoms (e.g. ionic
bonds or covalent)
Secondary bonds: hold together water molecules of
adjacent sheets of crystalline lattice (e.g. hydrogen
bond of polar molecules or dipoles).
Properties of clay minerals and their reaction with
water are significantly influenced by the hydrogen
bond in water. (Note that water is a dipole )

Basic Blocks in Clay Minerals

Two Basic
Building Blocks

Silica Tetrahedron
surrounded by O2-)
SiO4

(Si4+

A
Silica Sheet

Alumina Octahedron
(Al3+ surrounded by OH-)

B
Alumina Sheet

47

KAOLINITE
Hydrogen bond

B
A

B
A

B
A
B

Basic building block

Al4Si4O10(OH)8

Stacked blocks forming particles

Diameter to thickness ratio:

20

Thickness:

50 nm

Permeability:

10-8 m/s

Activity and swelling potential: Low

ILLITE
A
B
A

Potassium ion

A
B
A
K

A
B
A

Basic building block

K

(Al,Mg,Fe)2(Si,Al)4O10
[(OH)2,(H2O)]

A
B
A

Stacked blocks
forming particles

Diameter to thickness ratio:

50

Thickness:

10 nm

Permeability:

10-9 m/s

Activity and swelling potential: Moderate

48

MONMORILLONITE
Water

A
B
A

A
B
A

A
B
A

Basic building block

Stacked blocks
forming particles

A
B
A

(Na,Ca)0.33(Al,Mg)2(Si4O10)
(OH)2nH2O

Diameter to thickness ratio:

100 - 400

Thickness:

0.1nm

Permeability:

10-11 m/s

Activity and swelling potential: High

Comparison
Clay Mineral

Specific
Gravity

Specific
Surface
(m2/g)

Liquid
Plastic
Limit (%) Limit (%)

Kaolinite

2.6 - 2.7

10 - 20

30 - 60

20 - 35

Illite

2.6 - 2.9

65 - 100

60 - 120

35 60

Montmorillonite 2.4 - 2.7

Smectite

700 - 840 100 - 800 50 - 100

Bentonite

49

Clay Activity
Ac

PI
% Clay Content

or

LL PL
% 2mm

Activity Range

Classification

Ac 0.75

Inactive

0.75 < Ac < 1.25

Normal or
Marginally Active

Ac 1.25

Active

Clay Activity
Soils with high activity are not recommended for use
on landfill liners or contaminated structures as they
are more readily affected by contaminants.
Na - Montmorillonite:

Ac = 7.2

Bentonite:

Ac = 7

Ca - Montmorillonite:

Ac = 1.5

Illite:

Ac = 0.9

Kaolinite:

Ac = 0.3 - 0.5

50

Clay Mixed with Contaminants

Waste
Plie
Clay soil
barrier

Leachate loading

Pollutant
plume

Plume advance
Aquifer

Effect of Contaminants on Soil

Properties

Bearing Capacity: Decreases

Generally

Shear Strength: Decreases

Permeability: Increases

51

Summary (Clay Liners)

Clay liner is used as impervious barrier against
drainage of leachate into environment
Clay liner is also used as impervious barrier
against surface runoff into landfill
The important properties of clay liner
Impervious ( k<10-9 m/s )
Limited shrinkage or swelling
Limited cracking potential

Clays in illite group are most suitable

103

Geosynthetic
Clay Liners

52

Geosynthetic Clay Liners

Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GCLs) are thin
hydraulic barriers containing approximately 5
kg/m2 of bentonite, sandwiched between
two geotextiles or attached with an adhesive
to a geomembrane.
Sodium bentonite (lower K) is used primarily
in North America, while calcium bentonite
(higher K) is used more frequently worldwide.

Geosynthetic Clay Liners

Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GCLs) are
increasingly used in bottom liners for
landfills and in final cover for landfills. They
can be easily placed on side slopes.
In a composite landfill liner system, GCLs
reduce the thickness of compacted clay
liners and caps, which increases landfill airspace in the same footprint and allows less
excavation work for a given landfill volume.

53

Geosynthetic Clay Liners

Differential Settlement:

Geosynthetic clay liners can withstand more differential

settlement than compacted clay liners. Hence, GCLs
appear to be an attractive alternative to compacted clay
liners in landfill covers, assuming that other issues such
as slope stability do not preclude the use of GCLs.
Differential Settlement: ?

Total Settlement: ?

Original Surface
2

L
Total Settlement: 1

Differential Settlement: d = /L

Geosynthetic Clay Liners

Wet-Dry Response (swell and shrink):
Dry bentonite swells when wetted and shrinks
when dried. However the wetting and drying cycles
did not appear to cause any major damage to
GCLs. The geosynthetic component of GCL
prevents any intrusion of overlaying pea gravel
into cracks.
Hence, geosynthetic clay liners can be better
material than compacted clay liners to use,
when some degree of cyclic in water content is
anticipated within the hydraulic barrier.

54

Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GCLs)

comprised of sodium bentonite, bound by a woven and nonwoven geotextile or adhered to a geomembrane
109

www.bam.de/deponietechnik_en.htm

Properly installed geomembranes in a composite liner

system for a municipal waste landfill
110

55

High Density Poly-Ethylene Geomembrane

Material HDPE
Specification: 1.0 mm
Size: 6m x 50m
Breaking Elongation: 700%
111
http://www.geosynthetics.com.cn/UploadFiles/2007516231745880.pdf

http://www.geosynthetics.com.cn/newsinfo.asp?ArticleID=594

Model: 5kg/m2

Geotextile + Bentonite Clay

112

56

Q1. Which type of clay is the most suitable soil for construction of clay
liners?
a. Bentonite
b. Illite
c. Montmorilonite
d. Kaolinite
Provide at least two reasons for your selection.

QUIZ

Q2. Landfill compacted clay liners should be compacted very close to the
maximum dry density at:
a. the wet side of the optimum water content.
b. the dry side of the optimum water content.
c. the optimum water content.
d. any water content that clay has got a flocculated structure.
Explain why?

Using Prefabricated Vertical Drains for Landfills

Prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) are not only
used to accelerate the consolidation process of
compressible soils but were also installed to release
generated gases from landfills.
Generation of landfill gases during the process of biodegradation is also a long process like consolidation.
The use of PVDs for landfill gas release was
successfully and extensively applied in landfills in UK
in the early 2000.

57

Any
Questions?

Thank you for

your attention
115

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