PASS GPAT EXAM IN 10 DAY

Chemical tests in pharmacognosy

Name of test

PMG

drugs

Baljets test
Cardiac glycosides
Born-tragers test
Anthracene glycosides
Borex test
Aloes
Boudouins test
Detection of sesame oil as adulterant in other oils
Boardfoeds test
Carbohydrates
biuret test
Proteins
Cupraloin test
Aloes
Carr-price test
Vitamin A
Fiehes test
Detection of artificial invert sugar as adulteranrt in honey
Foam test
Saponins
Grignard reaction
Cyanogenetic glycoside
Gold beater skin test
tannin
Hal-phens test
Detection of cotton seed oil as adulterant
Haemolysis test
Saponins
Klungs test
Aloes
Keller killiani test
Presence of deoxy sugar
Keris test
Rancidity of fats and oil
Legal test
Cardiac glycoside
Libermann- burchards test
Steroids
Murexide test
Caffeine (xanthine alkaloids)
Van urks test
Ergot alkaloids
Molish test
Carbohydrates
Nitrous acid test
Aloes
Thalleoquin test
Cinchona alkaloids
Tannins test
Alkaloids
Vitali-morins test
Atropine and cocaine
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Emulsifiers with HLB Values

HLB values sorted by HLB from lowest to highest:
Glycol Distearate HLB = 1
Sorbitan Trioleate HLB = 1.8
Propylene Glycol Isostearate HLB = 2.5
Glycol Stearate HLB = 2.9
Sorbitan Sesquioleate HLB = 3.7
Glyceryl Stearate HLB = 3.8
Lecithin HLB = 4
Sorbitan Oleate HLB = 4.3
Sorbitan Monostearate NF HLB = 4.7
Sorbitan Stearate HLB = 4.7
Sorbitan Isostearate HLB = 4.7
Steareth-2 HLB = 4.9
Oleth-2 HLB = 4.9
Glyceryl Laurate HLB = 5.2
Ceteth-2 HLB = 5.3
PEG-30 Dipolyhydroxystearate HLB = 5.5
Glyceryl Stearate SE HLB = 5.8
Sorbitan Stearate (and) Sucrose Cocoate HLB = 6
PEG-4 Dilaurate HLB = 6
Methyl Glucose Sesquistearate HLB = 6.6
Lecithin HLB (variable) PEG-8 Dioleate HLB = 8

Sorbitan Laurate HLB = 8.6

PEG-40 Sorbitan Peroleate HLB = 9
Laureth-4 HLB = 9.7
PEG-7 Glyceryl Cocoate HLB=10
PEG-20 Almond Glycerides HLB = 10
PEG-25 Hydrogenated Castor Oil HLB = 10.8
Stearamide MEA HLB = 11
Glyceryl Stearate (and) PEG-100 Stearate HLB = 11
Polysorbate 85 HLB = 11
PEG-7 Olivate HLB = 11
Cetearyl Glucoside HLB = 11
PEG-8 Oleate HLB = 11.6
Polyglyceryl-3 Methyglucose Distearate = 12
Oleth-10 HLB = 12.4
Oleth-10 / Polyoxyl 10 Oleyl Ether NF HLB = 12.4
Ceteth-10 HLB = 12.9
PEG-8 Laurate HLB = 13
Cocamide MEA HLB = 13.5
Polysorbate 60 NF HLB = 14.9
Polysorbate 60 HLB = 14.9
Polysorbate 80 HLB = 15
Isosteareth-20 HLB = 15
PEG-60 Almond Glycerides HLB = 15
Polysorbate 80 NF[HLB = 15
PEG-20 Methyl Glucose Sesquistearate HLB = 15
Ceteareth-20 HLB = 15.2
Oleth-20 HLB = 15.3
Steareth-20 HLB = 15.3
Steareth-21 HLB = 15.5
Ceteth-20 HLB = 15.7
soceteth-20 HLB = 15.7
Polysorbate 20 HLB = 16.7
Polysorbate 20 NF HLB = 16.7
Laureth-23 HLB = 16.9
PEG-100 Stearate HLB = 18.8
Steareth-100 HLB = 18.8
PEG-80 Sorbitan Laurate HLB = 19.1
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Tablets
Minimum area required for tablet preparation:
30sq.m
Minimum area required for hard gelatin capsules:
20 sq.m
Minimum area required for parenteral preparations: 60sq.m
Minimum area required for wholesale drug store:
200 sq.m
Minimum area required for retail drug store:
150 sq.m
Drugs which are not used in tablet preparation
I.
Drugs which have low density.
II.
Drugs which have poor wetting property.
Methods for preparation of tablets:
I.
Wet granulation
II.
Dry granulation
III.
Direct granulation

In wet screening 12 20 microns mesh size is used.

LACTOSE: not used as diluent in spironolactone preparation because it increases bioavailability.
MANNITOL: used as diluent and binding agent in preparation of chewable tablet.
Enteric coating causes 1 -3% increase in weight of tablet.
Film coating causes 2 -6% increase in weight of tablet.
Sugar coating causes 50 % increase in weight of tablet.
Mixing in tablet preparation by:
I.
Mixer.
II.
Double cone mixer: speed 30 100 rpm.
III.
Planetary motion mixer: used to mix binding agent to drug.
Binding agents:
I.
Water : for hydrazable materials
II.
Alcohol methanol
III.
Acacia mucilage : 10 20% is used
IV.
Tragacanth mucilage : 10 20 % is used
V.
Starch mucilage: 5 10% is used. It improves intragranular adhesion.
VI.
Simple syrup : 66.6% w/w
85% w/v
Every 2 grams of sucrose preserves 1gm of water from microbial attack.
Artificial sweeteners:
I.
Saccharin sodium: 200 300 times sweeter than sucrose.
II.
Cyclamate: 30 times sweeter than sucrose. causes cancer
III.
Aspartate: 200 times sweeter than sucrose.
IV.
Glycerol: it is glycogenic in nature, hence not used for diabetic patients.
V.
Xylitol: used in diabetic patients.
3% PVP in isopropyl alcohol used as binding agent in non aqueous granulation.
Types of tablets: '
I.
Compressed tablets
II.
Multiple compressed tablets.
III.
Repeat action tablets: core tablet is coated with enteric polymer/ shellac. the second
Dose of drug is added in sugar coating either in solution or syrup Form or as dusting powder.
IV.
Delayed and enteric coated tablets :
All enteric coated tablets are delayed action tablets, not all delayed action tablets are enteric.
V.
Film coated tablet
VI.
Tablets used in oral cavity :
Buccal and sublingual tablet.
Lozenges.
Dental cones.
VII.
Other routes:
implantation tablets,
vaginal tablets.
1.

Tablets used to prepare solution

Effervescent tablets
Dispensing tablet
Hypodermic tablets
Tablet triturates.

Different diluents used in tablets:

I.
Starch :
For example: sta Rx 1500: contain 10 % moisture.
Two hydrolyzed starches EMDEX and CELUTAB basically 90 92 % dextrose and 3 5% maltose. These
materials are used in place of mannitol in chewable tablets because of their sweetness and smooth feeling in mouth.
II.

IV.

Dextrose : trade name CERELOSE III.

Sucrose :
For example: sugartab: 90 93% sucrose + 7 10% invert sugar.
Dipac
: 97% sucrose + 3% modified dextrins
Nutab
: 95% sucrose + 4% invert sugar
Microcrystalline cellulose : trade name : AVICEL

DISINTEGRANTS:
Starch 5 -20 % concentration. : PRIMOGEL AND EXPLOTAB.
Internally cross linked polymer of sodium carboxy methyl cellulose: AC Di SOL
GLIDANTS:
Talc: 5% concentration
Corn starch: 5 10 % concentration.
Colloidal silica: cab o sil, syloid, aerosil: 0.25 3% concentration.
FLAVOURS:
The maximum amount of oil that can be added to granulation without influencing its tableting characteristics: 0.5
0.75%
1.

EVALUATION OF TABLETS:
i.
Flow property :
Angle of repose: tan = h/r
Angle of repose:
< 25
25 -30
30 -40
More than 40

flow property
excellent flow property
good flow property
fair to possible.
very poor.

Also see the Carrs index table and hessners ratio .

ii.
iii.

Hardness test : the hardness must not be less than 4Kg/cm2.

Friability :

the friability limit must not be more than 2%.

The working of Roche frailibilator is very imp and its dimensions.

iv.

Disintegration : very imp

Uncoated tablets : should disintegrate within 15 min. by using water as medium.
Film coated tablets: disintegrate within 30 min by using water, adding disc to
Each tube. (37 2C)
Other coated tablets: tablets should disintegrate within 60 min, by using water
As medium.
Enteric coated tablets: 120 minutes in acidic medium.
60 minutes in mixed phosphate buffer medium.
Dispensable and soluble tablets : within 3 min. water as medium. Temp 24 -26C.
Effervescent tablets : within 5 min as water. ( 20 - 30C)

For uniformity of dispersion 710 mesh is used.

The dimensions and details of instruments used in evaluation of tablets and capsules are very imp. For GPAT
read them.
According to USP weight variation test is run by weighing 20 tablets.
Content uniformity test is performed by taking 30 tablets randomly.
Interaction of amine drugs with commonly used diluent lactose, in presence of metal stearate lubricant the
resultant tablets gradually decolorized with time: this is called MAILLARD REACTION.
Anhydrous lactose does not show maillard reaction.
Crown thickness is measured by : micrometer and sliding caliper scale.
Processing problems are very imp read them from lachman.
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Classifiacation of anti-cancer agents

1. ALKYLATING AGENTS:
1. NITROGEN MUSTARDS :

2.ETHYLENEIMINES AND METHYLMELANINE :

mechlorethanine
Cyclophosphamide
Ifosphamide
Mephalan
Chlorambucil
altretamine
Thiotepa

3.METHYL HYFRAZINE DERIVATIVE :

procarbazine

4. ALKYL SULFONATE:

busulfan

5. NITROSOUREAS :

carmustine
Lomustine
Streptozocin

6.TRIAZENES:

dacarbazine : (DTIC)
Temozolomide.

7. PLATINUM CO-ORDINATION COMPLEXES:

cis platin
Carboplatin
Oxalipaltin

2.
1.

2.

NATURAL PRODUCTS:
VINCA ALKALOIDS :

TAXANES :

vinblastine
Vincristine
Vinorelbine
paclitaxel
Docetaxel

3.EDIPODOPHYLLOTOXINS:

etoposide
Teniposide

4.CAMPOTHECINS :

topotecan

Irinotecan
3.ANTIBIOTICS:

dactinomycin (actinomycin D)
Daunorubicin (daunomycin)
Doxorubicin

4. ANTHRACENEDIONE DERIVATIVES:

mitoxantrone
Bleomycin
Mitomycin
L- asparaginase.

5.ENZYMES:
6. MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES:

7.
1.

ANTI METABOLITES:
FOLIC ACIDS ANALOGS :

bevacizumab
Cetuximab
Rituximab
Transtuzumab
methotrexate

2.PYRIMIDINE ANALOGS:

3. PURINE ANALOGS AND RELATED INHIBITORS:

8.

HORMONES AND ANTAGONISTS :

ADRENOCORTICAL SUPPRESSANATS :
ADRENO CORTICOSTEROIDS :
PROGESTINS:

Pemetrexed.
5 flurouracil
Capecitabine
Cytarabine
Gemcitabine
6 mercaptopurine
Pentostatin
Cladribine
Hudarobine.
mitotane
Aminoglutethimide
prednisone
hydroxyl progesterone caproate
Medroxy progesterone acetate
Megestral acetate.

ESTROGENS:

diethyl stilbesterol
Ethinyl estradiol

ANTI ESTROGENS:

tamoxifen
Toremifene

AROMATASE INHIBITORS :

anastrazole
Letrozole
Exemestane.

ANDROGENS :

testosterone propionate ,Fluoxymesterone.

ANTI ANDROGEN :

flutamide
Cyprotrone

GONADOTROPIN- releasing hormone analog : leuprolide.

9.

MISCELLANEOUS AGENTS:
SUBSITUITED UREA :
DIFFERENCIAL AGENTS :

hydroxyl urea
tretinoin
Arsenic
Trioxide

PROTEIN TYROSINE KINASE INHIBITOR: imatinib

Gefitnib
Erlotinib.
PROTEASOME INHIBITOR :
bortezomib
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Some important drugs and their mechanism of action

Drug
Allopurinol
Antipsychotics:
Aspirin
Acetazolamide
Aminoglycosides
Acyclovir
Amantadine
Benzodiazepines
Cimetidine
Chloramphenicol Tetracyclines, erythromycin
Griseofulvin
Isoniazid
Nalidixic acid
Warfarin
Primethamine
Penicillin
Sulfinpyrazole and probenecid
Sodium valproate
Spironolactone
Vinca alkaloids
Zidovudine
Dapsone
Polyene class;
Terbinafine
Metronidazole
Mebendazloe
anthracyclineMethotraxateTetracyclineErythromycinChloroquineDiazepamSalbutamolTolnaftate-

mechanism of action
inhibits the enzyme xanthine oxidase, involved in the
synthesis of Uric acid
acts by blocking dopamine receptors.
inhibits enzyme cyclooxygenase and prevents synthesis of
prostaglandins
inhibits carbonic anhydrase used as diuretics
binds to 30 S ribosome and inhibit protein synthesis.
incorporated in to viral DNA and inhibits viral replication.
inhibits viral attachment and uncoating
act on benzodiazepines receptors and facilitate the effect of GABA.
blocks H2 receptors.
bind to 50 S and inhibit protein synthesis.
acts as anti- fungal interferes with mitotic spindle structure
inhibits the synthesis of mycolic acid, imp. Part of cell wall of
mycobacterium
prevents DNA synthesis
antagonize the action of vitamin K
block folic acid production by acting on dihydrofolate reductase
acts on cell wall
block uric acid reabsorbtion at PCT
inhibits the enzyme GABA transaminasethus increase the action
of GABA
inhibits the action of aldosterone
bind to tubulin fibers and inhibit mitosis
inhibits the enzyme reverse transcriptase and inhibits the
synthesis of viral DNA
inhibition of PABA incorporation into folic acid.
acts as anti-fungal and attach to ergosterol n fungal cell wall
competitive inhibitor of squalene epoxidase acts as anti-fungal
cytotoxic in nature and cause damage to DNA
acts on - tubulin of parasite, similar mechanisms for class azoles.
Intercalation of DNA
Folic acid reductase inhibitor.
Inhibits Protein synthesis by acting on 30 S unit of ribosome
Inhibits Protein synthesis by acting on 50 S unit of ribosome
Binds and alters properties of microbial and fungal DNA
GABA facilitator Fluconalzole- P450 enzyme 14-demethylase Inhibitor
Beta 2 receptor agonist
Inhibit squalene epoxidase which is necessary for ergosteral syns of fungal

Griesofulvin19. Chloramphenicol20. Levodopa-

cell wall
inhibits fungal cell wall activity
Inhibition of Protein syntheses
Replenish Brain deleted dopamine

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HERBAL DRUGS that are used in diff. pathological conditions:

1.
Liquorice anti-ulcer
2.
Ipecac emetic
3.
Hyoscine, Cannabinoids anti-emetic
4.
Senna, Cascara, Castor oil - treatment of constipation
5.
Gum guggul anti-rheumatic
6.
Colchicum Anti-gout
7.
Guggul lipids, Garlic, Oats - Anti-atherosclerotic
8.
Ephedra, Gingkoside B, Theophylline - Anti -asthmatic
9. Vinca, Taxanes, Podophyllotoxins Anti-cancer
10. Artemesinin derivatives Anti-malarial
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Uses of Magnesium Sulphate in diff. routes of administration:

Oral - Cathertic
IV - Sedative & Hypnotic
Topical - Wound healing
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Parkinsonism:
Due to destruction of dopenergic neurons.
This loss can be visualized by positron emission tomography anf dopamine analog flurodopa.
Parkinsonism is due to the imbalance between dopamine and acetylcholine.dopamine level decreases and
acetylcholine level increases.
Parkinsonism follows low viral encephalitis or viral lesions.
Treatment :
I.
Levodopa and carbidopa :
it is most preferred combination because levodopa converts in to dopamine and
carbidopa causes dopa decarboxylase inhibition.( which degrades levodopa if
levodopa is taken alone).
II.
Selegiline and rasagiline :
Selegiline is selective inhibitor of MAO-B
Rasagiline is irreversible selective MAO-B inhibitor.
III.
Catechol O- methyl transferase inhibitors: (COMT)
Entacopone
Tolcapone
IV.
Dopamine receptor agonists:
Bromocriptine ergot alkalod.
Apomorphine, pramiperole, ropisirole, rotigotine.
Cimetidine
Amantadine : anti viral drug.
V.
Anti muscuranic agents: they are used as adjuants
Benzotropine
Trihexyphenidyl
Procyclidine
Biperiden
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Specific antidotes for certain drugs:

DRUG

ANTIDOTE

1. Paracetamol
-- N-acetyl cysteine
2. Atropine
-- Physostigmine, Neostigmine
3. Organophosphates -- Atropine, Prolidoxime
4. Barbiturates
-- Sodium bicarbonate
5. Benzodiazipines
-- Flumagenil
6. Amphetamine
-- Ammonium chloride
7. Opioids
-- Naloxone
8. Digoxin
-- Digibind
9. Heparin
-- Protamine sulphate
10. Warfarin
-- Vit. K
11. Beta blockers
-- Glucagon
12. Carbon monoxide
-- 100% oxygen
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Some important Drugs and its side effects:

Grey Baby SyndromeChloramphenicol
Pin Point PupilMorphine
Reyes SyndromeAspirin
Urine ColorationRifampicin
Frontal HeadacheIndomethacin
CaptoprilPersistent dry cough
BleomycinPulmonary fibrosis
VancomycinRed man syndrome
Nicotinic acidFlush
Steven Johnsons syndrome
Allopurinol
sulphonamideskernicterus
aminoglycosides ototoxicity
discoloration of teethtetracycline
doxorubicin & duanorubucincardiomyopathy.
chloroquinecardiotixicity
doxycyclineesophageal ulceration
vincristine & vinblastineneuropathy
cyclophosphamidealopecia
cimetidine & spironolactonegynaecomastia
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Effects of drugs during pregnancy on fetus :

Antiepileptics- neuraltube defect
Warfarincleft palate
thalidomide- phocomalia
alcoholcranial bone formation impairment
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Antidotes
benzodiazepine- flumazenil
paracetamol- N-acetyl cysteine
Morphine- naloxone
nitrites- methylene blue
organophosphorus compd.- DAM, PAM, Atropine
Atropine- Physostigmine
lead- BAL
cyanide- edetate+amyl nitrite
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Named reactions
Acetoacetic Ester Synthesis

Acyloin Condensation
Aldol Addition + Aldol Condensation
Appel Reaction
Arbuzov Reaction = Michaelis-Arbuzov Reaction
Arndt-Eistert Synthesis
Azo Coupling
Baeyer-Villiger Oxidation
Balz-Schiemann Reaction = Schiemann Reaction
Bamford-Stevens Reaction
Barton Decarboxylation
Barton-McCombie Reaction (Barton Desoxygenation)
Baylis-Hillman Reaction
Beckmann Rearrangement
Benzilic Acid Rearrangement
Benzoin Condensation
Bergman Cyclization
Birch Reduction
Bouveault-Blanc Reduction
Buchwald-Hartwig Cross Coupling Reaction
Cadiot-Chodkiewicz Coupling
Cannizzaro Reaction
Chugaev Reaction
Claisen Condensation
Claisen Rearrangement
Clemmensen Reduction
Cope Elimination
Cope Rearrangement
Corey-Seebach Reaction
Criegee Reaction
Curtius Rearrangement
Delpine Reaction
De Mayo Reaction
Dess-Martin Oxidation
Diazotisation and Azo Coupling
Dieckmann Condensation
Diels-Alder Reaction
Di--Methane Rearrangement
Dtz Reaction
Eglinton Reaction
Ene Reaction = Alder-Ene Reaction
Jacobsen Epoxidation
Ester Pyrolysis
Favorskii Reaction
Finkelstein Reaction
Friedel-Crafts Acylation
Friedel-Crafts Alkylation
Gabriel Synthesis
Gattermann-Koch Reaction
Glaser Coupling and Hay Coupling
Grignard Reaction
Grob Fragmentation
Grubbs Olefin Metathesis
Haloform Reaction
Heck Reaction
Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky Reaction
Henry Reaktion

Hofmann Elimination
Hofmann's Rule
Horner-Wadsworth-Emmons Reaction
Hunsdiecker Reaction
Hydroboration
Ireland-Claisen Rearrangement
Knoevenagel Condensation
Kolbe Reaction
Kolbe-Schmitt Reaction
KumadaNegishi Coupling
LeuckartWallach (Leuckart) Reaction
Malonic Ester Synthesis
Mannich Reaction
Markovnikov's Rule
McMurry Reaction
Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley Reduction
Michael Addition
Mitsunobu Reaction
Mukaiyama Aldol Addition
Negishi Coupling
Norrish-Type I and II
Nozaki-Hiyama Coupling
Nucleophilic Substitution (SN1 / SN2)
Oppenauer Oxidation
Oxy-Cope Rearrangement
Paterno-Bchi Reaction
Pauson-Khand Reaction
Perkin Reaction
Peterson Olefination
Pinacol Coupling Reaction
Pinacol Rearrangement
Prilezhaev Epoxidation
Reformatsky Reaction
Ritter Reaction
Robinson Annulation
Rosenmund Reduction
Sakurai Reaction (Hosomi Sakurai)
Sandmeyer Reaction
Sangers Reagent
Saytzeff's Rule
Schiemann Reaction
Schmidt Reaction
Schotten-Baumann Reaction
Sharpless Epoxidation and Dihydroxylation
Simmons-Smith Reaction
Sonogashira Coupling
Staudinger Reaction
Stille Coupling
Strecker Synthesis
Suzuki Coupling
Swern Oxidation
Tebbe Olefination
Thorpe Reaction
Tishhenko Reaction
Ullmann Reaction
Vilsmeier Reaction

Wacker-Tsuji Oxidation
Willgerodt-Kindler Reaction
Williamson Synthesis
Wittig Olefination
Wittig Rearrangement
Wittig-Horner Reaction
Wohl-Ziegler Reaction
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Name of drug and its active isomers

Name of drug
Stereospecific isomer
Ethambutol
Dextro isomer is 16 times more active than meso
cyclophosphamide
Levo form has twice activity than D form
Chloprothixene
Z isomer is more active
Doxepin HCL
Z isomer is more active
Lysergic acid diethyl amide
Dextro is active
epinephrine
Levo form is active
Pseudoephedrine
(+) threo isomer
propanaol
Only levo isomer is a potent beta antagonist
Hyoscyamine
Levo isomer
Atropine
Racemic mixture
Captopril
S isomer is active
sulindac
Z isomer
ibuprofen
(s) (+) isomer
ephedrine
(-) erythro is active
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Pharmacognosy precursors
Compound
Precursor
- amyrinSqualene
Diosgenin, Yamogenin, sarasapogeninCholesterol
Digitoxigenin, Gitoxigenin, DigoxigeninPregnelone
Prunasin, Coumarin, Cinnamic Acid, Ephedrine, Mescaline, CYanidine, Quercitin-Phenylalanine+ornithine
Tropane alkaloidsOrnithine
CocaineOrnithine +phenylalanine+acetate
Aspartic acidNicotinic acid
Papaverine, thebaine, morphine, codeineTyrosine
Indole alkaloids, ergot alkaloids, qunineTryptophan+tryptamine
Lupinine , anabasine, coneine, lobelline, isopelletrieneLysine
Emetine , cepahaline,mescalineDopamine
Colchicines, papaverine, berberine, narcotine, morphinePhenylalanine+tyrosine
Piloacarpine-Histidine
AlaninePyruvate, OAA
Serine-3phosphoric acid
CysteineMethionine
ProlineOrnithine

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

E1 & E2 REACTION ORDER

CRITERIA -E1 - E2
Substrate-3>2>1(E1)-1>2>3(E2)
RATE OF REACTION-Depends only on the substrate(E1)-Depends both on substrate and base(E2)
Carbocation-More stable carbocation(E1)-Less stable carbo caton(E2)

Rearrangement-Rearrangements are common(E1)-No rearrangements(E2)

Geometry-No special geometry is required(E1)-Anti-coplanarity is required(E2)
Leaving group-Good leaving group(E1)-Poor leaving group(E2)
Base strength-Weak base(E1)-Strong and more concentrated base(E2)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Diagnostic Tests
Brucellosis:
Syphilis:

Coombs Test (Anti Globulin Test-AGT, Agglutination/ Opsonization reaction)

VDRL (Venereal Disease Research Lab Test- Slide test)
Kahn Test (test-tube test), Trepenoma Immobilization Test,
Fluorescent Antibody Absorbed Serum Test
Wasserman Test (Complement Fixation Test)
Diphtheria:
Eleck Test ( Immuno-Diffusion Technique)
Schick Test (Neutralization Test)
Scarlet Fever:
Dick Test (Neutralization Test), Schultz Charlton Test
AIDS:
ELISA Test, Western Blot Test
Typhoid (S. Typhii) And Enteric Fever: Widal Test (Agglutination)
Hepatitis:
Australian Antigen Test
Tuberculosis:
Mantoux Test, Tine Test, Heaf Test, Tuberculin Test (Hyper-sensitivity Test)
The Dose of Tuberculin in Mantoux Test for an adult: 0.1 ml
Mononucleosis:
Paun Bunnell Test (Red Cells as Antigen)
Typhus Fever:
Weil Felix Test
Influenza Virus:
Radial Immuno Diffusion
Small Pox:
Ouchtertomy (Precipitation)
Leprosy:
Lepromine Test
Pregnancy (HcG):
Gravidex Test
Rheumatoid Arthritis:
Rose Waaler Test (Agglutination)
Hemophillus:
Ducrey Test
Pneumonia:
Cold Haemoglutination Test, Streptococcus MG Haemoglutination Test
Lymphogranuloma Venereum: Frei Test
To detect Human Chronic Gonadotropin in serum of woman: RIA as a test for Pregnancy
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

pH
Blood: 7.4
Skin: 7.4
Secretion of Skin: 5.5
Gastric juice: Infants: 5, Adults: 2
Saliva: 6.3-6.7
Urine: 4.4-8
Stool: aprox. 6
Bile Juice: 8-8.6
Semen: 7.2-8
Vagina: 3.8-4.5
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List of Pharma Instruments

absorptiometer-instrument for measuring solubility of gases in liquids

actinometer-instrument for measuring incident radiation

aerometer-instrument for measuring weight or density of gas

Florentine Receiver-Used to separate liquids based on density

Sorptometer-Used to measure total surface area

Quantasorb-Surface area

areometer-instrument used for measuring specific gravity

Hg Pycnometer-Granule Density

He Pycnometer-True Density

Hygrometer-Moisture content

cytometer-instrument for counting cells

hygrometer-instrument for measuring air moisture

leptometer-instrument for measuring oil viscosity

nephelometer-instrument for measuring cloudiness

planimeter-instrument for measuring area

platometer-instrument for measuring area; planimeter

psychrometer-Humidity measurement

pycnometer-instrument for measuring specific gravity or density

qualimeter-apparatus for measuring penetrating power of X-ray beams

stereometer-instrument for measuring specific gravity

tensiometer-instrument for measuring tension

zymometer-instrument for measuring fermentation

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Beta Blockers
Comparative information
Pharmacological differences

Agents with intrinsic sympathomimetic action (ISA)

Acebutolol, carteolol, celiprolol, mepindolol, oxprenolol, pindolol
Agents with greater aqueous solubility (hydrophilic beta blockers)
Atenolol, celiprolol, nadolol, sotalol
Agents with membrane stabilizing effect
Acebutolol, betaxolol, pindolol, propranolol

Agents with antioxidant effect

Carvedilol, nebivolol
Indication differences

Agents specifically indicated for cardiac arrhythmia

Esmolol, sotalol, landiolol
Agents specifically indicated for congestive heart failure
Bisoprolol, carvedilol, sustained-release metoprolol, nebivolol
Agents specifically indicated for glaucoma

Betaxolol, carteolol, levobunolol, metipranolol, timolol

Agents specifically indicated for myocardial infarction

Atenolol, metoprolol, propranolol

Agents specifically indicated for migraine prophylaxis

Timolol, propranolol

Propranolol
is the only agent indicated for control of tremor, portal hypertension,
and esophageal variceal bleeding, and used in conjunction with
-blocker therapy in phaeochromocytoma.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

TABLETS

90% of drugs are in oral dosage form.

Tablet is unit dosage form.
Liquid dosage forms r given in dose of medication 5-30%.
Tablet should have 2-4% of moisture.

Evaluation
General appearance
Size and shape compressed tablets shape and dimensions are determined by the tooling during the
compression process.
Rem-when compression force is constant, tablet thickness varies with changes in die fill, with particle size
distribution, packing of particle mix and tab. Weight.
When die fill is constant, thickness varies with variation in compressive load.
*
Crown thickness of tablet measured by micrometer.
*
Total crown thickness is measured by vernier calliper.
*
Tablet thickness should be controlled with 5% of std. Value.
*
The more the convex the tablet surface more is the capping problem so one has to use slower tablet
machine or one with pre compression capabilities.
*
Unique identification markings-given in Physicians Desk Reference(PDR).
*
Product code is given from National Drug Code (NDC).
*
Mottling-non uniformity of colour over tablet surface.
*
For colour quantification 3 methods-reflectance spectrophotometry, tristimulus colorimetry and microreflectance photometry.
Hardness and Friability
Hardness of tablet directly effects dissolution behaviour.

It is the force req. to break the tablet in diametric compression test.

Hardness also called crushing strength.

Devices used
*
Monsento tester (stockes tester)-easy to handle.Manually operated,gives strength in kgs.
*
Strong-cobb tester-force applied by hydraulic pressure and later air pressure not manually. It gives
value 1.6 times higher than the original strength. it gives strength in kgs.
*
Pfizer tester-same principle as pair of pliers.(kgs)
*
Two testers to eliminate operation variations:1.Erweka tester-gives strength in Kgs.
2.Schleuniger tester-operates in horizontal position-gives strength in KGs and Strong Cobb units.
Hardness and thickness of tablet is a function of die fill and compression force.

At constant compression force, hardness increase with increasing die fill.

At constant die fill, hardness increase and thickness decrease when compression force is applied.

Roche friabilator machine is used for measuring friability of tablet.

Tablets fall from-6 inch distance

Total Rpms-25
Total revolutions-100
Time-4 minutes
Limits-0.5-1.0% (USP),not more than 1% (IP).
Effervescent tablets and chewable tablets show higher friability value than above so stack packaging
for them.
Vickers test is used to measure the surface hardness.
Whiskering phenomenon is related with tablets with deeply concave surfaces or punches used were
in poor condition and such tablets have higher than normal friability values.
HARDNESS LIMITS
SOFT
SUSTAINED RELEASE
GENERAL
HARD
EFFERVESCENT

2 KG
8 KG
4 KG
6 KG
1.3 KG

STANDARD HARDNESS SHOULD BE MIN. 4 KG

Webster and Van Abbe tester-indicate edge damage during handling.

Weight variation
Total tablets taken-10.
Limits-Tablets meet USP if not more than 2 tablets are outside the limit and no tablet should differ by
more than 2 times the original limit.
This test is used if the tablet contains 90-95% API. It is not appropriate for low dose containing
tablets.API should be more than 50mg. (i.e-potency). For these content uniformity test is used.
CONTENT UNIFORMITY TEST:
It should be between 95-105%.

Tablet potency for this test should be less than 50mg.

For digitoxin it is 90-110%.

If larger wt. Variation ,no good content uniformity.

Test:
Total tablets-30
Total assayed-at least 10
9 of the tablets should contain 85-115% API.10th tablet may contain 75-125% API. Test passed
If above conditions not met other 20 tablets should be assayed, and no one should fall outside 85-115% range.
Disintegration

Apparatus:-6 test tubes

-mesh size:10 mesh i.e 1.7mm(USP),8 mesh i.e 2mm(IP)
-glass tubes are 3 inches long
-beaker contains 1L of water, simulated gastric fluid or simulated intestinal fluid.
-temperature: 372 degree Celsius. (Remember with reference to difference with dissolution)
-tablets remain 2.5 cm below surface of liquid on upward movement and vice versa.
-no. of cycles per minute:28-32
Dissolution
USP

Apparatus 1-Basket type

Mesh screen-10 mesh(USP)

-temperature: 370.5 degree Celsius.

900 ml flask.

Apparatus 2-paddle type

900 ml. Flask.
Contains wire helix to prevent tablet from floating.
Limits(USP)
Not less than 75% should be dissolved in 45 min.
90% of the drug should be dissolved in 30 min.(this is not USP limit, it is industrial limit)
Above both values are Q values.

Dissolution acceptance criteria(IP)

stage
No. Of dosage units tested
Acceptance criteria
S1
6
No dosage unit is less than Q+5%.
S2
6
Average of 12 dosage units is equal to or not more than Q% and no unit is less than Q-15%.
S3
12
Average of 24 dosage units is equal to greater than Q% and not more than 2 dosage units are less than Q-15%
and no dosage unit is less than Q-25%.

Tablet compression apparatus

Dies define shape and size of tablet.

Cam tracks guide the movement of punches.

Multi-station presses are called rotary presses.

Turrets-the portion of the head that hold the upper and lower punches.

Fette machines-they chill the compression components to allow compression of low melting solids
such as waxes use (in case of suppositories0.
TOOLING
BB tooling-most commonly used.length-5.25 inch,nominal barrel diameter-0.75 inch,1 inch head
diameter.
B tooling-5.25 inch, nominal barrel diameter-3 9/16 inch,1 inch head diameter.

D tooling-used for larger tablets. 5.25 inch, nominal barrel diameter-1 inch,1.25 inch head diameter.

Dwell time-time for which tablet remains under compression.

Remember-Devices which measure compression force at each compression station.

-Pharmakontroll, Killiani Control System, Thomas Tablet Sentine
PROCESSING PROBLEMS IN TABLET
1)
Capping and lamination-capping is partial or complete separation of top or bottom parts of tablet from
main body of tablet.Lamination is separation of tablet into 2 0r more distinct layers. It is due to:- deformational properties of formulation i;e plastic deformation
-deep concave punches.

- absence of adequate moisture.

-tablet tooling
-incorrect setting of press.
2) picking and sticking-picking occurs due to engraving and embossing.In sticking tablet material sticks to
die wall.
3) Mottling-uneven distribution of color on tablet.
4) wt. Variation
5) poor flow-talc or colloidal silica helps in improving the flow.poor flow can result in bridging,arching and
rat holling.
6) poor mixing
7)punch variation
8)hardness variation
9)double impression

TABLET GRANULATION
It improves flow properties of tablet.
Shape factor of granule should be 6 just like sphere for good flow.

The method used for measurement of surface area solid granules or particles are air permeability
method and gas-adsorption method(He gas is used).
Dense granules require higher compression force to form cohesive compact and they are less friable.

For determining granule density-Mercury displacement method is used. O

method uses benzene as organic solvent.
As granule size increase bulk density decreases.

As particle becomes more spherical bulk density increases.

The strength of tablet is mainly due to surface tension of liquid and capillary forces.

For measuring granule strength and friability ASTM(American Society For Testing Materials)
specification is taken into account and compression strength are taken into account.
TYPES OF GRANULATION
Dry granulation
*
*
*
*
*

Also called compression granulation.

Used when drug is sensitive to moisture.
Slugs are formed in this.so process also called slugging.
Roller compactor instrument is used.Can produce 500 kg of slugs.
Main advantage is that no need to use excess lubricants.
Wet granulation

*
*
*

Granules formed by adhesive forces.

Surface tension forces and capillary pressure are initially responsible for wet granulation.
Solvents are used considering EPA(Environmental Protection Agency) regulations.

EQUIPMENTS FOR WET GRANULATION

1.
Littleford Lodige mixer- capable of both wet massing and blending.
*
Time taken-30-60 sec.
*
Horizontal in operation.
*
Temperature rise of 10-15 deg. is expected.
2. Diosna mixer or granulator-contains bowl in vertical position.
*
Total time 11-12 min.
3. Littleford MGT mixer-vertical in operation.
4.Gral mixer-modification of planetary mixer(IMP).
Direct compression

*
*

E:g Nacl,KCl can be directly compressed.

Uses directly compressible diluents like spray dried lactose.

ther

*
*

They have good flow and compressibility.

Maximum of 30% of API is used in direct compression tablet.

TABLET INGREDIENTS
Diluents:
*
Used to increase bulk of tablet.
*
5-80% can be used.
*
All the sugar containing diluents have tendency to undergo reaction with drugs containing NH2
group. This is called Maillard reaction which only changes color not content.
STARCH
11-14% moisture present
Dried starch has 2-4% moisture. Their moisture level increase to 6-8% following moisture exposure.
Two types:
Directly compressible starch (Sta-Rx 1500)-used as diluents, binder and disintegrant.
Contains 10% of moisture.
Hydrolysed starch (Emdex, Cellutab: contain 90-92%dextrose and 3-5% maltose)-directly compressible. Used
in chewing tablets and have 8-10% of moisture.
LACTOSE
Three types of lactose.
1.
Alfa-lactose monohydrate-crystalline nature, has 5% moisture, poor flow and compressibility and used
in wet granulation. It gives Maillard reaction.
2.
Spray dried lactose-<3% moisture.good flow and compressibility. Used in direct compression.it gives
Maillard reaction.(in Maillard reaction furfuraldehyde is formed).
3.
B-lactose(anhydrous)-hygroscopic. used in direct compression and does not gives Maillard reaction.

DEXTROSE
Also called cerelose.
Can be used instead of lactose.
MANNITOL
Used in chewable tablet due to negative heat of solution.

Non-hygroscopic.

Non-cariogenic.

Used in vitamin formulations.

SORBITOL
Optical isomer of mannitol.
Hygroscopic.
SUCROSE
Available as co-processed form such as SUGARTAB(90-95%sucrose + 7-10% invert sugar),
DIPAC(97%sucrose + 3% modified dextrins) and NUTAB(95%sucrose+4%invert sugar+Mg.stearate+corn
starch).
Used in direct compression.
Hygsroscopic
Important point-Kaolin and bentonite,diluents, is not used with cardiac glycoside,synthetic estrogens and
alkaloids
MICROCRYSTALLINE CELLULOSE
Trade name-AVICEL

DIRECTLY COMPRESSIBLE

Two grades:-PH101(powder) and PH102(granules)

Also act as disintegrating agent.

Hygroscopic

May delay the release of drug.

DICALCIUM PHOSPHATE
Non-hygroscopic(just like mannitol)

Moisture sensitive drugs can be used with it

Not used with tetracycline due to complex formation.

Classification in other way
Wet granulating diluents-alfa lactose,kaolin,bentonite, dicalcium sulphate
Direct compression-spray dried lactose,colloidal silica,NaCl and NaHCO3 for dental cones, direct com.
starch.

Binders and adhesives

Used to provide cohesive qualities.
More the binder, harder is the tablet.

NATURAL GUM

Acacia and tragacanth are examples

Used in 10-25%

GELATIN
Natural protein

10-20% in solution form.

Upon storage disintegration time will increase with the use of such binders
Starch

10-20%solution.

Give translucent paste.

It undergoes hydrolysis to dextrin and glucose.

Liquid glucose is 50%solution in water.

Modified natural polymers

Methylcellulose(alcohol soluble, more soluble in cold water than hot water)

Hydroxy propylcellulose(alcohol sol.)

Hydroxy propyl methylcellulose(water soluble)

Ethylcellulose(alcohol soluble,retard D.T)

PVP(polyvinyl pyrrolidone) used in 2%.used in aqueous and alcoholic solution.

IPA(isopropyl alcohol)-widely used binder.

Another classification
solution binders-strach,sucrose,gelatine,acacia,tragacanth.
Dry binders-HPMC.Cross linked PVP.

 LUBRICANTS
Decrease friction between diewall and tablet surface
Can be used intragranularly(PEG,Vegetable oils) and extragranularly(talc,stearates).
They are hydrophobic in nature.
Fluid lubricant-liq. Paraffin
Boundary lubricant-stearic acid

What is bolting of lubricant?

Lubricant is passed through 60-100 mesh nylon cloth in order to get fine particles this is called bolting of
lubricant.

Hydrocarbon/mineral oil
Applied as fine spray.
Mostly used for aspirin tablets
Calcium and Mg. Stearate
used in 1%
may cause delay release
Mg.stearate is used with SLS due to its hydrophobic property.
It is not used with acidic drugs
Compritol 888
It is glyceryl monoester of behenic acid.
Water soluble lubricants
Sodium enzoate,sodium acetate,NaCl,leucine,PEG etc.

GLIDANTS
1)
Talc
Used in 5%.

Can also be used as anti-adherent.

Contains traces of iron so may act as catalyst for the drugs which are degraded by Fe.

Also contain calcium so not used with tetracycline.

2)
Colloidal silica
Available in 3 forms
Cab-o-sil(<1%)
Aerosil(0.25-3%)
Syloid.
Corn starch
Use in 5-10%
DISINTEGRANTS
Facilitate breaking up of tablet
Act by 3 mechanism
1.
By swelling
Alginate, starch dye, PVP
2.
By wetting
SLS, Clay, Bentonite

3.
Effervescent
NaHCO3 and citric acid
Examples
STARCH
5-20%
Modified starches are used which are: Primogel and Explotab. they are low substituted carboxymethyl
starches.(1-8% used,but 4%is optimum)

Clays
Veegum (Mg. Aluminium silicate)(10%)
bentonite(10%)
both are used only for colored tablets
they are most effective in sulfathiazole tablets.
Super disintegrants
They are used in lower concentration. of 2 % to 6 %,while traditional disintegrants such as starches often
require concentrations of about 20 %.
Sodium Starch Glycolate
Sodium Carboxymethyl Starch
Croscarmellose Sodium
Soy Polysaccharides

Primojel, sodium starch glycolate, and Primellose, croscarmellose sodium, which show outstanding
disintegration characteristics for tablets prepared by direct compression, wet granulation and for capsule
formulations.
COLORING AGENTS
Lake are the dyes that have absorbed on hydrous oxide
As coloring concentration increases, mottling increases.
To improve photosensitivity of dye use of UV absorbing chemical such as benzophenone can be used.
v DI-PACLINE is a commercially available directly compressible sugar.
SWEETENERS
Used in (0.5-0.75%)
Cyclamates can be used.they are 70 times more sweeter than sugar. But are carcinogenic
Aspartate(phenyl ester of methylacetic acid).180-200 times sweeter than sugar and non-carcinogenic.
Saccharin is carcinogenic and 500 times more sweeter than sugar.
Mannitol is used in chewable tablets and 72 times more sweeter than sugar.
SOME INSTRUMENTS
MIXING
For large qt. Of powder-twin-shell blender,double-cone blender,planetary mixer.
For continuous production-ribbon blender,roto cabe-blender
Mass mixer-sigma blade mixer
High speed granulators-Diosna mixer,Littleford MGT,Gral mixer

 For continuous production extruders are used E:g Reitz extruders

Topo granulators-to prepare granules under high vaccum.
Spheronization-refers to formation of spherical particle from wet granulation.
Marumerizer and CF-granlator are used for spherozination
Spray congealing/spray chilling
It is the process consist of melting solid and reducing them to beads or powders by spraying molten feed
into stream of colder air or gases.
Monoglycerides are spray congealed at 50 deg F
Carbohydrates are sparay congealed at 167 deg F
Important information
Versa press is used for the the preparation of layered tablets.
Manestey dry cota instrument is used.implantation tablets should have size of less than 8mm.
Kern-injector-contain hollow needle and plunger. used for administration of rod shaped tablet.
For sub-lingual and vaginl tablets, lactose is used as diluent.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

BASIC NUCLEUS - Medicinal Chemistry

DRUG

---------------------------------- MOEITY

1. Etomidate-

Imidazole

2. Propofo =

l(diprivan) 2,6-diisobutylphenol(given in emulsion form)

3. Alphaxalolne =

pregneane

4. Ketamine =

Cyclohexanone

5. Thiopental =

Barbitone(pyrimidine dione)

LOCAL ANAESTHETICS
1. Bupivacaine,mepivacaine =

Piperidine

2. Ropivacaine =

Pyridine

3. Dibucaine =

Quinolone(benzpyridine)

4. Dimethisoquine =

Isoquinoline

5. Fomocaine,pramoxine =

Morpholine

6. Euprocin =

Rubane

7. Myrtecain =

Norborane

OPIOIDS ANALGESICS
1. Pholcodine =

Morpholine

2. Racemoramide =

Morpholine,pyrrolidine

3. Methadone =

Diphenylacetonitrile+1-dimethy

NSAIDS
1. Salicylic acid =

(acetylation)

2. Piroxicam =

Pyridine,1,2-benzothiazine

3. Phenylbutazone =

Pyrazole

4. Sulfinpyrazole =

Pyrazole

5. Indomethacine =

Indole

6. Sulindac =
7. Tolmetin =

Indene
,zomepirac pyrrole

SEDATIVEHYPNOTIC/SOPORIFIC/ANXIOLYTICS
1. Flumazeni =

l BDZ fused with imidazole

2. Alprazolam,triazolam =

BDZ fused with triazole

3. Midazolam =

BDZ fused with imidazole

4. Zolpidem =

Pyridine fused with imidazole

5. Zaleplon =

Pyrimidine fused with pyrazole

6. Glutethimide =

Piperidine dione

7. Paraldehyd e =

Trioxane

ANTI-PSYCHOTICS
1. Thioridazine, =

mesoridazine Piperidine

2. Prochlorperazine =

perphenazine,fluphenazine Piperazine

3. Loxepine =

Dibenzooxazepine + piperazine

4. Thiothixene =

Thioxanthene + piperazine=

5. Clozapine ====

Dibenzodiazepine + piperazine

6. Droperidole =

Indolinone + pyridine(partially saturated)

7. Risperidone =

Benzoisoxazole,pyrimidine fused with pipridine

8. Pimozide ===

Benzimidazolidone

9. Molindone =

Morpholine,pyrrole

10. Sulpride =

remoxipride Pyrrolidine

11. Olanzapine =

Thiophene,benzoazepine,piperazine

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Precursors---------> Alkaloids Included:

1.Ornithine, putrescine, proline-----> Pyrrole, pyrrolizidine, tropane.

2.Lysine ------>

Pyridine, norlupinane.

3.Tyrosine, phenylalanine----->

Protoalkaloids, isoquinoline.@@@@@

4.Tryptophan, tryptamine---->

Quinoline, indole.

5.Histidine, threonine----->

Imidazole.

6.Adenine, purine, xanthine, hypoxanthine------>Purine.

7.Acetate or mevalonic acid------>

Steroidal and terpenoid pseudoalkaloids.

==================================================================================

GOLD NUMBER & PROTECTION OF COLLOIDS

Lyophilic sols are more stable than lyophobic sols.
Lyophobic sols can be easily coagulated by the addition of small quantity of an electrolyte.
When a lyophilic sol is added to any lyophobic sol, it becomes less sensitive towards electrolytes. Thus, lyophilic
colloids can prevent the coagulation of any lyophobic sol.
The phenomenon of preventing the coagulation of a lyophobic sol due to the addition of some lyophilic colloid is
called sol protection or protection of colloids.
The protecting power of different protective (lyophilic) colloids is different. The efficiency of any protective
colloid is expressed in terms of gold number.
Gold number : Zsigmondy introduced a term called gold number to describe the protective power of different
colloids. This is defined as, weight of the dried protective agent in milligrams, which when added to 10 ml of a
standard gold sol (0.0053 to 0.0058%) is just sufficient to prevent a colour change from red to blue on the addition
of 1 ml of 10 % sodium chloride solution, is equal to the gold number of that protective colloid.
Thus, smaller is the gold number, higher is the protective action of the protective agent.
Protective power 1/Gold number
Table : 14.4 Gold numbers of some hydrophilic substances
Hydrophilic substance
Hydrophilic substance
Gold number
Hydrophilic substance
Gold number
Gelatin 0.005 - 0.01
Sodium oleate 0.4 1.0
Sodium caseinate 0.01

Gum tragacanth 2
Hamoglobin 0.03 0.07
Potato starch 25
Gum arabic 0.15 0.25

Congo rubin number : Ostwald introduced congo rubin number to account for protective nature of colloids. It is
defined as the amount of protective colloid in milligrams which prevents colour change in 100 ml of 0.01 % congo
rubin dye to which 0.16 g equivalent of KCl is added.
Mechanism of solution protection
(i) The actual mechanism of sol protection is very complex. However it may be due to the adsorption of the
protective colloid on the lyophobic sol particles, followed by its solvation. Thus it stabilises the sol via solvation
effects.
(ii) Solvation effects contribute much towards the stability of lyophilic systems. For example, gelatin has a
sufficiently strong affinity for water. It is only because of the solvation effects that even the addition of electrolytes
in small amounts does not cause any flocculation of hydrophilic sols. However at higher concentration, precipitation
occurs. This phenomenon is called salting out.
(iii) The salting out efficiency of an electrolyte depends upon the tendency of its constituents ions to get hydrated i.e,
the tendency to squeeze out water initially fied up with the colloidal particle.
(iv) The cations and the anions can be arranged in the decreasing order of the salting out power, such an arrangement
is called lyotropic series.
Cations : Mg2+ > Ca2+ > Sr2+ > Ba2+ > Li+ > Na+ > K+ > NH4+ > Rb+ > Cs+
Anions : Citrate3 > SO42 > Cl > NH3 > I > CNS
Ammonium sulphate, due to its very high solubility in water, is oftenly used for precipitating proteins from aqueous
solutions.
(v) The precipitation of lyophilic colloids can also be affected by the addition of organic solvents of nonelectrolytes. For example, the addition of acetone or alcohol to aqueous gelatin solution causes precipitation of
gelatin. Addition of petroleum ether to a solution of rubber in benzene causes the precipitation of rubber.

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--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

GELATIN CAPSULES
There are two basic types of gelatin:
Type A and Type B.
The two types can be differentiated by their isoelectric points (7.0 9.0 for type A and 4.8 5.0 for type B) and by
their viscosity and film forming characteristics.
Shell manufacture :
I.Dipping :
The pins are at ambient temperature; whereas the dipping solution is maintained at a temperature of about@@@
50C in a heated, jacketed dipping pan.
The length of time to cast the film has been reported to be about@@@ 12 sec.
III.Drying :
The racks of gelatin coated pins then pass into a series of four drying oven.
Drying is mainly done by @@@@@@DEHUMIDIFICATION.
Storage :
Finished capsules normally contain an equilibrium moisture content of @@@@@13-16%.
To maintain a relative humidity of @@@@@40-60% when handling and storing capsules.
Filling of hard gelatin capsules:
Equipment used in capsule filling operations involves one often of two types of filling systems.
Zanasi or Martelli encapsulator:
Forms slugs in a dosatar which is a hollow tube with a plunger to eject capsule plug.
Hofliger-Karg machine:
Formation of compacts in a die plate using tamping pins to form a compact.
Manufacture of Soft Gelatin Capsules:
I.Composition of the shell:
Similar to hard gelatin shells, the basic component of soft gelatin shell is gelatin; however, the shell has been
plasticized.
The ratio of dry plasticizer to dry gelatin determines the hardness of the shell and can vary from 0.3-1.0 for very
hard shell to 1.0-1.8 for very soft shell.
Up to 5% sugar may be included to give a chewable quality to the shell.
The residual shell moisture content of finished capsules will be in the range of 6-10%.
II.Formulation :
Formulation for soft gelatin capsules involves liquid, rather than powder technology.
Materials are generally formulated to produce the smallest possible capsule consistent with maximum stability,
therapeutic effectiveness and manufacture efficiency.
The liquids are limited to those that do not have an adverse effect on gelatin walls.
The pH of the @@@@@lipid can be between 2.5 and 7.5.
Emulsion can not be filled because water will be released that will affect the shell.
The types of vehicles used in soft gelatin capsules fall in to two main groups:
1.Water immiscible, volatile or more likely more volatile liquids such as vegetable oils, mineral oils, medium-chain
triglycerides and acetylated glycerides.
2.Water miscible, nonvolatile liquids such as low molecular weight PEG have come in to use more recently because
of their ability to mix with water readily and accelerate dissolution of dissolved or suspended drugs .
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

SOME IMPORTANT POINTS .

--lipid insoluble and water insoluble drugs are not absorbed from gut.
--most of the drugs are weakly acidic r weakly basic bcz stronger forms has high ability to form
corresponding ions.
--most (90%) of drugs absorbed through passive diffusion(non ionic diffusion)
-- 0% protein binding - lisinopril..
--99% protein binding - oxyphenbutazone (metabolite of phenylbutazone)
--to show an effeicient drug action protien binding should be moderate ,insufficient protein binding shows
less Vd & high protein binding lessens amount of druga at active site .
--extent of binding----- albumin > acid glycoprotein > lipoprotein > globulins.
--a drug having less Vd means its not bioavilable.(i.e decresed rate & amount of drug )
--bioavailability of------- parenteral > oral > rectal > topical.
--short acting barbiturates are due its rapid rate of distribution from brain.
--only unbounded drug(free form ) undergoes metabolism.
--the unbound drug 1st reaches liver from where it goes to other parts like kidneys
--only lipid soluble and non ionic drugs can enters brain.
--all orally administerd drugs undergo first pass metabolism.
--propanolol & Ca++channel blockers have extensive first pass metabolism.
--mainly metabolism occurs to exrete the drug.
--acidic drugs are exreted at basic pH &vice-versa.
--absorption ,distribution ,elimination follows 1st order kinetics.
--drugs showing 0 order elimination kinetics are asprin
,ethanol,phenytoin,theophyline,tolbutamide,phenylbutazone,wa
rfarin,heparin,salicylates etc..
--metabolism ,protein binding,carrier meiated transport at saturated conditions ,i.v infusion i.m implants
,osmatic pumps undergo 0 order kinetics i.e rate or process directly praportional to concentration or
amount of reactants.

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MICROSCOPY OF SUM IMP DRUGS

1-Liquorice- Ulignified Septate fibre
2-Solanacoeus Plants- Anisocytic stomata
3-Rhubarb- Star spots
4-Squill- Ca oxide raphides
5-Cardamom- Clothing of glandular trichome
6-Quillaria- Thin membrane arillus
7-Digitalis- Glandular Trichomes
8-Atropa Belladona- Anisocytic Stomata
9-Verbascus Thapsus- Clusters of Ca Oxalate
10-Artemisia- T-Shaped Trichomes
11-Stromanium- Phloem Fibres
12-Nuxvomica Lignified trichomes
13-Fennel- Reticulate lignified trichomes
14-Coriander- Wavy sclerenchyma
15-Indian Dill- Lateral ridges with vascular bundle
16-Anise- Branched & unbranched vittae
17-Cinnamon- Absence of cork & cortex
18-Ginger- Non Lignified vessels & starch grains , Endodermis with no starch
19-Collapsed Endodermis
20-Caraway-Collapsed Parenchyma
21-Chenopodium-Epidermis with no trichomes
22-Chirata- Stomata on lower surface only with no trichomes
23-Cinchona - Large sclerenchymatous bast cells with Medullary ray.
24-Cinnamon- Parenchyma cells with starch.
25-Colchicum- Spiral Ducts, Parenchyma with starch
26- Coriander- Prismatic and aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate
27-Saffron- Trichome of stigma
28-Turmeric- Parenchyma with pasty starch
29-Digitalis- Glandular trichomes
30-Euclyptus- Crystal bearing fiber

31-Gentian- Large reticulate ducts

32-Liquorice- Parenchyma with crystals and starch
33-Hycyamus- Endosperm tissue with proteid granules and oil.
34-Ipecac- Parenchyma with raphides
35-Mentha- Trichomes, simple, showing cuticular markings (a medium sized trichome).
36-Pilocarpus- Aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate.
37-Podophyllum- Reticulate ducts and tracheids, Spiral duct, Aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate, Cork
38-Quassia- Medullary ray with starch, Large porous duct
39-Rheum- Parenchyma with starch, resin and crystals, Reticulate ducts.
40-Senega- Parenchyma with fat, Cork & Porous duct.
41-Senna- Bast of vascular bundles, Crystal bearing fibers from vascular tissue
42-Stromanium- Parenchyma cells of petiole
43-Strophanthus- Endosperm tissue, showing oil and crystals, Outer tissue with granular proteid matter and
starch
44-Tobbaco- Parenchyma (collenchymatous) from midrib,Leaf parenchyma with chlorophyll.
45-Ginger- Parenchyma with starch and one cell with resin
46-Belladona- Tracheizds and spiral duct, Leaf parenchyma cells with crystals,Bast Cells, Porous ducts &
Crystal Sand

chemical tests in pharmacognosy

Name of test

drugs

Baljets test

Cardiac glycosides

Born-tragers test

Anthracene glycosides

Borex test

Aloes

Boudouins test
Boardfoeds test

Detection of sesame oil as adulterant in other oils

Carbohydrates

biuret test

Proteins

Cupraloin test

Aloes

Carr-price test

Vitamin A

Fiehes test

Detection of artificial invert sugar as adulteranrt in honey

Foam test

Saponins

Grignard reaction

Cyanogenetic glycoside

Gold beater skin test

Hal-phens test

tannin
Detection of cotton seed oil as adulterant

Haemolysis test

Saponins

Klungs test

Aloes

Keller killiani test

Presence of deoxy sugar

Keris test

Rancidity of fats and oil

Legal test

Cardiac glycoside

Libermann- burchards test

Steroids

Murexide test

Caffeine (xanthine alkaloids)

Van urks test

Ergot alkaloids

Molish test

Carbohydrates

Nitrous acid test

Aloes

Thalleoquin test

Cinchona alkaloids

Tannins test

Alkaloids

Vitali-morins test

Atropine and cocaine

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