Packaging

Dr. Wong Kam Huei

Introduction
Main functions:
to contain the product
to protect it against a range of hazards - adversely affect quality

important role in marketing and selling

a wide range of packaging materials is used
papers, paperboards, fibreboards, metals, glass, textiles,
earthenware, polymer materials, and etc.

a combination of two or more materials is employed

packaging should not give rise to any health hazard
no leaching of harmful substances
not lead to the growth of pathogenic microb

Introduction
Should be convenient to use
many environmental implications
manufacture of packaging materials - energy requirements and the
release of undesirable compounds into atmosphere
recycling - positive influences
disposal of waste packaging materials - not biodegradable, is a
huge problem

Factors affecting the choice of a

packaging material
Mechanical damage
bruising of soft fruits, cracking of biscuits - sudden impacts or
shocks during handling and transport...
selection of a packaging material of sufficient strength and rigidity
- reduce compression loads (metal, glass & rigid plastic), the
incorporation of cushioning materials into the packaging can
protect against impacts, shock & vibration (cushioning materials corrugated papers & board, pulpboard & foamed plastics) and
restricting movement of the product within the package by tightwrapping or shrink-wrapping, inserting boxes or thermoformed
trays

Factors affecting the choice of a

packaging material
Permeability characteristics
rate of permeation of water vapour, gases and volatile odour
compounds into or out of the package is an important consideration
lose water - a loss of weight and deterioration in appearance and
texture - meat, cheese
pick up moisture - dry powders lose freeflowing characteristics,
biscuits lose crispness, dehydrated product - water activity rise
above critical level, microbiological spoilage
fresh fruit and vege - respiration - humidity inside package
increases - condensation may occur - packaging of semipermeable
to water vapour
vacuum packaging, by replacing the air in the package, MAP,
packaging material of low permeability to gases and effectively
sealed

Factors affecting the choice of a

packaging material
Permeability characteristics
respiring food - use O2 release CO2, if gas-tight container is used,
over a period of time, an anaerobic atmosphere will develop when
O2 falls <2% - food spoil rapidly
ethylene - accelerate the ripening of fruit
coffee - retain the pleasant odour, prevent the absorption of foreign
odours - taints; good barrier to volatile
suitably sealed metal and glass containers - minimised the
movement of gases and vapours

Factors affecting the choice of a

packaging material
Greaseproofness
fatty foods - egress of grease or oil on package, spoil appearance,
interfere printing and decoration
use greaseproof and parchment papers for dry fatty foods,
chocolate, milk powder; hydrophilic films or laminates for wet
foods, meat or fish

Temperature
a package - able to withstand the changes in temp - particular
important when foods are heated or cooled in the package
use metal and glass containers; recently - heat resistant laminates
glass - heated or cooled slowly
method of heating influence the choice

Factors affecting the choice of a

packaging material
Light
many food components are sensitive to light - the blue and
ultraviolet end of the spectrum
vit may be destroyed, colours may fade and fats may develop
rancidity
use opaque packaging materials; amber glass bottles and
pigmented plastic
if it is desirable that the contents be visible to check the clarity of a
liquid, coloured materials which filter out short wavelength light
may be used

Factors affecting the choice of a

packaging material
Chemical compatibility of the packaging material and the
contents of the package
no health hazard to the consumer
to establish the safety of such packaging materials 2 Qs need to be
answered:
are there any toxic substances present in packaging material
will they leach into the product

toxicological testing - lengthy, complicated and expensive involving animal feeding trials - need expert interpretation specialist organisations
performed storage test before selection of packaging materials; use
simulants instead of real foods

Factors affecting the choice of a

packaging material
Chemical compatibility of the packaging material and the
contents of the package
e.g. of simulant

distilled water to represent low acid, aqueous foods

3% acetic acid in aq solution = acid foods
15% ethanol in aq solution = foods containing alcohol
rectified olive oil = fatty foods

more than one simulant may be used

amount of vinyl chloride monomer in PVC - concern
interaction between packaging material and food - affect quality
and shelf life
apply an acid resistant lacquer to the inside of the can

Factors affecting the choice of a

packaging material
Protection against microbial contamination
usually the most important in the foods that are heat-sterilised in
the package - ppc does not occur
thus metal can is used, double seam
glass and plastic containers with effective heat-seals
effective seals are also necessary on cartons, cups and other
containers - aseptically filled with UHT products

Factors affecting the choice of a

packaging material
In-package microflora
permeability of packaging material and packaging procedure influence the type of microb
do a detailed study of the microbiological implications, type of
food, the treatment received before packaging, conditions of
packaging, store, transportation, retail outlet and the home of the
consumer

Protection against insect and rodent infestation

control of insect infestation is largely rely on good housekeeping dry, cool, clean storage conditions, good ventilation,adequate
turnaround of warehouse stocks, controlled use of insecticides
packaging also contribute but an insectproof package is expensive
except metal and glass containers

Factors affecting the choice of a

packaging material
Protection against insect and rodent infestation
films vary in the resistance - the thicker the film the more resistant
laminates which containing foil offer good resistance to
penetrating insects
use of adhesive tape to seal any openings can help
rodents - metal containers

Taint
the contents of a package may become tainted by absorption of
volatile compounds fr packaging materials when in direct contact
or absorb odorous compounds present in the free space within the
package

Factors affecting the choice of a

packaging material
Taint
paper, paperboard and fibreboard give off odours - may
contaminate food
recycled material - more likely to cause tainting
clay, wax, plastic coatings applied to the above material - tainting
storage of these packaging materials in clean, dry and well
ventilated stores can reduce the problem
some varieties of wood - cedar, cypress have very strong odours
most polymers are relatively odour-free
lacquers and sealing compounds, some printing inks - possible
sources of odour contamination
careful selection of packaging materials - to lessen the risk

Factors affecting the choice of a

packaging material
Tamper-evident/resistant packages
many reports - food packages being deliberately contaminated with
toxic substances, metal or glass fragments - blackmail or revenge
against companies
less serious - opening of packages to inspect, or even taste the
content and returning them to the shelf
tamper-resistant and/or tamper-evident features can be
incorporated into packages
a membrane heat-sealed to the mouth of the container, beneath the
cap; polymer sleeves heat-shrunk over the necks and caps;
breakable caps which are connected to a band by means of
frangible bridges that break when the cap is opened

Factors affecting the choice of a

packaging material
Package must have a size ands shape which makes it easy
to handle, store and display
Equipment for packaging available at an acceptable speed,
low failure rate
package must be aesthetically compatible with the contents
good quality wines - in glass
cheaper ones - in bag in box containers or plastic bottles

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
Types

papers, paperboards, moulded pulp & fibreboard

wooden containers
textiles
flexible films - regenerated cellulose, PVC, PE, PP, etc
metallised films
flexible laminates
metal materials and containers - Al foil, tinplate, etc
glass and glass containers

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
papers, paperboards, moulded pulp & fibreboard
papers
almost all paper used is made fr wood
some fr repulped waste paper - not direct contact with foods
mechanical pulp - paper relatively weak and dull compared to
chemical pulp
types of papers used for packaging foods are:
kraft paper - strong multipurpose paper used for wrapping; fabricated
into bags and multiwall sacks (fruits, vege, grains, sugar and salt in
quantities up to 25kg)
sulphite paper - general purpose paper, not as strong as kraft; used as
sachets and bags (papers sachets for custard powders or cake mixes
and bags for sugar and flour)

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
types of papers used for packaging foods are:
greaseproof paper - is a close-textured paper with greaseproof
properties under dry conditions
glassine paper - produce by polishing the surface of greaseproof
paper; has some resistance to moisture penetration
vegetable parchment - has good greaseproof characteristics and
retains its strength when wet better than greaseproof paper (butter &
margarine)
tissue paper - is light and has an open structure; used to protect the
surface of fruits and provide some cushioning
wet-strength papers - retain more of their strength when wet; not used
in direct contact with food but mainly for outside packaging
wax-coated papers - are heat-sealable, moderate resistance to water
and water vapour transfer; the heat seals are relatively weak and the
wax coating may be damaged by creasing and abrasion (toffees)

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
papers, paperboards, moulded pulp & fibreboard
paperboards
raw materials are papers
the types of paperboard used in food packaging are:
chipboard - it is dull grey and relatively weak; seldom used in direct
contact with foods, but are used as outer cartons when the food is
already contained in a film pouch or bag e.g. breakfast cereals
duplex board - used for some frozen foods, biscuits and similar
products
solid white board - used for some frozen foods, food liquids and other
products requiring special protection
paperboards - coated with wax or polymer materials - mainly used for
packaging wet or fatty foods

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
papers, paperboards, moulded pulp & fibreboard
moulded pulp
moulded pulp containers - have good cushioning
properties and limit in-pack movement, providing good
mechanical protection to the contents (trays for eggs
and fruits)

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
papers, paperboards, moulded pulp & fibreboards
fibreboards
available in solid or corrugated forms
solid fibreboard is rigid and resistant to puncturing
corrugated fibreboard - diff types but all have good
cushioning characteristics
wax and polymer coated fibreboards are available
fibreboard are used for unpackaged products (fruits,
vege) and also goods already packaged in pouches,
cartons, cans and glass containers

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
wooden containers
outer wooden containers as in the form of crates and
cases are used when a high degree of mechanical
protection is required
wooden drums and barrels are used for liquid products
open cases find limited use for fish, fruits and veges
casks, kegs and barrels are used for storage of wines
and spirits
oak casks are used for high quality wines and spirits
chestnut casks - lower quality wines and spirits

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
Textiles
jute and cotton are woven materials used in packaging
sacks made of jute - limited extent, for fresh fruit and
vege, grains and dried legumes
cotton bags - used in the past for flour, sugar, salt and
similar products
cotton scrims - to pack fresh meat

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
Flexible films
Nonfibrous materials in continuous sheet form, up to
0.25 mm thick
Flexible, usually transparent, unless deliberately
pigmented, with the exception of regenerated cellulose
A mixture of two or more polymers, and added
additives are to alter their appearance or improve their
handling characteristics

Plasticisers
Stabilisers
Colouring materials
Antioxidants

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
Flexible films - regenerated cellulose
Cellophane
Differs fr the polymer films it is made fr wood pulp
Plain regenerated cellullose - clear, transparent, not
heat-sealable - is little used in food packaging
provides general protect against dust and dirt, some
mechanical protection and is greaseproof
when dry - a good barrier to gases
when wet - highly permeable
code letters (A, D, M,) are used to reflect the
properties of coated regenerated cellulose

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
Flexible films - regenerated cellulose
the types of film most often used for food packaging:
MSAT: nitrocellulose-coated on both sides, a good barrier to
water vapour, gases and volatiles and heat-sealable
QSAT: nitrocellulose-coated on both sides, more permeable to
water vapour than MSAT and heat-sealeble
DMS: nitrocellulose-coated on one side only
MXXT: copolymer coated on both sides, very good barrier to
water vapour, gases and volatiles, strong heat-seal
MXDT: copolymer coated on one side only

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
Flexible films - PE
Polyethylene - commonly called polythene
the film is available in low (LDPE), medium (MDPE) and high
(HDPE) density grades
the lower density grades are most widely used in food packaging due to its strength, low permeability to water vapour and it forms a
very strong heat seal; but it is not a good barrier to gases, oils or
volatiles - in the form of pouches, bags and sacks
HDPE has a higher tensile strength and stiffness than LDPE permeability to gases is lower and it can withstand higher oC - used
for foods which are heated in the package, so called boil in the
bag items

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
Flexible films - PVC
polyvinyl chloride chlorination of acetylene or ethylene followed
by polymerisation under pressure in the presence of a catalyst
Clear, transparent film which on its own is brittle addition of
plasticizers and stabilisers to the polymer - to give it flexibility
Used in food contains only permitted additives
Has good mechanical properties
Permeability to water vapour, gases and volatiles depends on the
type and amount of plasticizers added
Good grease barrier
Can be sealed by high-frequency welding
Is heat-shrinkable
Highly plasticised grades are available with stretch and cling
properties cling film used for stretch-wrapping

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
Flexible films PVdC
Polyvinylidene chloride - made by further chlorination of vinyl
chloride in the presence of a catalyst, followed by polymerisation
The polymer itself is stiff and brittle unsuitable for use as a
flexible film
Food packaging is a copolymer of PVdC with PVC good
mechanical properties, very good barrier to the passage of water
vapour, gases and volatiles, greaseproof and heat-sealable (shrinkwrapping foods), can withstand relatively high oC hot filling and
retorting
Oriented form has improved strength and barrier properties and
is highly heat-shrinkable

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
Flexible films PP
Polypropylene produced by low-pressure polymerisation of
propylene in the presence of a catalyst
Mechanical properties are good except at low oC brittle
Permeability to water vapour and gases is relatively low
Heat-sealable, but at a very high oC, 170oC
Usually coated with PE or PVdC/PVC copolymer to facilitate heatsealing
Used in the form of bags or overwraps
OPP (oriented) better mechanical properties particularly at low
oC, good barrier to water vapour but not gases, normally heatshrinkable, stable at relatively high oC, used for in-package heat
processing
White opaque form of OPP pearlised film

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
Flexible films PET
Polyester film used in food packaging is polyethylene terephthalate
usually produced by a condensation reaction between
terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol and extruded
Widely used in the orientated form good tensile strength
Coated increase barrier properties and facilitate heat-sealing,
stable over a wide oC range, can be used for boil in bag
applications
Metallised PET available , has a very low permeability to gases
and volatiles packaging snack foods

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
Flexible films PS
Polystyrene produced by reacting ethylene with benzene to form
ethylbenzene dehydrogenated to give styrene polymerised at
low oC, catalyst
Stiff and brittle with a clear sparkling appearance not in food
packaging
Oriented less brittle, increased tensile strength, high permeability
to vapours and gases, is greaseproof, stable at low temp, below
0oC; shrinks on heating, may be heat-sealed
Wrapping of fresh produce, also widely used in the form of
thermoformed semirigid containers and blow-moulded bottle; foam
for containers egg cartons, fruit trays and containers for
takeaway meals

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
Flexible films Pas
Nylons produced by 2 diff reactions
Nylon 6,6 and 6,10 (no of C atoms followed by no in the acid)
formed by condensation of diamines and dibasic acids
Nylon 11 and 12 (total no of C atoms) formed by condensation of
-amino acids

Clear and attractive in appearance, mechanically strong but vary

with types, permeability to water vapour varies, good barriers to
gases, volatiles and greases
Stable over very wide oC range, heat-sealed at high oC 240oC
Can be coating, combined as copolymers
Packaging of meat products, cheese and condiments

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
Flexible films PC
Polycarbonate made by the reaction of phosgene or
diphenyl carbonate with bisphenol A
Mechanically strong and grease-resistant, high
permeability to vapours and gases, stable over 70130oC
Not widely used for food, but could be used for boil in
the bag packages, retortable pouches and frozen foods

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
Flexible films PTFE
Made by the reaction of hydrofluoric acid with
chloroform followed by pyrolysis and polymerisation
strong, low permeability to vapours and gases, greaseresistant, stable over -190 to 190oC
not widely used in film form but could be used for
retortable packages
best known for its nonstick property - coating cooking
utensils

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
Metallised films
thin metal coating on flexible packaging film
originally introduced for decorative purposes
metallising - increased resistance to the passage of water vapour
and gases up to 100%
to package snack foods

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
Flexible laminates
when a single paper or film does not provide adequate protection
to the product, 2 or more flexible materials may be combined
together in the form of a laminate
laminates may be formed fr paper-paper, paper-film, film-film,
paper-foil, film-foil and paper-film-foil combinations - bonded
together by adhesive
when one or more of the layers is permeable to water vapour, an
aqueous adhesive may be used, otherwise nonaqueous adhesives
must be used
examples: vegetable parchment-foil for wrapping butter and
margarine; MXXT regenerated cellulose-PE for vacuum packed
cheese, cooked and cured meats; PET-PE for coffee, paperboardfoil-PE for milk and fruit juice cartons; retortable pouches may be
made of a threeply laminate typically of PET-foil-PP or PET-foilHDPE

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
Heat-Sealing Equipment
many films are thermoplastic and heat sealable
nonthermoplastic materials - coated with or laminated to
thermoplastic material - heat-sealing
nonthermoplastic are best sealed with a hot bar or resistance sealer
oC, pressure, contact time - influence the sealing
electronic sealing - used on thick layers of the polymer material,
mainly PVC and PVC/PVdC copolymers
ultrasonic sealing may be used to seal layers of film or foil together
- uncoated, oriented materials that are difficult to seal by other
methods

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
Packaging in flexible films and laminates
to overwrap items of food - film is stretched over the meat and
under the tray
made into preformed bags - filled by hand or machine then sealed
most widely used in the form of sachets, heat-sealed on all 4 edges,
Figs. 9.1 and 9.3
a pillow pack is a pouch with a longitudinal heat seal and two end
seals, Figs. 9.2 and 9.4
form-fill-seal (FFS) system - machines may operate vertically or
horizontally - solid, liquid products
pillow packs are more economical than sachets in the use of
packaging material - thin, flexible, good slip characteristics and
form a strong seal even before cooling
sachets - stiffer material and wider range of product types

Materials and Containers Used for Packaging

Foods
Flexible Films and Laminates

Materials and Containers Used for Packaging

Foods
Flexible Films and Laminates

Materials and Containers Used for Packaging

Foods
Flexible Films and Laminates

Materials and Containers Used for Packaging

Foods
Flexible Films and Laminates

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
Rigid and semirigid plastic containers
formed by LDPE, HDPE, PVC, PP, PET and PS, singly or in
combinations
acrylic plastics are also used for this purpose
methods used to convert these materials into containers
thermoforming - produce opentopped or widemouthed containers
such as cups and tubs for yoghurt, cottage cheese or margarine, trays
for eggs or fresh fruit and inserts in biscuit tins or chocolate boxes
blow moulding - produce narrownecked containers such as bottles for
oils, fruit juices and milk, squeezable bottles for sauces and syrups
injection moulding - produce widemouthed containers such as cups
and tubs for cream, yoghurt, mousses as well as phials and jars for a
variety of uses
compression moulding - produce screw caps

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
Metal materials and containers
aluminium, tinplate and electrolytic chromium-coated steel
(ECCS)
aluminium - foil or rigid metal

Metal materials and containers - Al foil

produced fr aluminium ingots by a series of rolling operations
down to a thickness in the range 0.15 - 0.008 mm
contains not less than 99.0% aluminium, with traces of silicon,
iron, copper and in some cases chromium and zinc
foil used in semirigid containers also contains up to 1.5%
manganese
foil is a bright, attractive material, tasteless, odourless and inert
with respect to most food materials

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
Metal materials and containers - Al foil
for contact with acid or salty products - coated with nitrocellulose
or some polymer material
mechanically weak, easily punctured, torn or abraded - coating or
laminating - increase resistance to such damage
thin foil <0.03 mm - contain perforations and will be permeable to
vapours and gases - coating or laminating it with polymer material
will improve its barrier properties
stable over a wide oC range
as a component in laminates - sachets or pillow packs on FFS
equipment; in laminates used for retortable pouches and rigid
plastic containers for ready meals
a component in cartons for UHT milk and fruit juices
trays, plates, dishes made fr foil of 0.03 - 0.15 mm (up to 1.5%
manganese) for frozen pies, ready meals and desserts - can be
heated in the container

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
Metal materials and containers - tinplate
most common for cans
consists of low-carbon, mild steel sheet or strip, 0.50-0.15 mm
thick, coated on both sides with a layer of tin
mechanical strength and fabrication characteristics of tinplate
depend on the type of steel and its thickness - 4 types of steel are
used in cans
the corrosion resistance and appearance of tinplate depend on the
tin coating - D.5.6/2.8 plate has 5.6 gm-2 of tin on one side and 2.8
gm-2 on the other - higher coating form the inside of cans
lacquer - prevent undersirable interaction between the product and
the container
info in Table 9.1 - acid foods; strongly coloured products.;
sulphur containing foods.; products sensitive to small traces of tin...
as a nonstick surface - solid meats packs

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
Metal Materials and Containers

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
Metal Materials and Containers
Table of Lacquer

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
Metal materials and containers - ECCS
electrolytic chromium-coated steel - tinfree steel - increasing use
for food cans
less resistant to corrosion - normally lacquered on both sides
more resistant to weak acids and sulphur staining than tinplate

Materials and Containers Used for Packaging

Foods
Metal Materials and Containers

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
Metal materials and containers - Al alloy
hard-temper al alloy - containing 1.5-5.0% magnesium - food cans
lighter but mechanically weaker, less resistant to corrosion than
tinplate - need to be lacquered
manufactured in similar manner to al foil

Materials and Containers Used for Packaging

Foods
Metal containers
3-piece can - traditional, still widely used for heat-processed foods - can
body and 2 ends are made separately, one end is applied to the can body
by the can maker, the other by the food processor after filling
fig. 9.8a - the making of 3-piece can
fig. 9.9 - double-seaming
DR can - drawn can is a 2-piece container - can body and base are made
in one operation fr a blank metal sheet - pressed out with a suitable die shallow with a max height:diameter ratio of 1:2 due to the strain on the
metal
DRD can - 2-piece can - deeper than DR can - relatively small,
height:diameter ratio of up to 1.2:1.0
DWI can - drawn and wall-ironed can - fr disc of metal 0.30-0.42 mm
thick - carbonated beverages - the internal pressure support the thin wall
other metal containers - with a friction plug closure; push-on lids;...

Materials and Containers Used for Packaging

Foods
Metal Materials and Containers

Materials and Containers Used for Packaging

Foods
Metal Materials and Containers

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
glass and glass containers
still widely used

the advantages and disadvantages of using glass as the

packaging material
Advantages:

Glass is inert with respect to foods.

Transparent.
Impermeable to vapours, gases and oils.
Smooth internal surface can be washed and sterilised can
be reused.

Materials and Containers Used for

Packaging Foods
Disadvantages:
Glass containers are relatively heavy.
Susceptible to mechanical damage.
Cannot tolerate rapid changes in temperature (low
thermal shock resistance).
Broken glass in a food area is an obvious hazard

Materials and Containers Used

for Packaging Foods
Glass

These ingredients together with up to 30% recycled glass

are melted in a furnace at 1350-1600oC
two forming methods are used
the blow and blow process
the press and blow process

Materials and Containers Used

for Packaging Foods
Glass

Materials and Containers Used for Packaging

Foods
Glass

Materials and Containers Used

for Packaging Foods
Glass
The mechanical strength of glass containers
are:
the resistance to internal pressure, vertical loads and impacts
increases with increasing thickness of the glass in the bodies and
bases
the design of the container also influences its strength
cylindrical containers are more durable than other shapes
the greater the radius of curvature of the shoulder, the more
resistant the container is to vertical loads
the thickness of the glass in the base is usually greater than the
body

Materials and Containers Used

for Packaging Foods
Glass

The resistance of glass containers to sudden changes in oC

is reduced as the thickness of the glass increase
involved heating or cooling, a compromise has to be achieved
between their mechanical strength and thermal shock resistance;
process rate also relatively slow to avoid thermal damage

The cap is made of metal or plastic

screwed on, crimped on or pushed in or onto the finish of the
container
roll on caps are used as tamper-evident closures
3 diff closures:
normal seal, vacuum seal, pressure seal

Materials and Containers Used

for Packaging Foods
Glass

Pressure seals are necessary when packaging carbonated drinks

singletrip glass containers are used for liquids such as

some beers, soft drinks, wines, sauces, salad dressings and
vinegars; for dry foods such as coffee and milk powders
multitrip containers are used for pasteurised milk, some
beers and soft drinks
products heated in glass containers include sterilised milk,
beer, fruit juices and pickled veges.

Modified Atmosphere Packaging

MAP - involves replacing air inside a package with a
predetermined mixture of gases prior to sealing it
once sealed, no further control
the composition may change during storage - due to
respiration of the contents and/or solution of some of the
gas in the product
vacuum packaging - air is drawn out but no other gases are
introduced - cured meats and cheese
MAP is created by one of two methods
air removed by a vacuum pump and the appropriate mixture of
gases introduced
air is displaced by flushing it through with the gas mixture

Modified Atmosphere Packaging

Horticultural products - equilibrium composition
depend on the rate of respiration of the food and
the permeability of the packaging material to gases
the gases involved in MAP - CO2, N2, O2
CO2 reacts with water to form carbonic acid - lower pH of food;
inhibits the growth of certain microb (moulds and some aerobic
bacteria) - gas at conc. 5-50%
lactic acid bacteria and most yeasts are resistant to CO2
anaerobic bacteria - food poisoning organisms are little affected potential health hazard
higher conc. The greater is its inhibitory power
the inhibition increases as the oC decrease

Modified Atmosphere Packaging

strict oC control is essential to ensure the safety of
MAP foods
N2

no direct effect on microb or foods

to replace O2 - inhibit oxidation of fats
solubility in water is low
used as a bulking material to prevent the collapse of
MAP packages when the CO2 dissolves in the food
also useful in packages which may consolidate under
vacuum

Modified Atmosphere Packaging

O2 red meat - maintain the red colour - oxygenation of the
myoglobin pigments
fish - to reduce the risk of botulism

other gases have antimicrobial effects CO : inhibit the growth of many bacteria, yeasts and moulds;
conc. ~ 1%; toxic and explosive nature, not used
commercially
SO2 : used to inhibit the growth of moulds and bacteria in
some soft fruits and fruit juices; concern - some people may
be hypersensitive to SO2
noble gases : argon, helium, xenon and neon - used in MAP

Modified Atmosphere Packaging

Aseptic Packaging
UHT-treatment products have to be packaged under
conditions which prevent microb contamination
High-acid food (pH<4.5) cool the product after UHT
treatment to just below 100oC, fill into a clean container, seal
the container and hold it at that temp for some minutes
before cooling will inactivate microb that may have been
in the container or entered during the filling operation
Low-acid food (pH>4.5) aseptic filling must involve
sterilising the empty container or the material fr which the
container is made, filling it with the UHT-treated product
and sealing it without it being contaminated with microb
Rigid metal containers superheated steam at 260oC may be
used to sterilise the empty containers and maintain a sterile
atmosphere during the filling and sealing operations

Aseptic Packaging
Glass containers and some plastic and composite containers
may be aseptically filled by the same method
Cartons made fr a laminate of paper/al foil/PE are widely
used for UHT products such as liquid milk and fruit juices
this type of packaging material cannot be sterilised by heat
alone, a combination of heat and chemical sterilant is used
H2O2 at 35% in H2O and 90oC is very effective against heatresistant, sporeforming microb widely used as sterilant in
aseptic packaging in laminates
Form-fill-seal systems are available, an example being the
Tetra Brik system by Tetra Pak Ltd. Fig. 9.13.
Similar systems are available to aseptically fill into the
preformed plastic cups.

Active Packaging
Active packaging has been used with many food products
Active packaging refers to the incorporation of certain
additives into packaging film or within packaging
containers with the aim of maintaining and extending
product shelf life
Active packaging includes additives or freshness
enhancers that are capable of scavenging O2, adsorbing
CO2, moisture, ethylene and /or flavour/ odour taints,
releasing ethanol, sorbates, antioxidants and/or other
preservatives and/or maintaining oC control

Active Packaging
Table 9.3 lists some of the food applications
that have benefited fr active packaging
technology. Example:
For fruit juices, fish,and dairy products
Flavour/ odour absorbers

For fruit, vegetable and other horticultural

products
Ethylene scavengers

Active Packaging
Selected examples of active packaging
systems
Selected commercial oxygen scavenger
systems

Active Packaging
O2 scavengers
The main advantage capable of reducing O2 levels to
less than 0.01%, much lower than the typical 0.3-3.0%
residual O2 levels achievable by MAP
Can be used alone or in combination with MAP
Nonmetallic O2 scavengers enzyme-based, glucose
oxidase or ethanol oxidase be incorporated into
sachets, adhesive labels or immobilised onto packaging
film surfaces

Active Packaging
CO2 scavengers/emitters produce significant volumes of
CO2 needed
Ethylene scavenger to remove or to suppress its effects
Ethanol emitters ethanol as an antimicrobial agent
Preservative releasers antimicrobial and antioxidant
packaging extend shelf life
Moisture absorbers excess moisture cause food
spoilage
Flavour/odour adsorbers
Temp control packaging the use of innovative insulating
materials self-heating and self-cooling cans

Active Packaging
Food safety and regulations related to the
active packaging of foods
Any need for food contact approval must be established
before any form of active packaging is used.
It is important to consider environmental regulations
covering active packaging materials.
Need for labelling in cases where active packaging may
give rise to consumer confusion.
It is pertinent to consider the effects of active packaging
on the microbial ecology and safety of foods

Calculation
A method to calculate the shelf life of packaged dry foods,
based on the permeability of the pack, the water activity and
equilibrium moisture content of the food, the eqn.:
ln[(Me Mi)/(Me Mc)] = (P/X) x (A/Ws) x (Po/b) x (ts)
where Me= equilibrium moisture content of the food,
Mi = initial moisture content of the food, Mc = critical
moisture content of the food, P/X = permeability of the
packaging material (g water day-1m-2), A = area of package
(m2), Ws = weight of dry solids in the food, Po= vapour
pressure of pure water at the storage temperature (Torr), b =
slope of the moisture sorption isotherm (g H2O/g solids per
unit aw) and ts = time to the end of the shelf life (days)

Example - Question
Cream crackers that are packaged in a 0.4 m2 sealed bag are found to be
having 200g of dry solids. Packaging materials are made from barrier film, which
has a water vapour transmission rate of 0.015 ml day-1 m-2. The crackers are
expected to be stored at 28oC and the vapour pressure of pure water at the
storage temperature = 18 Torr. From the studies of the sorption isotherm of the
crackers, the equilibrium moisture content = 0.05 g per g of solids, initial
moisture content = 0.015 g per g of solids, the critical moisture content = 0.02 g
per g of solids, and the slope of the moisture sorption isotherm = 0.06 g H2O/ g
solids per units aw. Calculate the expected shelf life using this film.

Solutions
Ln[(Me Mi)/ (Me Mc)] = (P/X) x (A/Ws) x (Po/b) x (ts)
ts = ln[(0.05 0.015)/ (0.05 0.02)]/ [0.015 x (0.4/200) x (18/0.06)]
= 0.1542/ 9.0 x 10-3
= 17.1 days