Introduction

1. Some physical systems are represented by these simple systems.

For example, the tank-level system consists of two fundamental system in series:
H (s )
R1
s + 1

Qin (s )

q t =

Qs =
Qin

+
_

1
R1

Q (s )

h t
R

q in t qt =

Hs
R

Qin s Qs = AsHs
1
As
1
R

A ddth

It has a build-in feedback

Structure.

2. Many complex chemical processes dynamic behaviors can usually be approximated by

certain combinations of fundamental systems.
3. The objective of process control---the desirable time response of a closed-loop system
can only understood in terms of these simple systems.

These fundamental elementary systems are:

Step

impulse

frequency

yes

yes

yes

Zeroth-order System (proportional element)

G( s) = k

First-order system (lag)

G( s) =

1
s + 1

yes

yes

yes

Second-order System (lag)

G( s) =

1
s + 2s + 1

yes

yes

yes

Dead time element (Transportation lag)

G ( s ) = e d s
1
G( s) =
s

yes

yes

yes

yes

yes

yes

Capacitance element

2 2

In addition, there are other elementary systems which cannot exist by themselves and usually
appear in a combination with some of the systems mentioned above.
Some of these systems have names such as:
First-order lead

s + 1

no

no

yes

Second-order lead

2 s 2 + 2s + 1

no

no

yes

no

no

yes

yes

yes

yes

Others do not have commonly-accepted given names.

Negative lead
Negative lag

s + 1
1
s + 1

Zeroth-Order Systems G (s ) = k

X (s )

Thermocouple:

~
~
E (mv.) = kTm ( o C , or o F )

Tm (o C )

Step Response

The output voltage will be

Converted to temperature with the
Conversion (another zero-order system):

Y (s )

1~
~
Tm (o C , or o F ) = E (mv.)
k

E ( mv)

xt = Aut

yt = Akut
y (t )

x (t )
kA

t=0

t=0

Impulse Response

xt = t

yt = kt
kA

y (t )

x (t )

t=0

Frequency Response is the sinusoidal response over

all frequency range characterized by the following
properties:

Sinusoidal response

xt = Asint

yt = kAsint

x, y

x(t)
y(t)

2/

3/

t=0

AR =

Amplitude of the output sinusoid

Amplitude of the input sinusoid

Lead or lag time

or =

Lead or lag time

time of a period

time of a period

360 in degree
2 in radian

Bode Diagrams
db
40
20
0
20
40

log(AR )

AR

2
1
0

100
10
1
0 .1
0.01

1
2

0.01

0 .1

10

100

180
90
0
90
180

0.01

0 .1

10

100

Decibel is defined as the common logarithm of the amplitude ratio multiplied by 20.

AR db = 20 logAR
For example, AR= -20 db means AR=0.1.

decibel
Abbreviated dB. One-tenth of a bel (named after Alexander Graham Bell), a
unit used in electronics and other fields to measure the strength of a sound or
signal. Decibel measurements fall on a logarithmic scale and compare the
measured quantity against a known reference. The following formula gives
the number of decibels between two values:
dB = n log (x/r)
where x is the measured quantity, r is the reference quantity, and n is 10 for
voltage and current measurements and 20 for power measurements.

First-order system

T ms =

T t = Aut

A
s (s + 1)

1
s + 1

A
s

Step response

A
ss+1

= A

1
s

1
s+1/

T mt = A1 e t/ ut
1.00

The response reaches 63.2% of the

final value at one time constant. The
response reaches 86.5%,95%, 98% and
99% of the final values at the elapsed
the time of 2,3,4 and 5,
respectively.
The slope of the response curve (the
response velocity) is at the maximum
value of A/ at t=0 (Applying the initial
ms to obtain this
value theory to T
result).
The tangent of the response curve at
t=0 intercepts the final steady state
value at t=.

0.80

T /A
m

0.60

0.40

0.20

0.00
0.00

2.00

4.00

6.00

t/

8.00

10.00

Step response

Ramp response
A
s (s + 1)

1
s + 1

A
s

T m s |ramp = T m s |step /s

T m t

t
= T m t

ramp

A
s (s + 1)

1
s + 1

A
s2

dt = A
step

= A t + e t /

t
0

mt
As t , T

10.00

t
0

1 e t / dt

= A t + e t /

ramp

= At

8.00

6.00

T, Tm

Dynamic lag is

4.00

2.00

0.00
0.00

2.00

4.00

6.00

t/

8.00

10.00

Step response
A
s

1
s + 1

Impulse Response
A
s (s + 1)

T ms |impulse = sTs|step
Step response is

T mt = A1 e t/ ut

1
s + 1

T m t

impulse

dT t
dt

A
s + 1

step

Impulse response is

T mt =

ut
e

The response reaches the maximum value

of A/ at t=0
The response drop exponentially with
time. It drops to 36.8%, 13.5%, 5%, 2%
and 1% of the maximum value at the
elapsed the time of ,2,3,4 and 5,
respectively.

A
s2 + 2

T ms =

2
s + 1 s + 2

s + 1

C1
s +1/

T mt = 2

C2
s +j

2 2

2 +1

C3
s j

C2
s +j

A
2 2 +1

C3
s j

as

cost + sint =

= sin1
Define = tan1
1

T mt =

T t = Asint

Input is a sinusoid

Sinusoidal Response

2 2 +1

t
A

2 +1

= sin 1

sin cost + sint cos =

C2 =

A j
2 2 2 +1

cost + sint

2 2 +1
A

2 2+1

sint +

1 + 2 2

General Frequency Response and Bode Diagram

Short-cut method: Let s = j in the system transfer function, Gs
The complex function Gj is expressed in polar form,

Gj = |Gj|e j

The magnitude of the complex number is the amplitude ratio

AR = |Gj | =

real part of Gj 2 + imaginary part of Gj

and the argument is the phase angle:

= tan1

Frequency response of a first-order system Gs =

Gj =

rearranging

Gj =

1
1+ 2 2

Amplitude ratio:
Phase angle

e j

1
1+j

1j

1+ 2 2

1
1+ 2 2

= tan1/1

Real part of Gj

Y
X

1
s +1

into polar form

= tan1/1

where

AR =

Imaginary part of Gj

Bode Diagram representation is made up of two plots

High frequency asymptote slope=-1,or -20 db/decade, or -6 db/octave
0

1.000

-15

-30

AR

0.100

-45

-60

0.010

-75

-90

0.001

0.1

0.10

1.00

10.00

High and low frequency asymptotes

intercept each other at corner
frequency c = 1/

logAR = log1 + 2 2 1/2

As 0
As

1.0

10.0

100.00

= tan1/1
As 0

= 0

As

= 90

At corner frequency c = 1/

logAR = log1 = 0
logAR = log 2 2 1/2 = log log

= 45

100.0

Example, if the input is 10sin5t and the time constant of the thermocouple is 2sec, What is the
output?

AR =

1
1+ 2 2

1
1+52 2

= tan1/1 = tan 1

25

Output= A AR sint + =

= 1. 47

1
10

1+522

sin5t 1. 47

The output is behind input by 1.47 / 2 , or 0.234, of a period,

or, (1.47 / 2 )(2 / 5) = 1.47 / 5 = 0.294 sec .
In general, the lag or lead time is

=
2