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Kultur Dokumente
DOPPLER RADAR
STUDENT NAME : DINESH KUMAR*, ROLL NO. : R702A05, REG.
NO. : 10804713, M.PHIL PHYSICS(REGULAR),LOVELY
PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY,LSTS,PHAGWARA.
Abstract
Cw radar is a radar system where a known stable frequency of continuous wave radio
energy is transmitted and then received from any reflecting objects .The return
frequencies are shifted away from the transmitted frequency based on the doppler
effect if they are moving .Types of continuous wave radar are pulsed Doppler
radar ,Fmcw radar, Fmcw radar is overcome the limitation of ranging of simple cw
doppler radar.Computers now played large role in improving radar
performances,by varying key parameters during operation and optimizing the
receiver so that it has the best opportunity to detect targets reflection correctly.
INTRODUCTION :
A number of radar system are sufficiently unlike those treated so far to be dealt with
separately.They include first of all Cw radar which make extensive use of the
Doppler effect for target speed measurements.Another type of Cw radar is
frequency modulated to provide range as well as velocity.A simple Doppler radar
sends out continuous sine waves rather than pulses It uses the Doppler effect to
detect the frequency change caused by moving target and display this as relative
velocity.Cw radar is capable of giving accurate measurements of relative velocities
using low transmitting powers and low power consumption and equipment whose
size is much smaller than that of comparable pulsed equipment.Cw Doppler radar
has some disadvantages one of the main disadvantage of Doppler radar is incapable
indicating the range of the target.The greatest limitation of Doppler radar i.e its
inability to measure range ,may be overcome if the transmitted carrier is frequency
modulated . Cw Doppler radar has large number of applications firstly is the
aircraft navigation for speed measurement and Radar speed meters used by police.
*corresponding student.Tel.:01612632045
E-mail address: dinesh alagh @ yahoo.com
Principle of Operation
As opposed to pulsed radar systems, continuous wave (CW) radar systems emit
electromagnetic radiation at all times. Conventional CW radar cannot measure range
because there is no basis for the measurement of the time delay. Recall that the basic
radar system created pulses and used the time interval between transmission and
reception to determine the target's range. If the energy is transmitted continuously then
this will not be possible.
CW radar can measure the instantaneous rate-of-change in the target's range. This is
accomplished by a direct measurement of the Doppler shift of the returned signal. The
Doppler shift is a change in the frequency of the electromagnetic wave caused by motion
of the transmitter, target or both. For example, if the transmitter is moving, the
Likewise, if the receiver is moving opposite to the direction of propagation, there will a
increase in the received frequency. Furthermore, a radar target which is moving will act
as both a receiver and transmitter, with a resulting Doppler shift for each. The two effects
caused by the motion of the transmitter/receiver and target can be combined into a net
shift the frequency. The amount of shift will depend of the combined speed of the
transmitter/receiver and the target along the line between them, called the line of sight.
Police often use CW radar to measure the speed of cars. What is actually measured
is the fraction of the total speed which is towards the radar. If there is some difference
between the direction of motion and the line-of-sight, there will be error. Fortunately for
speeders, the measured speed is always lower than the actual.
CW radar systems are used in military applications where the measuring the range
rate is desired. Of course, range rate can be determined from the basic pulsed radar
system by measuring the change in the detected range from pulse to pulse. CW systems
measure the instantaneous range rate, and maintain continuous contact with the target.
DOPPLER RADAR
A doppler radar is a radar using the doppler effect of the returned echoes from targets to
measure their radial velocity. To be more specific the microwave signal sent by the radar
antenna's directional beam is reflected toward the radar and compared in frequency, up or
down from the original signal, allowing for the direct and highly accurate measurement
of target velocity component in the direction of the beam. Doppler radars are used in air
defense, air traffic control, sounding satellites, police speed guns and radiology
Recent weather radars process velocities of precipitations by Pulse-Doppler radar
technique, on top of their intensities This is a slightly different treatment of Doppler data
that has been publicized so much in the United Statesthat the term Doppler radar is often
wrongly used by the public to mean weather radar.
Basic concept
A Doppler radar is a radar that produces a velocity measurement as one of its outputs.
Doppler radars may be Coherent Pulsed, Continuous Wave, or Frequency Modulated. A
continuous wave (CW) doppler radar is a special case that only provides a velocity
output. Early doppler radars were CW, and it quickly led to the development of
Frequency Modulated (FM-CW) radar, which sweeps the transmitter frequency to encode
and determine range. The CW and FM-CW radars can only process one target normally,
which limits their use. With the advent of digital techniques Pulse-Doppler (PD) radars
were introduced, and doppler processors for coherent pulse radars were developed at the
same time.
The advantage of combining doppler processing to pulse radars is to provide accurate
velocity information. This velocity is called Range-Rate. It describes the rate that a target
moves towards or away from the radar. A target with no range-rate reflects a frequency
near the transmitter frequency, and cannot be detected. The classic zero doppler target is
one which is on a heading that is tangential to the radar antenna beam. Basically, any
target that is heading 90 degrees in relation to the antenna beam cannot be detected by its
velocity (only by its conventional reflectivity).
FM radar was highly developed during World War II for the use by US Navy aircraft.
Most used the UHF spectrum, and had a transmit yagi antenna on the port wing, and a
receiver yagi antenna on the starboard wing. This allowed bombers to fly an optimum
speed when approaching ship targets. Later when magnetrons and microwaves became
available, the use of FM radar fell into disuse.
When the Fast Fourier transform became available digitally, it was immediately
connected to Coherent Pulsed radars, where velocity information was extracted. This
quickly proved useful in both weather and air traffic control radars. The velocity
information provided another input to the software tracker, and improved computer
tracking. Due to the low pulse repetition frequency (PRF) of most coherent pulsed radars,
which maximizes the coverage in range, the amount of doppler processing is limited. The
doppler processor can only process velocities up to 1/2 the PRF of the radar. This was
not a problem for weather radars.
Specialized radars quickly were mechanized when digital techniques became affordable.
Pulse-Doppler radars combine all the benefits of long range, and high velocity capability.
Pulse-Doppler radars use a medium to high PRF (on the order of 30 kHz). This high PRF
allows for the detection of either high speed targets, or high resolution velocity
measurements. Normally it is one or the other, that is, a radar designed for detecting
targets from zero to Mach 2, does not have a high resolution in speed, while a radar
designed for high resolution velocity measurements does not have a wide range of
speeds. Weather radars are high resolution velocity radars, while air defense radars have a
large range of velocity detection, but the accuracy in velocity is in the 10's of knots.
Antenna designs for the CW and FM-CW started out as separate transmit and receive
antennas before the advent of affordable microwave designs. In the late 1960s traffic
radars began being produced which used a single antenna. This was made possible by the
use of circular polarization, and a multi-port waveguide section operating at X band. By
the late 1970s this changed to linear polarization and the use of ferrite circulators at both
X and K bands. PD radars operate at too high a PRF to use a Transmit-Receive gas filled
switch, and most use solid-state devices to protect the receiver Low Noise Amplifier
when the transmitter is fired.
principle
Pulse-Doppler radar is based on the fact that targets moving with a nonzero radial
velocity will introduce a frequency shift between the transmitter master oscillator and the
carrier component in the returned echoes. This is because the signal is subject to Doppler
shift, so echoes from closing targets will show an apparent increase in frequency and
echoes from opening targets will show an apparent decrease in frequency. Target velocity
can be estimated by determining the average frequency shift of carrier cycles within a
pulse packet. This is typically done by means of a 1D fast Fourier transform or using the
autocorrelation technique. The transform is performed independently for each sample
volume, using data received at the same range from all pulses within a packet or group of
pulses. In older systems, a bank of analogue filters were used.
Velocity measurements are of course limited to measuring the component of the target
velocity that is parallel to the beam (radial), since tangential movement will not affect the
received signals. A target is either closing or opening, or it will fall into the clutter notch
(a velocity range reserved for non-displayed clutter). Velocity information from a single
radar will therefore result in underestimates of target velocity. Complete velocity profiles
can only be derived by combining measurements from several radars, situated at different
locations.
The radial velocity of the target can easily be calculated based on knowledge of the radar
frequency, speed of light, pulse repetition frequency and average phase (frequency) shift.
The maximum range also defines a range ambiguity for all detected targets. Because of
the periodic nature of pulsed radar systems, it is impossible for a radar system to
determine the difference between targets separated by integer multiples of the maximum
range using a single PRF. More sophisticated radar systems avoid this problem through
the use of multiple PRFs either simultaneously on different frequencies or on a single
frequency with a changing PRT.
Signal demodulation
The resulting receiver video is processed in doppler velocity filters or digital signal
processing circuits which are used to determine velocity. Most modern Pulse-Doppler
radars demodulate the incoming radio frequency signal down to a center frequency of
zero prior to digital sampling. This is done to reduce computational burden, since the
demodulated signal can be downsampled heavily to reduce the amount of data needed for
storage. The resulting signal is usually referred to as complex demodulated, or IQ-data,
where IQ stands for in-phase and quadrature-phase, reflecting the fact that the signal is
complex, with a real and imaginary part.
For instance, a modulated signal could be S(t) = cos(0t + (t)), it can then demodulated
using:
IH(t) = S(t).cos(0t) and QH(t) = S(t).sin(0t)
Using a low pass filter on both IH(t) and QH(t) allows the following:
I(t) = cos((t) + ) and Q(t) = sin((t) + )
Note that I(t) would not be enough because the sign is lost. Having I(t) and Q(t) then
enables the radar to properly map closing (approaching) and opening (leaving) doppler
velocities.
Maximum range from reflectivity (red) and unambiguous Doppler velocity range (blue)
with a fix pulse repetition rate.
Ambiguities
A fundamental problem associated with Pulse-Doppler radar is velocity ambiguity, since
Doppler Shifts crossing the next line in the frequency spectrum will be aliased. This
problem can, however, be alleviated by increasing the PRF, which increases the spacing
between adjacent lines in the transmitted spectrum allowing greater shifts before aliasing
occurs. For military radars intended to detect high speed closing targets, it is common for
PRFs of several hundred kilohertz to be employed.
Even so, there is a limit to the amount that the PRF may be increased before range
ambiguity occurs. However, high PRFs can be utilised by the transmission of multiple
pulse-packets with different PRF-values to resolve this ambiguity, since only the correct
velocity stays fixed, while all "ghost velocities" introduced by aliasing change when the
PRF is altered.
Application considerations
Type of Radar
The maximum velocity that can be unambiguously measured is inherently limited by the
PRF, as discussed above. The PRF-value must therefore be chosen carefully, based on a
tradeoff between maximum velocity resolution and the reduction of velocity aliasing and
range ambiguity problems. This tradeoff is highly application dependent, as e.g. weather
radars measure velocities at a totally different scale as compared to radars designed to
detect supersonic missiles and aircraft.
Moving targets
Stationary targets such as earth ground clutter (land, buildings, etc) will be dominant in
the low doppler frequencies, while moving targets will produce much higher doppler
shifts. The radar processor can be designed to mask out clutter by the use of doppler
filters (digital or analogue) around the main spectral line (called the clutter-notch), which
will result in the display of moving targets only (in relation to the radar). If the radar itself
is moving, such as on a fighter aircraft, or a surveillance aircraft, then much more
processing will be required, as the clutter in the filters will be based on platform speed,
terrain under the radar, antenna depression angle, and antenna rotation/steered angle.
It is also possible to use a CW radar system to measure range instead of range rate
by frequency modulation, the systematic variation of the transmitted frequency. What
this does in effect is to put a unique "time stamp" on the transmitted wave at every
instant. By measuring the frequency of the return signal, the time delay between
transmission and reception can be measure and therefore the range determined as before.
Of course, the amount of frequency modulation must be significantly greater than the
expected Doppler shift or the results will be affected.
The simplest way to modulate the wave is to linearly increase the frequency. In
other words, the transmitted frequency will change at a constant rate.
f2 = maximum frequency
f1 = minimum frequency
T = period of sweep from f1 to f2,
and f = the difference between transmitted and received.
There is a slight problem which occurs when the sweep resets the frequency and the
frequency difference becomes negative (as shown in the plot of f vs. time). The system
uses a discriminator to clip off the negative signal, leaving only the positive part, which is
directly proportional to the range. Here is a system
diagram:
transmit at must be considerably lower than the peak power of a pulsed system. You may
recall that the peak and average power in a pulse system were related by the duty cycle,
Pave = DC *Ppeak
For a continuous wave system, the duty cycle is one, or alternatively, the peak power is
the same as the average power. In pulsed systems the peak power is many times greater
than the average.
LIMITATIONS OF SIMPLE DOPPLER CW-RADAR :
A major limitation of continuous wave radar (CW radar) is that it lacks the ability to
measure distance to a target. CW radar cannot determine target range because it lacks the
timing mark necessary to allow the system to time accurately the transmit and receive
cycle and convert this into range. In pulse radar, this mark was provided by the pulse
itself. Pulse radar transmits a form of amplitude-modulated energy. There are other forms
of modulation that provide the necessary mark to allow range information to be
calculated. Frequency modulation (FM) can also be used. CW radars making use of FM
are called FM CW Radar (FM CW radar or sometimes FMCW radar).
In addition to the ranging limitations, the CW radar is unable to detect targets with a
zero Doppler shift, including stationary targets and beaming targets. Like pulse radar, FM
CW Radar overcomes this limitation.
Radar technology may also be used to detect land mines. NATO is spending millions to develop a
device to identify and neutralize land mines. The basic technology consists of two antennas that
focus radar energy to a point just below ground a few feet in front of the person carrying the
antenna. The device is programmed to ignore signals that bounce back from the surface and to
make buried objects shine brighter in the radar image. This allows the operator to actually detect
the land mines without ever touching the ground.
REFERENCES :
(a)David.G 1949 (MCGRAW HILL NEW YORK) Frequency Modulated Radar
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