INDIAN AGRICULTURE

BASIC FACTS
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The government proposes to adopt radiation technology developed by

the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) for improving the shelflife of fruits and vegetables. Food irradiation is a physical process in
which food and farm commodities, in pre-packed form or in bulk, are
exposed to controlled radiation energy to prevent sprouting, delay
ripening, kill insects, pests, pathogenic and spoilage micro-organisms.
X-RAYS, gamma rays or radioactive rays are used for irradiation.

Pesticide treadmill: The pesticide treadmill is a term indicating a

situation in which it becomes necessary for a farmer to continue using
pesticides regularly because they have become an indispensable part of
an agricultural cycle. This can occur if pesticides are used on crops or
animal herds such that other natural remedies are no longer effective.
The farmer then has no option but to use the pesticides year after year
in each agricultural cycle. An even more severe aspect of the pesticide
treadmill is when it escalates. It can happen that the effective
elimination of one target insect pest allows other insect pests to thrive,
resulting in the farmer having to use other insecticides to eliminate the
new pest problem

Cauvery delta region, considered to be the granary of Tamil Nadu, is

prone to many natural calamities like uncertain monsoon rains,
periodical floods a new rice variety named Sigappi has been
developed by researchersto get better yields under submerged
conditions.

Mulberry crops demand heavy fertilizer inputs. Sixteen elements are

required for mulberry growth. Nutrient deficiencies result in reduced
shoot growth, leaf size, chlorosis/necrosis of leaf and retarded growth
of terminal buds.

Trap crops: They are grown to attract insects or other organisms to

protect main crops from pest attack. Protection may be achieved either
by preventing the pests from reaching the crop or by concentrating
them in certain parts of the field where they can be destroyed. The

principle of trap cropping rests on the fact that virtually all pests show
a distinct preference to a certain crop stage. Additionally, pests have
often evolved resistance to commonly used pesticides, which requires
some alternative control strategies. The increasing sector of organic
farming also could exploit this strategy of pest control.
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Rubber dams: five rubber dams were installed at different locations of

Khurda district, Odisha. These are the first indigenous rubber dams in
the country. Main advantages are better erosion and flood control
during excess water flow. It also provides cushion as a reservoir for
storing water during scanty rainfall and can be used during drought.
The assured irrigation created by rubber dams helped in enhancing
crop productivity at Baghamari and Chandeswar in Odisha. They are
used to divert water for irrigation, temporarily raising existing
dams,flood control, water retention for aquifer recharge, reducing or
preventing salt water intrusion into fresh water areas, protect low-lying
coastal areas from tidal flooding, enabling fish passage past diversion
works, by deflation, and for sewage retention/separation during flood
events.

Objective of economic planning for agriculture sector

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increase agriculture production

increase employment opportunities

reduce pressure of population on land

reduce inequality of income in rural sector

Since 6th plan the percentage of budget allocation for agriculture has
successively decreased.

Public investment in agriculture is declining while private investment in

increasing slowly. Private sector account for about 85% of agri investment.

Agriculture exports and imports have been increasing steadily since last 5
years. It has reached plateau level in 2013-14. Still India is net exporter of
agriculture produce.

The policy of govt is completely focussed on increasing cereal production. But

with rising income demand for protein rich food has been increasing and
hence prices are spiralling due to lack of adequate supply. Thus people arent
getting nutritious food. This policy dilemma is holding back overall
agriculture growth in India.

Currently more than 80% of Indian milk production is under unorganised

sector.

Average farm size in india is 1.16 hectres.

About 60 per cent of the countrys rice area is irrigated, accounting for 75 per
cent of production
INDIAN AGRICULTURE

India's share of global agricultural exports rose from 0.8% in 1990 to 2.1% in
2011, a share which is higher than that of global merchandise exportsthis
rose from 0.6% to 1.7% in the same period.

Enough change is happening for the sector to deliver a 3% average annual

growth in the past two decadeswhile the first and second surges, of the
green and white revolutions, were driven by the government/cooperatives, the
current surge has largely been driven by the private sector. Private firms like
Nestle are working with more dairy farmers than cooperatives were.

Date: 01/05/2014
Agroecology
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It is the study of ecological processes that operate in agricultural production

systems. It is study of the interactions between plants, animals, humans and the
environment within agricultural systems. Consequently, agroecology is inherently
multidisciplinary, including

factors

economics and related disciplines.

from agronomy, ecology, sociology,

Agro ecologists study questions related to the four system properties of agro
ecosystems: productivity, stability, sustainability and equitability. Agroecologists
study these four properties through an interdisciplinary lens, using natural
sciences to understand elements of agroecosystems such as soil properties and
plant-insect interactions, as well as using social sciences to understand the effects
of farming practices on rural communities, economic constraints to developing
new production methods, or cultural factors determining farming practices.

Agro ecosystems are often associated with elevated nutrient input, much of which
exits the farm leading to eutrophication of connected ecosystems not directly
engaged in agriculture.
Precision farming
1) It is a farming management concept based on observing, measuring and
responding to inter and intra-field variability in crops. The important aspect of
precision farming is software based decision support system for whole farm
management with the goal of optimizing returns on inputs while preserving
resources.
2) Precision agriculture management practices can significantly reduce the
amount of nutrient and other crop inputs used while boosting yields. Farmers
thus obtain a return on their investment by saving on phytosanitary and
fertilizer costs.
3) The second, larger-scale benefit of targeting inputsin spatial, temporal and
quantitative termsconcerns environmental impacts. Applying the right
amount of inputs in the right place and at the right time benefits crops, soils
and groundwater, and thus the entire crop cycle.
4) Precision agriculture has become a cornerstone of sustainable agriculture,
since it respects crops, soils and farmers. It seeks to use high-tech systems in
pursuit of this goal.
(Decision Support System (DSS) is a computer-based information system that

supports business or organizational decision-making activities. DSSs serve the

management, operations, and planning levels of an organization (usually mid and
higher management) and help to make decisions, which may be rapidly changing and
not easily specified in advance)

Types of farming
Extensive farming
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It is an agricultural production system that uses small inputs of labor, fertilizers,

and capital, relative to the land area being farmed.

Extensive farming most commonly refers to sheep and cattle farming in areas with
low agricultural productivity.

Nomadic herding is an example of extensive farming, where herders move their

animals to use feed from occasional rainfalls.

Advantages: less labour, less fertilizers, more space for mechanisation, animal
welfare, local environment not damaged.

Disadvantage: yield much lower, require large farmland.

Intensive farming (Industrial agriculture)

It is an agricultural production system characterized by a low fallow ratio and the

high use of inputs such as capital, labour, or heavy use of pesticides and
chemical fertilizers relative to land area.

Intensive animal farming practices can involve very large numbers of animals raised
on limited land which require large amounts of food, water and medical inputs.

The methods of modern intensive farming include innovation in agricultural

machinery

and

farming

methods, genetic

technology,

techniques

for

achieving economies of scale in production, the creation of new markets for

consumption, the application of patent protection to genetic information, and global
trade.
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Intensive livestock farming, also called "factory farming" is a term referring to the
process of raising livestock in confinement at high stocking density.
Integrated farming

It refers to agricultural systems that integrate livestock and crop production and may
sometimes be known as Integrated Bio systems.

Integrated Farming is a similar "whole systems approach" to agriculture as it links

livestock to agriculture.

peri-urban agriculture: producing farm products within and on the peripheries of

cities - is referred in farm circles as peri-urban agriculture. Some existing systems
of urban farming, such as kitchen and roof-top gardening and backyard animal
husbandry, are also part of urban and peri-urban agriculture.
System of Rice Intensification
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Under SRI, farmers transplant young, single seedlings, spacing them

widely in a grid pattern, while keeping soil moist and fertile, but not
flooded. Soil aeration is ensured by regular weeding both manually and
by specially designed Cono Weeders. Compost and other sources of
organic nutrients are preferred over Chemical fertilizers to enrich soil
biota.

SRI, referred to as the new green grassroots revolution, is not

dependent on purchased inputs, but on certain ideas and changes in
practice. SRI is seen today as climate-smart agriculture. Benefits of
SRI include lower costs, improvement in soil health, and the capacity
to withstand biotic (pest and disease) and abiotic (climatic)
pressures. There has been a 30-50 per cent decrease in water use
compared to growing the same varieties on similar soil under flooded
conditions.

SRI is generally considered to be labour-intensive, one of the

constraints to its rapid adoption. This characteristic has prompted
possibilities of linking it with the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act.

RI methods have also been used in crops like wheat, sugarcane,

millets, potato and rapeseed-mustard, with similar benefits as for rice.
With the use of best practices, SRI yields of about 15-20 tonnes per
hectare have been achieved.

In India, it was first tried out in Tamil Nadu in 2000-01

Types of drought
1) Meteorological drought
-

Defined usually on the basis of the degree of dryness (in comparison to

some normal or average amount) and the duration of the dry period.

This happens when the actual rainfall in an area is significantly less

than the climatological mean of that area. The country as a whole may
have a normal monsoon, but different meteorological districts and subdivisions can have below normal rainfall.

Excess:

20

per

cent

or

more

above

normal

Normal: 19 per cent above normal - 19 per cent below normal

Deficient: 20 per cent below normal - 59 per cent below normal
Scanty: 60 per cent or more below normal
2) Hydrological drought
-

A marked depletion of surface water causing very low stream flow and
drying of lakes, rivers and reservoirs. It is associated with the effects of
periods of precipitation (including snowfall) shortfalls on surface or
subsurface water supply.

Hydrological droughts are usually out of phase with or lag the

occurrence of meteorological and agricultural droughts. It takes longer
for precipitation deficiencies to show up in components of the
hydrological system such as soil moisture, streamflow, and
groundwater and reservoir levels.

3) Agricultural drought
-

Inadequate soil moisture resulting in acute crop stress and fall in

agricultural productivity

CROP ASSOCIATION REGIONS

B .L.C. Johnson (1979), on the basis of principal crops and crop associations, has
demarcated 15 major crop association regions in India. Besides, there are two other
regions belonging to the humming cultivation and plantation crops.
1. Rice Mono Culture
This region includes Assam, West Bengal, southern Bihar, Orissa, and eastern Madhya
Pradesh, and north-eastern Andhra Pradesh, coastal plains of Maharashtra, Goa,
Karnataka and Kerala. It is the biggest agricultural region of the country where
amount of annual rainfall is more than 125 cm and rice is the predominant crop and
main staple food. It is further divided into 5 sub-regions:

Eastern India-it stretches over heavy rainfall areas (over 200cm) of the GangaBrahmaputra south to the Kaveri delta with well developed irrigation system are
typical rice growing region of the Peninsula. The cropping pattern lacks diversity except at a minor level. Rabi rice reaches 15 per cent TSA in the Godavari-Krishna
deltas and Nellore. Kanniyakumari in the extreme south is an outlier of this subregion having 94 per cent TSA under rice.
Western Coast-With the exception of Thiruvananthapuram and Kollam districts of
Kerala and entire West Coast up to Valsad in Gujarat is a region dominated by Kharif
rice, relieved in Kerala by subsdiary tapioca, and by kharif pulses and jowar
northwards. Tree crops decline in importance northwards: coconuts and areca nuts on
the coastlands and the more tolerant cashew on the coastal platforms. Plantation crops
are confined to the southern part of the region, extending little further north than
Coors.
Andaman-Nicobar Islands-Rice reaches nearly monocultural status in the Andaman
and Nicobar islands. Coconuts and arecanuts are important, and rubber, coffee, oil
palm and various spice trees are also grown.
2. Rice-Maize Region
Rice, in combination with maize, is a substantial kharif crop in two widely separated
and topographically dissimilar areas.
Kashmir Valley-In Kashmir valley maize reaches 31 per cent TSA occupying the
slopes and gravel terraces, with rice, 49 per cent, on the better alluvium of the Jhelum
flood plain. Rabi mustard and wheat are other subsidiary crops of the region.
Darjeeling-Here rice, 53 per cent TSA forms combination with maize, 28 per cent
TSA and ragi. The area is also famous for tea plantation along the hill slopes.
3. Rice-Wheat Region
This region occupies whole of the Ganga Plain from Punjab to the borders of West
Bengal. In the western part wheat is more important than rice but converse is true in
the east.

It includes Bihar and Uttar Pradesh (except west U.P.) whose western limit is formed
by 100 cm isohyet. In the Tarai region maize is a subsidiary crop added to the
combination.
It occupies western Uttar Pradesh, northern Madhya Pradesh, northern Haryana and
Punjab. Here wheat is the first ranking crop accompanied with rice and various
subsidiary crops. Sugarcane is an important crop in the sub-montane plain of the
western Uttar Pradesh while maize comes next to wheat-rice in northern Haryana and
Amritsar and Gurdaspur districts of Punjab.
On the finer soils of Firozpur canal irrigation supports intensive cultivation of wheatrice with kharif cotton and rabi pulses as minor crops. In Uttaranchal rice and wheat
with ragi as a kharif millet are grown in the terraced fields. Temperate vegetables and
potatoes are grown throughout the region in scattered patches which are in great
demand in nearby urban centres.
4. Wheat-Maize Region
This occupies Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and northern parts of Haryana
and Punjab. Here rice is relegated to secondary or even negligible position after
wheat-maize.
5. Wheat-Millets Region
This is transition area between the wheat-rice region to the east and the area of bajra
dominance to the west.
In a great arc extending from Ganganagar at the northern tip of Rajasthan, eastwards
through southern Haryana and south-east from Delhi in a broad stretch reaching to the
Maharashtra border, wheat is the more important crop in association with Jowar and
Bajra. Irrigation compensates for semi- aridity in the northern part, while southwards
rainfall becomes relatively more reliable. Rabi oilseeds and pulses are commonly
found in secondary roles.

Within and west of the arc (5.1) kharif millets, increasingly bajra, assume first place
as rainfall and its reliability decrease, and as soils become sandier and stonier in the
Aravalli belt. Subsidiary crops include kharif oilseeds, pulses and maize.
6. Kharif Millets
This includes western Rajasthan, Kachchh and Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir.
While former is dominated by bajra the latter (Ladakh) supports ragi as the kharif
crop.
This region incorporating parts of west Rajasthan and Kachchh is dominated by bajra
as the
main food crop. Pulses are subsidiary crops while cattle rearing play a vital role in the
economy of the region.
Kalakh area of Jammu and Kashmir is a part of cold desert where ragi dominates as
the kharif crop with winter wheat, hardy barley and oilseeds as secondary crops. Here
also the economy leans heavily on transhumance of sheep and yaks.
7. Maize and Rice/wheat
Maize associated with wheat and barley in the north or with rice in the south
characterizes the agriculture of the south-central Aravalli Hills from southern
Rajasthan into western Gujarat. Secondary crops include kharif millets, cotton,
oilseeds and rabi pulses and oilseeds which indicate the diversity of the crop
environment.
8. Cotton-Millets
This includes red/roils region of Maharashtra, Gujarat and northern Karnataka. Here
millets replace wheat or rice as the main food crop while kharif oilseeds are
subsidiary crops.
This includes main cotton belt of Maharashtra and Gujarat characterised by low cropping intensity and dominance of kharifcrops. Groundnut is a main crop while rabi
pulses, oilseeds and wheat acquire only secondary status.

The 'little' cotton belt of Karnataka is in a region of deep regur cotton and kharif
jowar, in one district rabi jowar also, stand in primary position in the crop-association,
with as many as five crops at secondary level, including kharif pulses and oilseeds,
rice and wheat.
9. Jowar Region
Separating the two cotton belts on the Maharashtra-Karnataka Deccan lava plateau is
the jowar region par excellence. Rice and sugarcane in the irrigated areas; rabi wheat,
pulses and oilseeds; and kharif cotton, pulses and oilseeds are other subsidiary crops.
10. Jowar-Oilseeds Region
Kharif jowar combines with kharif oilseeds, particularly groundnuts, in the Andhra
Deccan region south of Hyderabad. Where irrigation is available rice enters the
combination (in the south).
Els where kharif pulses are widely grown, chilies and tobacco as secondary crops.
11. Jowar-Rice Region
This region follows the Wainganga val and the middle Godavari to above its delta,
incorporates the low hilly country through Kham to the sea at Vishakhapatnam. This
is a transition, one where kharif sometimes rabi jowar, and reach a balance with a
number of subsidiary.
12. Millets-Rice Region
This region extends from central Kama to the dry coast of southern Tamil Nadu where
millets and rice are in association. Among the millet, ragi is preferred in the north and
jowar-bajra into south. Rice cultivation largely depends upon availability of irrigation
facility. Cotton is an additional ingredient in the south while coconuts area nuts, as
subsidiary crops, are locally important.
13. Tapioca-Rice Region

Thiruvananthapuram and Kollam in south Kerala have a crop-association of tapioca

within Tree crops are present in abundance; coconut areca nuts, and rubber in the
lowlands, and at high levels, coffee, cardamoms and tea.
14. Potato-Rice Region
This occupies Nilgiris district of Tamil Na where potato and rice constitute 56% and
25% of TSA respectively. Temperate vegetables do well this hill country, much of it
over 2000 m. Spices, rag and tapioca add to the variegated pattern of fie crops in a
landscape interspersed with tea, coffee cinchona and eucalyptus plantations.
15. Coconut region
The economy of Lakshadweep, the group coral islands in the Arabian Sea, is based on
coconut and tuna fishing. Field cropping is practical non-existent.

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY
Agricultural productivity of a region is closely influenced by a number of physical
(physiography, terrain, climate, soils, and water), socioeconomic, infrastructural
institutional, and organisational factors. Agricultural productivity also depends on the
managerial skill of the farmer, his attitude, and aspirations for the better standard of
living.
The delineation of agricultural productivity has great significance in the planning of
agriculture of a region. The main advantages are:
(i) It helps in ascertaining the relative productivity of the component areal units of a
region.
(ii) It helps in identifying the weaker areas which are lagging behind in agricultural
productivity.
(iii) The existing patterns of agricultural productivity is a reliable index to assess the
agricultural development of the past.
(iv) It provides a sound base for the agricultural development planning.
Agricultural geographers and economists have developed a number of methods for the
measurement of agricultural productivity. Some of the important methods used by the

geographers are given as under:

1. Output per unit area.
2. Production per unit of farm labour.
3. Agricultural production as grain equivalent (Buck, 1967).
4. Input-output ratio (Khusro, 1964).
5. Ranking Coefficient Method (Kendall, 1939, Stamp, 1960).
6. Carrying capacity of land in terms of population (Stamp 1958).
7. Determining a productivity index on the basis of area and yield (Enyedi, 1964,
Shafi 1972).
8. Determining an index of productivity with the help of area and production under
various crops in the areal units and converting them in a uniform scale.
9. Converting total production in terms of money (Husain, 1976)
10. To assess the net income in Rupees per hectare of the cropped area (Jasbir Singh,
1985).
11. Assessing net income (farm business income) in Rupees per hectare of cropped
area or per adult male unit of farm work-force (Tiwari, Roy, and Srivastava, 1997).
Each of the methods and techniques adopted by the agricultural geographers has its
own merits and demerits. None of the techniques, however, gives satisfactory results
at the national and/or global level. Some of the techniques are cumbersome and timeconsuming to apply for the delineation of agricultural productivity regions.
AGRICULTURAL REGIONALISATION
Region is one of the basic concepts in geography. Agricultural region is an
uninterrupted area having some kind of homogeneity with specifically defined outer
limit. It is an area which depicts homogeneity in respect of agricultural land use,
agricultural practices, and cropping patterns. Agricultural region, in fact, is a device
for selecting and investigating regional groupings of the complex agricultural
phenomena found on the earth's surface. In other words, any segment or portion of the
earth surface possessing a distinctive form of agriculture is an agricultural region.
Agricultural region is a dynamic concept which changes in space and time.
The main characteristics of an agricultural region are: (i) they have location; (ii) they
have transitional boundaries; (iii) they may be either formal or functional; and (iv)
they may be hierarchically arranged.

Since the boundaries of agricultural regions are transitional and not sharply dividing
lines, their precise delineation is a difficult task. Some of the important techniques
used for the delineation of agricultural regions by the geographers are:
(i) Empirical Techniques
(ii) Single-element Technique
(iii) Multi-element (Statistical) Technique
(iv) Quantitative-cum-Qualitative Technique
(i) Empirical Technique: It is largely based on the experience of the farmers and the
observed facts. Von Thunen was the 1st scholar who adopted the empirical technique
and prepared the first agricultural land use and crop intensity models.
The empirical technique gives a generalised picture of the cropping pattern and
agricultural regions. This technique, has, however, been criticised as it is not objective
and scientific.
(ii) Single-Element Technique: This is an arbitrary technique in which only the first
ranking crops in respect of area are plotted for the purpose of demarcation of
agricultural regions.
The main weakness of this technique is that it conceals the position and importance of
other crops grown in the region. In fact, in most of the districts of India, crops are
grown in combination and not in isolation. A combinational analysis is more
important from the agricultural planning point of view than that of the single
dominant crop.
(iii) Multi-Element or Statistical Technique: The multi-element technique is more
objective and scientific. In the statistical techniques more than one elements (crops,
etc.) are taken into consideration. This technique is free from bias and subjectivity
In the multi-element or statistical techniques, the agricultural regions may be
demarcated with the help of the following:
(i) Cropping patterns, crop concentration, and crop diversification
(ii) Crop combination
(iii) Regional patterns of agricultural productivity
Some of the studies made with the help of the multi-element techniques gave very

reliable agricultural regions. In the developing countries the non-availability of

reliable data is a limiting factor in the application of this technique.
(iv) Quantitative-cum-Qualitative: The technique in which the physical (geoclimatic factors), socio-economic, cultural, and political factors are taken into
consideration for the demarcation of cultural regions is known as the quantitativecum-qualitative method.
The non-availability of reliable data and the quantification of cultural-cum-religious
values are the limiting factors.

DETERMINANTS OF AGRICULTURE
The agricultural practices, cropping patterns and their productivity are closely
determined by the geo-climatic, socioeconomic, and cultural-political factors. In fact,
the agriculture of any region is influenced by the following factors:
1. Physical factors: Terrain, topography, climate, and soil.
2. Institutional factors: Land-tenure, land tenancy, size of holdings, size of fields
and land reforms.
3. Infrastructural factors: Irrigation, electricity, roads, credit and marketing,
storage facilities, crop insurance and research.
4. Technological factors: High Yielding Varieties (new seeds), chemical fertilisers,
insecticides, pesticides, and farm machinery.
AQUA CULTURE
Aquaculture is the cultivation of aquatic organisms. Unlike fishing, aquaculture, also
known as aquafarming, implies the cultivation of aquatic populations under controlled
conditions. Mariculture refers to aquaculture practiced in marine environments.
Particular kinds of aquaculture include agriculture (the production of kelp, seaweed,
and other algae), fish farming, shrimp farming, shellfish farming, and growing of
cultured pearls.
TYPES: algaeculture, fish production, ornamental fishery and coral culture, pearl
culture.

BLUE REVOLUTION IN INDIA

Blue Revolution means the adoption of a package programme to increase the
production of fish and marine products.
POULTRY FARMING (SILVER REVOLUTION) IN INDIA
Poultry farming is the practice of raising poultry, such as chickens, turkeys, ducks,
geese, as a subcategory of animal husbandry, for the purpose of farming meat or eggs
for food. It requires small capital and provides additional income and job
opportunities to a large number of rural populations in the shortest possible time. The
vast majority of poultry are farmed using factory farming techniques; according to the
Worldwatch Institute, 75 per cent of the world's poultry meat, and 70 per cent of eggs
are produced in this way.
The contrasting method of poultry farming in free range and friction between the two
main methods, has led to long term issues of ethical consumerism. Opponents of the
factory farming argue that it harms the environment and creates health risks, as well
as abuses animals. In contrast, proponents of factory farming highlight its increased
productivity, stating that the animals are looked after in state-of-the art confinement
facilities and are happy; that it is needed to feed the growing global human
population; and that it protects the environment.

Micro nutrients for plants

1) Boron: involved in carbohydrate transport in plants; it also assists in
metabolic regulation. Boron deficiency will often result in bud dieback.
2) Chlorine: necessary for osmosis and ionic balance; it also plays a role in
photosynthesis.
3) Copper: component of some enzymes. Symptoms of copper deficiency
include browning of leaf tips and chlorosis
4) Manganese: activates some important enzymes involved in chlorophyll
formation. Manganese deficient plants will develop chlorosis.
5) Iron: essential for chlorophyll synthesis, this is why an iron deficiency results
in chlorosis.

6) Molybdenum: to reduce nitrates into usable forms. Some plants use it for
nitrogen fixation.
7) Zinc: participates in chlorophyll formation, and also activates many enzymes.
Symptoms of zinc deficiency include chlorosis and stunted growth.