3.

TRANSFORMERS
Although the static transformer is not an energy-conversion device, it is an
indispendable component in many energy-conversion systems. As one of the principal
reasons for the widespread use of AC systems, it makes possible electric generation at the
most economical generator voltage, power transfer at the most economical transmission
voltage and power utilization at the most suitable voltage for the particular utilization device.
The transformer is also widely used in low-power, low-current electronic and control circuits
for performing such function as matching the impedances of source and it's load maximum
power transfer, insulating one circuit from another, or isolating direct current while maintaing
AC continuity between two circuits.
Essentially, a transformer consist two or more windings interlinked by a mutual
magnetic field.

(t)

(main flux lines)

l2

N1

e1
supplied
winding
(primary)

l1

N2

leakage flux

e2
secondary
winding

laminated iron core

Fig. 3.1. Elementary built up of a transformer

If one of these windings, the

primary, is connected to an
alternating-voltage
source,
an
alternating flux will be produced
whose amplitude will depend on the
primary voltage and number of
turns. The mutual flux will link the
other winding, the secondary, and
will induce a voltage in it which
value will depend on the number of
secondary turns.

Dividing the numbers of primary turns by the number of secondary turns, almost any
desired ratio, or ratio of transformation, can be obtained.
In a transformer we can use air core, but the transformer action will be obtained more
effectively with a core of iron or other ferromagnetic material, because most of the flux is
confined to a definite path linking both windings and having a much higher permeability then
that of air. Such a transformer is commonly called an iron-core transformer.
Therefore first we examine the iron losses and the excitation of the magnetic circuit.
In a transformer the magnetic materials can be used in well-defined path, and they are used to
maximise the coupling between the windings as well as to lower the excitation current
required for transformer operation.

Ferromagnetic materials are composed of iron and alloys of iron with silicon, cobalt,
nickel, aluminium and other metals.

2,0
1,9
1,8
1,7
1,6
1,5
1,4
1,3
1,2
1,1
1,0
0,9
0,8
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1

The relation between B and H is both non-linear and multivalued. In general, the
characteristics of the
B [T]
material cannot be
2,0
described analytically.
1,9
1,8
cold-rolled strip
They are commonly
1,7
1,6
presented in graphical
1,5
1,4
form, and are measured
warm-rolled strip
1,3
using
methods
1,2
1,1
prescribed by standards.
1,0
0,9
0,8
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

H [A/m]

The
most
common curve used to
describe a magnetic
material is the B-H
curve or hysteresis loop
(Fig. 3.2.).

3.2.. bra Magnetization curve of transformers core-sheets

Each curve is
obtained while cyclically varying the applied magnetizing force between equal poisitive and
negative values of fixed magnitude. The arrows shows the path followed by B with increasing
and decreasing H, notice that with increasing magnitude of H the curves begin to flatten out
as the material tends toward saturation (Fig. 3.3.).
The magnetic materials can be described with DC or normal magnetization curve too.

B
saturation

remanent or
resudial flux
density

Br

first magnetization
curve

Br
H
soft
magnetic
material

Hc

coercitive force
permanent
magnetic
material

Fig. 3.2. B-H loops of different magnetic materials

In a transformer the waveforms of voltage and flux are closely approximate sinusoidal
functions of time. As our model we shall use a closed-core magnetic circuit, with no air gap
(Fig. 3.4.), the magnetic path length is lc, the cross-sectional area is Ac.
We shall assume a sinusoidal variation of the core flux (t) as:

(t ) = m s i n t = Ac

Bm s i n t

where m the amplitude of the core flux , Bm amplitude of flux density Bc , = 2 f the
angular frequency, f the frequency.
As it was described before the voltage induced in the N turns windings is:
l c (mean core length)

I
N

turns
winding

A c (cross-sectional
area)
Bm
magnetic core
permeability,

(magnetic flux lines)

Fig. 3.4. A simple closed core magnetic circuit

e(t ) = N Fm c os t = Em c os t
where
E m = N m = 2 f N Ac Bm

In steady-state AC operation we are usually more interested in the RMS (root mean square)
values of voltages and currents than in instantaneous or maximum values. The RMS value of
a sine wave is 1 2 times it's peak value. Thus the RMS value of the induced voltage:
Erms =

2
f N AC Bm = 4.44 f N m
2

Because of it's importance in the theory of AC machines we shall return to this equation
frequently.

Producing the magnetic field in the core requires a current in the exciting winding
known as exciting current i (In general it is called magnetomotive force, shorted as mmf,
i.e. the ampere-turn product: N I ). The non-linear magnetic properties of the core mean that
the waveform of the exciting current differs from the sinusoidal waveform of the flux. A
curve of the exciting current as a function of time can graphically be found at the magnetic
characteristic as illustrated in Fig. 3.5. Since B and H are related to and I by known
geometric constants, the AC hysteresis loop can be drawn in terms of = Bc Ac. and c =
Hc lc / N.
We can show that the waveform of the exciting current i is sharply peaked. It's RMS
value IRMS is defined in the standard way as
corresponding RMS value HRMS of Hc is:

are averaged over a cycle. The

i
i (t)

t
soft
magnetic
material

(t)

i = HNc l c

Fig. 3.5. Voltage, flux and exciting current in a closed-core transformer

Irms =

l c Hrms
N

with IRMS we can calculate the RMS volt-amperes required to excite the core:

Erms Irms = 4.44 f N Ac Bm

l c Hrms
N

For a magnetic material of density c the weight of the core is Ac lc c ,and the RMS voltamperes Pa per unit weight is:

Pa =

4.44 f
Bmax Hrms
c

The excitation volt-amperes Pa at a given frequency f is dependent only on Bmax because

HRMS is a unique function of Bmax and is independent of turns and geometry. The
relationship between excitation volt-amperes and Bmax is determined by standard laboratory
tests. The results are illustrated in Fig. 3.6.
The exciting current supplies the mmf required to produce the core flux, and the
power input associated with the energy in the magnetic field in the core. This reactive power
is not dissipated in the core, it is supplied and absorbed by the excitation source and causes
I2R losses and voltage drops in the supply system.

Qc
mc

VAr
kg

50

Pc
mc

RMS Volt-Amperes
per kilogramm
0,2

0,4

0,6

0,8

1,0

1,2

1,4

1,6

1,8

W
kg

2,5

45

A part of the
supplied
energy
is
dissipated as losses and
appears as heat in the
core.
Core losses

Two
loss
mechanisms
are
35
associated with time30
1,5
varying
fluxes
in
magnetic materials. The
25
first is ohmic I2R
1,0
20
Pc
heating, associated with
mc
eddy-current
from
15
Faraday's law. We see
10
0,5
Qc
that a flux changing will
m
produce an induced
5
c
voltage, which results
[T]
B
m
0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2,0
eddy-currents in the solid
core (Fig. 3.7.) (the core
Fig. 3.6. Exciting RMS Volt-Amperes- and core losses/per kilogram as
is a short circuited turn
a function of B max (cold rolled strip; exciting in rolling direction)
for eddy-currents). The
eddy-currents circulate in the core material and oppose the changing of the flux density. The
eddy current loss can be expressed as:
40

2,0

lamination thickness

Peddy-current

2 2 2
. t . f . Bm

depends on the
core material

flux density
frequency

(the core material is alloied

by silicon, which increases the
resistance of eddy-current path)

e=

d( B loop area)
dt

e2
~ c.
~
loss
R

loop areas

t
loop area

a.)

Fig. 3.7. Current path a) in a solid iron

b.)

b) in a laminated iron

To reduce the effects of eddy-current, magnetic structures are usually built up of thin sheets
of laminations of the magnetic material. The laminations which are aligned in the direction of
the field lines, are insulated from each other, for example by an oxide layer on their surfaces.
This greatly reduces the magnitude of the eddy-currents since the layers of insulation interrupt
the current paths, decreasing the current loop area.
The second loss mechanism is due to the hysteretic nature of magnetic material. In a
magnetic circuit a time-varying excitation will cause the magnetic material to undergo some
cyclic variations such as the hysteresis loop. The hysteresis loss is proportional to the area of
the AC hysteresis loop.
The hysteresis loss can be expressed as:

P hysterezis

(1,6...2)
. f . Bm

a coefficient
depending on
the core material

flux density
frequency

Because the magnetic material undergoes f times a cycle in a second the hysteresis loss is
proportional to frequency f.
In general, the losses depend on the metallurgy of the material as well as the flux
density. A frequency information on core loss is measured and typically presented in
graphical form. It is plotted in terms of watts per unit weight as a function of flux density
(Fig. 3.6).
Nearly all transformers and electric machines use sheet-steel material that has high favourable
directions of magnetization along the core. Loss is low and the permeability is high. The
material is called grain-oriented steel.
core

t 2

t 2

primary
primary
windings
secondary
windings
leg

secondary

core type
a.)

shell type
b.)

2
Fi

g. 3.9. Common types of transformer construction

Returning to the transformer, to reduce the iron-core losses is the reason of the core
laminations. Two common types of construction are illustrated in Fig. 3.9.
In the core type the windings are wound around two legs of a rectangular magnetic core;
while in the shell type core the windings are wound around the center leg of a three-legged
core. Silicon-steel laminations of 0.035 cm (approximately. 4 per cent silicon is alloyed to the
steel) are generally used for transformers operating at frequencies below a few hundred
Hertzs. Silicon steel has the desirable properties of low cost, low core loss and high
permeability at high flux densities (1.0 to 1.5 T). The cores of small transformers used in

communication circuits at high frequencies and low energy levels are sometimes made of
compressed powdered ferromagnetic alloys such as permalloy.
Most of the flux is confined to the core and therefore links both windings. It is the
main or mutual flux. The other is a small fraction of the total flux, which links one winding
without linking the other. It is the leakage flux. The leakage flux has an important effect on
the behaviour of the transformer. Leakage is reduced by subdividing the windings into
sections placed as close
together as possible. In the
(t) (main flux)
core-type construction, each
winding consist of two section,
l2
primary N
one section on each of the two
N 2 secodary
winding 1
winding
legs of the core; the primary
l1
leakage flux
and secondary windings are
concentric coils. In the shelltype construction the windings
consist of a number of thin
Fig. 3.10. The main and leakage flux lines
"pancake" coils assembled in a
stack with primary and secondary coils interleaved.

3.1 THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

A transformer is illustrated in Fig. 3.11., but let the properties of this transformer
windings idealized.
It means that:
the resistances of windings were taken out and separately drawn;
the reactances which are corresponded to the leakage flux of windings were
taken out and separately drawn. It is named as leakage inductance.
the magnetizing current (which is required to produce the main flux) depends on
the emf (or the flux density) and is lagging emf by 90, therefore we take it into
account as a shunt reactance, Xm.
the core losses are wattous losses which are in phase with and dependent on the
emf, therefore we take they into account as a shunt resistance, Rc.
The idealized transformer is illustrated in Fig. 3.11.

R1 I 1

Xl1

I'
2

Xl2

V1
I

Rc

Xm

N1

R2

N2

E2

c
Im

idealized transformer
i m= magnetizing current
i c= core-loss current
Fig. 3.11. The idealized transformer

The induced voltage in the windings:

E1 = N1

d
d
and E2 = N2
dt
dt

The voltage ratio, a:

a=

E1 N1
=
E2 N2

Thus the transformational ratio is directly proportional to the ratio of the winding numbers.
Now let a load be connected to the secondary winding. A current I2 and an mmf
(exciting) N2I2 are then present in the secondary winding. Because the core flux mustn't
change, in the primary winding there must be produced a compensating mmf as:
N1 I2' = N2 I2 ,

where:

I2' =

I
1
I2 = 2
N1
a
N2

thus a transformer changes currents in inverse ratio of the turns in its windings.
Because the two windings are isolated from each other we can link them in a point.

10

R1

X'l2

I'
2

Xl1

V1
I

Rc

Xm

N1

I'
2

R' 2

N2
E'2 = E1

V'

Z'

c
Im

idealized referred transformer

Fig. 3.12. Idealized, referred transformer

If we replace the secondary (which has N2 turns) with a new winding which has N1
turns as much as the primary, in both windings same voltage will be induced:

= E2

E2'

N1
N2

= E2 a

where E2' is the referred voltage E2 to the primary; it is in direct ratio to the voltage ratio.
This is the first step in a transformation because we would replace the secondary with
referred parameters (Fig. 3.12.).
Because at a referred transformers in the primary and secondary turns the voltages are same,
the role in the idealized transformer is only to produce the induced voltage E1=E'2 and the
excitation compensation. Thus the idealized transformer can be replaced with a E1=E'2
voltage on the shunt Rc resistance and Xm reactance, and with a i'2 current which solves the
excitation compensation:

R1

Xl1

I'
2

X'l2

R'2

V1

Rc
I

Xm
Im

E'2 = E1

V'

Z'

Fig. 3.13. The equivalent T circuit of a transformer

We hasn't discussed yet the impedance transformation. Because the energy loss is constant at
the transformation we can write for a resistance:

11

,2 ,2
2
2
I 2 . R2 = I 2 . R2
after
referring

before
referring

Then:
2

I
R = 2 R2
I' 2
'
2

the current transformation is in inverse proportion to the voltage ratio, therefore

R'2 = a 2 R2

Also the resistance such the reactance transformation is in direct ratio squared.

X l' 2 = a 2 X l 2
This equation shows the impedance-transformation ability of a transformers.
Transferring an impedance from one side of a transformer to the other is called
referring the impedance to the other side. In a similar way, voltages and currents can be
referred to one side with transformation rules to evaluate the equivalent parameters on that
side.
To sum up, in an ideal transformer voltages are transformed in direct ratio of turns,
currents in the inverse ratio, the impedances in the direct ratio squared; power volt-amperes
and excitation are unchanged.
For practice and understanding the behaviour of a transformer the equivalent circuit
parameters are given for a middle-power transformer in Fig. 3.14.:

R1

Xl1

X'l2

R'2

21

21

Rc

10

Xm

10

12

Fig. 3.14. Equivalent circuit parameters for a middle-power transformer

3.2. OPERATING MODES AND PHASOR DIAGRAMS OF THE

TRANSFORMERS
Two very simple tests serve to determine the constants of the equivalent circuit.
3.2.1. OPEN CIRCUIT TEST AND WORKING MODE

The measuring connection of the open circuit test of a three phase transformer is illustrated in
Fig. 3.15., during the test the secondary is open circuited.

A
three
phase
supply
system

a
V

R
S
T

A
v

v
W

TORROID
TRANSFORMER

MEASURED
TRANSFORMER
Fig. 3.15. The open-circuited test

Because the secondary is open circuited, the secondary referred current I'2=0, also the
equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 3.16.:
R1

Xl1

I' =0
2

Xm

Rc

V1

im

E'2 = E 1

Fig. 3.16. The equivalent circuit when the secondary is open circuited

In the equivalent circuit the currents and the voltages are phasors. Based on the following
expression the phasor diagram for no-load is illustrated in Fig. 3.17. :

V1

= I1

R1

+ j

I1

Xl 1

+ E1

With the secondary open circuited and rated voltages is impressed on the primary, the
exciting current is only 2 to 6 percent of full-load current. For convencience, the lower

13

voltage side is usually taken as the primary in this test. The voltage drop in the primary
resistance and leakage reactance is entirely negligible, and the primary impressed voltage V1
nearly equals the emf E1 induced by the resultant core flux. Also the primary I2R loss caused
by the exciting is entirely negligible, so that the power input P1 very nearly equals the core
loss Pc.
Thus we can determine the shunt parts in the equivalent
circuit with the open circuit test. The core-loss component
is:

ji X1 l1
iR
1
U1

E1=E '2

Rc

P1
U12

ZS

U1
I

The shunt impedance is:

Therefore Xm is:

Xm =

cos ~0.17
~

i
i
i

U1 =i R1 +ji1 X +E
1

l1

Fig. 3.17. The open circuit phasor

diagram

ZS2 Rc2

The values so obtained are of course referred to the side

which was used as the primary in the test. Sometime the
voltage on the terminals of the open-circuited secondary is
measured as a check on the turn ratio.
During open circuited test we can measure the open
circuit characteristics ( P0, I, cos versus E1) which are
illustrated in Fig. 3.18.

The Poc (which is the core-losses) versus E1 characteristic approximately is a parabola

because both hysteresis and eddy current core losses are in direct ratio squared of the
magnetic flux density which is proportional to emf E1. The I characteristic a H(B)
magnetizing curve because the I is basically the core magnetizing current which proportional
to H and Bm is proportional to E1 = 4.44.f.N.Bm.Ac. The power factor is low, the current I is
lagging by nearly 90.

14

3.2.1. THE SHORTCIRCUIT TEST

I
magnetizing
curve

cos

With
the
secondary
is
short
P0 = Pc
circuited, typically a
parabola
primary voltage only
cos oc
2..12 percent of the rated
value need to be
impressed to obtain full~ 0,15
load
current.
For
convenience the highc .B m
voltage side is usually
E1rated V1 ~ E 0
taken as the primary in
this test. Because the
Fig. 3.18. The open circuit characteristics of a transformer
impressed voltage is on
very low level the exciting current and core losses entirely negligible, the shunt part in the
equivalent circuit can then be omitted. The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 3.19.:

Rsc = R 1 + R 2'

Vsc

Xsc = X l1

'
+ X l2

I sc = I 1

The power input nearly equal to the total

I2R loss in the primary and secondary
windings, and the impressed voltage equal
to the drops in the summed primary and
secondary
resistance
and
leakage
reactance.

Fig. 3.19. The equivalent circuit for short-circuit

The short circuit impedance, resistance and

reactance are (all parameter are measured
at rated current!):

Zsc

Z sc =
Rsc =
X sc =

U sc
I sc
Psc
2
I sc

2
2
Z sc
Rsc

We can define the drop and it's components by the means of the short-circuited test. The
voltage drop at rated current is:

15

z =

Vsc
,
Vr

where Vsc is the voltage drop in the short-circuited impedance at rated current. The drop of a
transformer is from 2 to 10 percent, the drop of a smaller transformer is higher. The drop
components are:

R =

I sc
URsc
sc

VX,sc
Vr

The short-circuit phasor diagram and

steady-state characteristics are illustrated in
Fig. 3.20. and fig. 3.21.:

cos ~0.4..0.5

U sc = U Xsc + U Rsc = I sc Rsc + j I sc X sc

U sc = U Xsc + U Rsc = I sc Rsc + j I sc X sc

The short circuit characteristics are:

the input power Psc, the impressed voltage
Vsc on the transformer terminal and the
power factor cossc
versus Isc. The Psc
characteristic is a
parabola because it is
the summed power
Psc = Pw
losses (I2sc.Rsc) in
parabola
the windings. In the

Fig. 3.20. The phasor diagram in short circuit.

Usc
cos

Vr

and

When in the equivalent circuit the shunt

branch is omitted, the approximate values of
the individual primary and secondary
resistances and leakage reactances can be
obtained by assuming that R1 = R2 = 0.5.Rsc
and Xl1 = Xl2 = 0.5.Xsc.

UXsc

Usc

VR,sc

Psc

Usc
cos sc

short-circuited
test
the magnetic circuit is
unsaturated,
the
impedance Zsc is

~ 0,45

I scrated

I sc

Fig. 3.21. The short circuit characteristics of a transformer

constant, i.e. the Usc

characteristic versus
Isc is a line. The
power
factor
is

16

lagging, but more higher than that is an in open-circuited.

3.3. THE VOLTAGE DROP OF A LOADED TRANSFORMER

Therefore the magnetizing current is 2..6 percent of the full load current we can draw
a simplified equivalent circuit for a transformer. It is and the phasor diagram at a lagging
current (the load is a resistance and inductance) is illustrated in Fig. 3.22.:
By the help of the phasor diagram we can approximately calculate the voltage drop in a
loaded transformer. In the right triangles we can found the angles 2 of the load, thus can be
writen:

V = I1 R sc c os 2 + I1 X sc s i n 2
The voltage drop is:

V
I I1 r
I I1 r
= 1
Rsc c o s 2 + 1
X sc s i n 2
V1 r
U1 r I1 r
U1 r I1 r

2 =

jI X1

sc

~ voltage
drop
U

U
I 1R.
V1

Zsc
sc

Rsc

Xsc

V'
2

R'L

I 1=I' 2
V1

V'2

X'L

I'2

2
Fig. 3.22. Phasor diagram of an ohmic-inductive load.

17

and then with the drop-component:

V2

2 =

I1
( R c o s 2 + s s i n 2 )
I1 r

or in an other way expressed:

Inductive
load

V2r

2 =

cos2

I1
z c o s ( s c 2 ) ,
I 1r

where the sc is the phasor angle of

the short-circuited impedance. The
output voltage is:

+
capacitive
load

U'2 = U'2r 1 2

V2

To sum up: the voltage drop in

a
loaded
transformer
proportional to the current and
the drop and depend on the
phase angle of the load.

Fig. 3.23. The voltage drop of a transformer at constant current

as a function of the power factor

V20

z1

The Fig. 3.23. illustrates the

voltage drop characteristic at a
constant load current as a
function of the power factor.

z2
z2 > z1

The
relationship
between
voltage drop and load voltamperes illustrated in Fig. 3.24.

Fig. 3.24. The voltage drop of a transformer at constant power factor

as a function of load Volt-Amperes

3.4. THE EFFICIENCY

OF
A

TRANSFORMER
The efficiency is:

powe r out put

P
P2
= 2 =
=
powe r i nput
P1
P2 + l os s e s
,
U2I 2 c os 2
=
U2I 2 c os 2 + Pc + Pw

where Pw =I22.R is the winding losses, Pc is the core losses. Division by I2 then is given:

18

U2 c o s 2
1
=
P
L
U2 c o s 2 + c + I 2 R
1
+
I2
Sr c o s 2

where L is summed losses, Sr the rated volt-amperes.

The efficiency is the maximum, if the

Pc

+ I 2 R

I 2

member is the minimum versus load.

The minimum value can be obtained if:
P

d c + I 2 R
I 2

= 0
dI 2
al s o

Pc
+ R = 0
I 22

Pc = I 22 R = Pw

We can see that, the efficiency of a transformer is the maximum, if the core losses are equal
to the winding losses.
, %
Efficiency of a power
cos = 1,0
transformer is normally
~ 0.95
90..95%.
The
relationship between
the efficiency and the
cos = 0,8
load volt-amperes S are
illustrated in Fig. 3.25.:

S
Pc = P

Fig. 3.25. The transformer efficiency-load volt-amperes relationship.

19

3.5. THE THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS

t

primary

flux lines

secondary

Fig. 3.26. The construction of a core type three-phase transformer.

Three single phase transformers can be connected to form a 3-phase bank. Instead of
three single phase transformers a 3-phase bank may consist of one 3-phase transformer
having all six windings on a common multilegged core and contained in a single bank. In Fig.
3.26. we can see a core type (three legged) transformer.
At the core type 3-phase transformer has a primary and secondary windings on all
legs. There is a difference between the lengths of the flux lines of phases, the excitation
length of the middle phase is shorter than of two outside phases. Therefore the magnetizing
currents are different too, the current of the middle phase is smaller.
The windings of a 3-phase transformer with a balanced load may be connected to
or , the
- connection is commonly used in stepping down from a high voltage to a
medium or a low voltage. Because in most cases a neutral is provided for ground on the
high voltage side the high voltage side usually is in a star connection with a neutral
is commonly used for stepping up to a high voltage.
conductor. Thus the There is some very important notice when we use a 3 phase transformer and we would like to
determine the parameters for the equivalent circuit: in an equivalent circuit all voltages,
currents, resistances and reactances are phase-quality. The measured power is a 3-phase
power, therefore must divide by 3, and must take the line and phase differences into account.
The used voltage ratio must be calculated from phase voltages.

20

B
A V
B
AB

A
iA

VBC C

VCA
VCA
VA

iB

VB

VC

VAB

VA

VC

VB

VBC

Fig. 3.27. The star-connection of the windings.

For example in star connection which is illustrated in Fig. 3.27 the UA,UB,UC voltages are
phase-quantities, the UAB,UBC,UC voltages are line-quantities, thus:

U( L) (UAB, UBC, UCA ) =

i.e. the line-voltage quantities are
voltage quantities:

3 U( p h as e ) (UA, UB, UC )

3 (three square rooted) times greater than the phase-

U( l i n e ) =

3 U( p h a s e )

The phase- and the line-current quantities in a star connection are equal to each other:

I ( l i n e ) = I ( p h as e )
The three-phase power is:

S = 3U( p ha s e )I ( p h a s e ) =

3U( l i n e )I ( l i n e )

A delta connection is shown in Fig. 3.28.

A
C

B
I

phC

VCA

phA

VAB

VBC

Fig. 3.28. The delta connection of the transformer windings.

B
IL

21

In delta connection the line and phase voltages are equal to each other:

U( l i ne ) = U( p h a s e ) ,
but the line currents are 3 times greater than the phase currents:

I ( l i ne) =

3 I ( ph a s e )

The 3-phase volt-amperes in this case is:

S = 3U( p ha s e )I ( p h a s e ) =

3U( l i n e )I ( l i n e )

3.6. THE PHASE SHIFT OF A TRANSFORMER

A

Va

V
A

The point makes

the beginning
of the windings
on a core leg.

VC

VB

Vc

Vb

Fig. 3.29. A Yoyo0 connected transformer.

Shall we now assume a transformer, which is connected as illustrated in Fig. 3.29.

The transformer connections are standardised, marked with two letters followed number. The
connection of windings are described by letters (the primary is marked by upper case letter,
the secondary is marked by lower case letter), the number describes the phase shift in hour
(each hour is 30 phase shift). For the transformer illustrated in Fig. 3.29. the standardised
marking is Yoyo0, because this transformer hasn't got any phase-shift, it means that the phase
"A" voltage on the primary terminals are in phase with the phase "a" voltage on the secondary
terminals (if there is a neutral line, it is marked with 0 in index).
Next shall we see the transformer in Fig. 3.30! If we compare the connection of windings
with the transformer connection examined before, we can see that at this transformer the
secondary neutral connection is interchanged:

22

VA

VA

Vc

V
b

VC

V
B
V
a

Va

Fig. 3.30. The Yoyo6 transformer.

Based on the shown phasor diagrams we can see that the neutral-connection changing for an
Yy connected transformer causes 180 phase-shift, it is marked by number 6.

11
12
VAB

Vb

VAB
a

Vab

VBC

Dy0 11

Vc

Vab
VCA
Va

Va

Fig. 3.31. A Dyo5 transformer connections.

Shall we see next a Dy transformer, which is illustrated in Fig. 3.31.

3.7. THE PARALLEL CONNECTION OF THE TRANSFORMERS

23

In some cases the parallel connection of the transformers is needed. The conditions of the
parallel connection are:

same voltage ratios, because the primary supply voltages of the transformers are
same and must be same the secondary voltages,
same phase-shifts of the transformers (same number in the standardized
connection-mark),
same drops of the transformers.
The parallel connected transformers with his simplified equivalent circuits are illustrated in
Fig. 3.32.
supply
power grid

II
ZscI
TrI

I II
Fig. 3.32. The parallel connected transformers.

ZscII
TrII
secondary
(user grid)

Because of the parallel connection at rated load must be:

I I r Zs c I
I
Zs c I I
= IIr
,
Ur
Ur

The output power is divided into two fractions which are proportional to the rated power of
the transformers, if:

z I = z I I
If this condition not reailized, always that transformer is overloaded which has the smaller
drop. It can be seen clearly in Fig. 3.33.

24

V
20
voltage
U drop of the
transformers

zII > zI
I II
SII

II
I II

II

Fig. 3.33. The load distribution for parallel connected transformers with different drops

SI